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THE 


LINEN     TRADE, 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


BY 

ALEX.  J.  WAKDEN 

MEBCHANT,    DUNDEE. 


SECOND  EDITION. 


LONDON: 

LONGMAN,  GREEN,  LONGMAN,  ROBERTS  &  GREEN. 

1867. 


1152220 


KD 

1130 

AtV/t 


PRINTED  BT  CHARLES  ALEXANDER  AND  COMPANY,  DUNDEE. 


THIS    WORK 

is 

BY     PERMISSION, 

RESPECTFULLY     DEDICATED 
TO 

TUB   PRESIDENT, 
VICE-PEESIDENT,    DIRECTORS, 

AND 

MEMBERS 

OF  THE 

Cjjamkr  of  Commtm, 

BY 

THE  AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


IT  is  somewhat  surprising  that  the  history  of  so  ancient  and 
important  a  manufacture  as  that  of  Linen,  and  of  the  commerce 
connected  with  it,  has  not  long  before  this  time  been  placed  in 
a  comprehensive  form  before  the  world.  It  is  one  of  the  axioms 
of  Political  Economy,  as  it  is  held  at  the  present  day,  that  "  de- 
mand creates  supply,"  but,  up  to  the  present  time,  that  has  not  in 
this  instance  been  verified.  The  feeling  that  such  a  work  was 
needed  has  often  been  expressed,  both  by  the  general  public  and 
by  those  immediately  concerned  in  the  Trade,  but  without,  until 
now,  having  the  effect  of  bringing  forth  one.  Perhaps  that  is  to 
be  accounted  for  by  our  system  of  "  division  of  labour."  Books 
are  generally  written  by  literary  and  scientific  men  ;  but  probably 
very  few  of  either  of  those  classes  possess  anything  like  that 
practical  knowledge  of  the  details  of  the  subject,  which  it  would 
be  difficult  to  obtain  without  having  been  actually  engaged 
in  the  business.  That  is  the  only  way  in  which  it  appears  pos- 
sible to  explain  the  fact  that  a  generally  acknowledged  want 
has  been  suffered  to  remain  unsatisfied,  and  that  it  has  been  left 
for  me  to  attempt  the  performance  of  a  task  which  should  have 
been  committed  to  abler  hands.  But  whatever  the  deficiencies 
I  may  be  sensible  of  with  respect  to  mere  literary  qualifications, 
I  have  the  advantage  of  an  intimate  practical  acquaintance  with 
the  Linen  Trade  in  all  its  branches — the  result  of  having  been 
for  many  years  engaged  in  it ;  and  I  may  venture  to  hope  that 
the  following  pages  will  be  found  to  contain  evidence  that  I  have 
industriously  endeavoured  to  collect  information  from  all  acces- 
sible sources.  Conscious  that  that  is  the  case,  I  may  ask  that 
faults  of  style,  of  which  I  fear  there  are  many,  may  be  indul- 
gently regarded,  and  that  the  Book  may  be  received  and  judged 
of,  not  as  a  literary  effort,  but  as  an  attempt  to  compile  a  full 
and  reliable  record  of  the  rise,  progress,  and  present  condition 
"I"  nn  important  department  of  manufacture  and  commerce. 


VI  PEEFACE. 

Great  care  has  been  given  to  the  preparation  of  the  Statistical 
Tables,  and  to  ensure  the  correctness  of  the  figures  which  are 
scattered  through  the  work ;  and  the  letter-press  has  been  mainly 
compiled  from  the  writings  of  historians  and  authorities,  ancient 
and  modern,  with  the  view  of  making  the  work  trustworthy  and 
complete  as  a  Book  of  Reference. 

In  the  course  of  my  labours  I  have  been  indebted  to  many 
gentlemen  in  Dundee  and  other  places,  for  information  which 
would,  but  for  their  help,  have  been  inaccessible  to  me,  and  I 
have  gratefully  to  acknowledge  their  kindness.  The  names  of 
some  of  my  benefactors  are  mentioned  in  the  work ;  and  to  those 
and  others  who  are  not  specially  alluded  to,  I  beg  to  present  my 
sincere  thanks. 

To  Sir  JOHN  OGILVY,  Bart.,  M.P.  for  Dundee,  I  am  under 
great  obligations  for  the  kindly  interest  he  has  taken  in  my 
efforts,  and  for  the  readiness  with  which  he  has  supplied  infor- 
mation on  several  points. 

Mr  JOHN  LENG,  Proprietor  of  the  Dundee  Advertiser,  in  the 
most  handsome  manner  placed  at  my  disposal  the  entire  file  of  the 
Advertiser  from  its  commencement  in  1801  to  the  present  time. 
I  went  over  every  paper  for  the  first  forty  years,  and  many  of 
later  date.  From  them  I  gathered  much  interesting  and  curious 
matter,  and  (as  mentioned  at  p.  610),  the  data  for  the  Dundee 
Prices  Current  for  many  of  the  earlier  years.  Mr  CHARLES 
ALEXANDER,  of  the  Courier  (commenced  in  1815),  and  Mr 
ROBERT  PARK,  of  the  Northern  Warder  (begun  in  1841),  also 
gave  me  access  to  their  files,  and  I  am  indebted  to  their  courtesy 
for  considerable  advantages.  The  Directors  of  the  Dundee 
Chamber  of  Commerce  obligingly  granted  me  the  use  of  the 
valuable  collection  of  books  in  the  Library  of  the  Chamber,  and 
thus  enabled  me  to  give  a  number  of  the  statistical  details  con- 
tained in  this  volume.  As  a  small  mark  of  my  appreciation  of 
their  kindness,  and  of  my  respect  .for  the  Incorporation  which 
watches  over  the  interests  of  the  staple  trade  of  Dundee,  I  have 
dedicated  this  book  to  the  President,  Directors,  and  Members  of 
the  Chamber. 

ALEX.  J.  WARDEN. 

DUNDEE,  July  16.  1864. 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION    I. 

Page. 
THE     RAW    MATERIAL,  1 

CHAP.     I.  FLAX  CULTURE, 

II.  HEMP      Do.  41 

III.  JUTE        Do., 

1.  The  Culture  of  Jute  in  the  Field, 

2.  Do.         do.         in  the  Factory,  66 
Tabular  Statements  regarding  Jute,  84 

IV.  SUNN  CULTURE, 

V.  VARIOUS  FIBRES,      .  94 

The  Nettle,  .  95 

China  Grass, 
New  Zealand  Flax, 
Manila  Hemp, 
The  Lime  Tree,  &c., 

Noble's  Prices  Current,      .  108 

Tabular  Statements  regarding  Flax,  &c.,  110 


SECTION    II. 

ANCIENT    LINEN,  118 

CHAP.      I.  BIBLE  LINEN, 

II.  EGYPTIAN     Do. 

III.  PHOENICIAN  Do.  176 

IV.  CARTHAGENIAN  AND  BABYLONIAN  Do.  180 
V.  COLCHICAN  Do. 

VI.  GRECIAN      Do. 
VII.  ROMAN         Do.  198 

SECTION    III. 
THE  LINEN  MANUFACTURES  OF  THE  OLDEN  TIME,         209 


viii  CONTENTS. 

SECTION    IV. 
MODERN     LINEN. 

PART    I. 

Page. 

CONTINENTAL    LINEN.  248 

CHAP.     I.  ITALIAN  LINEN,         ..... 

II.  SPANISH    Do.            ....  260 

III.  GERMAN    Do.            .....  206 

German  Fairs,        .....  280 

Hanseatic  League,              .             .             .  282 

IV.  AUSTRIAN  LINEN,      ....  285 
V.  DUTCH          Do.         .            .                         .  289 

VI.  BELGIAN       Do.         ....  298 

VII.  FRENCH       Do.,                     .            .            .  303 

VIII.  RUSSIAN      Do.,        ....  319 

IX.  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES — 

Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  .             .  339 

Portugal, 340 

Switzerland,            ....  342 

Turkey,       ....  342 

China,         ......  345 

The  United  States  of  America,      .            .  345 

PART    II. 

THE    UNITED    KINGDOM,  351 

CHAP.     I.  ENGLISH  LINEN,        .....  252 

II.  IRISH         Do.,  .  .  .  .388 

III.  SCOTCH      Do.,          .....  421 

British  Linen  Company,    ....  442 

Board  of  Trustees  for  Manufactures,         .             .  444 

The  Stamp  Act,      .             .             .  465 

Tabular  Statements  of  Linens  Stamped,.               .  476 

RURAL  DISTRICTS —           ....  483 

Abernethy,      .....  483 

Abernyte,        .....  483 

Alyth, 484 

Arbirlot,          .....  485 

Auchterarder,              ....  485 

Auchtermuchty,  ....  485 
Avoch,  .  .  .  .486 
Banff,  .  .  .486 

Barry,                                                   .            .  487 

Bervie,  489 


CONTKNTS.  JX 


RURAL  DISTRCTS  — 

Bendochy,  .             .             .             .             .491 

Benholm,  .             .             .             .             .491 

Birsay  and  Harray,     ....         491 

I'.lair-Athole,  .              .                       491 

Cairnie,  .....         491 

Cambuslang,   .....         492 

Caputh,  .             .                                                492 

Ceres,  .             .             .             .493 

Cluny,  ,                      493 

Comrie,  ...                         .         493 

Coupar-Angus,  ....         494 

Crail,  .             .             .             .494 

Crieff,  .             .             .495 

Cupar-Fife,  .....         495 

Cullen,  .....         496 

Deer,  .             .             .             .497 

Dowally,  .....         497 

Dunkeld,  ...                          .         497 

Dunottar,  .             .             .                                   493 

Dimiiichen,  .....         498 

Dysart,  .             .             .498 

Elgin,  .                                                501 

Falkland,  .             .             .             .501 

Fordoun,  .....         502 

Fordyce,  .....         502 

Forgan,  .  .             .             .             .             .502 

Forres,  ....             .503 

Galston,  .....         503 

Glamis,  .                         .             .                     504 

Glasgow,  .....         504 

Grange,  .             .             .505 

Greenock,  .             .             .                          .         505 

Huntly,  .....         506 

Inverary,  .....         506 

Inverness,  .                                                             506 

Keith,  607 

Kemback,  .             .             .                                   507 

Kenmore,  .....         508 

Kettle,  .             .                          .                      508 

Kilbride,  .             .                          .                      508 

Kilchoman,  Isla,  .             .                      509 

Killin,  ....                      509 

Kilwinning,  .                          .             .             .         509 

Kinghorn,  ...             .         510 

Kinloch,  .                                                               $11 


CONTENTS. 

RURAL  DISTRICTS— 
Kinnettles,      . 

Kinross,           .              .              •  514 
Kirkden, 

Kirkwall  and  St  Olda, 
Largo, 
Leslie, 

Lethendy,        .             .  51(5 

Leuchars,         .             .             .  516 

Little  Dunkeld,  517 

Lochmaben,     ....  518 

Logierait,         .             .             .             .  518 

Logic  Pert,      ....  518 

Longforgan,     ....  519 

Mains,              ...  519 

Markinch,        ....  520 

Meigle,             ....  521 

Melrose,           ....  521 

Menmuir,         .             .             .  522 

Methven,         ...  522 

Monifieth,        ....  523 

Monedie           .             .  523 
East  Monkland,           .             .                          .523 

West  Monkland,          ...  523 

Monzie,            .....  524 

Moulin,            .....  524 

Newburgh,  Fife,          ...  525 

North  Yell  and  Fetlar,            .             .  527 

Orphi^,            ....  527 

Paisley,            .....  527 

Perth,              .....  528 

Peterhead,       .....  530 

Rathen,           ....  531 

StBoswells,     ....  532 
Salton,             .             .             .             .             .532 

Scoonie,           .....  532 

Stracathro,      .....  533 

Stranraer,        .....  533 

Strathdon,       .....  533 

Strathmiglo,    .             .                          .  534 

Strichen,          .             .                                      .  534 

Thurso,             .....  534 
Turriff,                                      .             .             .535 

Weem,             .....  535 

Wemyss,           .....  535 

Wick,  537 


-HATS.  XI 


DISTRICT  TRADE  — 

Aberdeen,        .....  638 

Arbroath,         .  .  541 

Blairgowric,     .....  548 

Brechin,  .....  551 

Dunfermline,  .....  f>f>4 

Forfar,  .....  558 

Kirkcaldy,       .....  501 

Kirriemuir,      .....  567 

Lochee,  .  ...  570 

Montrose,        .....  574 

DUNDEE  —  .....  578 

Tabular  Statements  —  Imports  and  Exports,  .  633 

Prices  Current,  ....  639 

Tabular  Statements  of  Power,  &c.,    .  .  654 

CHAP.      IV.  UNITED  KINGDOM,  ....  658 

Linen  Bounty,        .....  663 

Factory  Laws,         .....  670 

Tabular  Statements  of  Exports  of  Yarn  and  Linen,  673 

Do.  do.         of  Factory  Returns,    .  680 


SECTION    V. 

MANUFACTURING  OPERATIONS,  683 

I.  FLAX-SPINNING,        ....  683 

II.  LINEN  WEAVING,      .                                      .  700 

111.  LINE.N  BLEACHING,  ....         716 

APPENDIX,     .             .             .             .  .         724 

INDEX,           .            .                        .            .  734 


ERRATA. 

P«fC. 

76— Line    'J-Jo»  1823  read  1838. 
85      „       5—  For  ton  read  cwt. 
187      „      17— for  Alexandra  read  Alcanrtrn. 
197— Heading— Far  Roman  retd  Grecian. 
Wl-Linc  2S— For  1762  rend  1792. 
34      „      34 — F"r  TV^avr  rtad  wrnrpr 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  impression  of  the  work  on  THE  LINEN  TRADE  con- 
sisted of  fifteen  hundred  copies.  The  first  issue  of  these,  (one 
thousand)  copies,  has  now  been  disposed  of.  To  meet  the  demand 
which  still  exists  for  the  book,  it  has  been  resolved  to  issue  the 
remainder  of  the  impression.  In  order  to  make  the  volume  as 
complete  as  possible,  a  supplement  will  be  given  with  the 
new  issue,  containing  a  continuation  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  statistical  tables,  and  other  information  of  an 
interesting  character  bearing  on  the  present  position  of  the  Linen 
Trade. 

The  author  is  very  grateful  for  the  laudatory  manner  in  which 
THE  LINEN  TRADE  was  noticed  by  so  many  of  the  leading 
journals  of  the  day.  He  returns  his  cordial  thanks  to  the 
numerous  subscribers  to  the  work,  and  to  the  many  gentlemen 
who  purchased  copies  of  it  when  published  and  subsequently 

Prior  to  the  publication  of  THE  LINEN  TRADE  in  July  1864, 
the  calls  for  the  volume  were  so  numerous  and  so  urgent,  that 
the  author  was  compelled  to  issue  the  work  before  it  was 
possible  to  go  over  the  typography  and  note  all  the  errata.  As 
might  have  been  expected  in  such  a  work,  many  errors  exist 
besides  those  noticed  in  the  few  errata  given  in  the  volume. 
An  enlarged  list  of  errors,  typographical  and  otherwise,  is  now 
supplied. 

DUNDEE,  October,  1867. 


SUPPLEMENT. 


WHEN  the  volume  on  the  Linen  Trade  was  published  in  July 
1864,  tin-  Iradr  ^ns  in  11  very  flourishing  state,  not  only  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  but  also  in  the  other  linen  manufacturing 
countries  of  Europe.  The  demand,  stimulated  by  the  enormous 
consumption  of  Linens  by  the  belligerents  on  both  sides  during  the 
American  War,  was  moet  active,  and  the  trade  highly  renumera- 
tivc.  This  induced  spinners  and  manufacturers  in  many  dis- 
tricts to  build  new  works,  or  make  great  additions  to  old  ones, 
in  order  to  increase  their  production  and  supply  the  wants  of 
consumers.  The  American  War  terminated,  and  the  void  caused 
by  the  War  was  filled  up.  Again  trade  returned  to  its  normal 
position,  and  manufacturers  were  left  to  supply  the  ordinary 
every  day  wants  of  the  world.  The  vastly  increased  production, 
induced  by  the  then  exceptional  demand,  appears  to  be  at  present 
quite  up  to,  if  not  beyond,  the  legitimate  consumption,  and  a 
sickly  demand  with  low  prices  for  Linens  is  the  natural  conse- 
quence. 

Unfortunately  for  the  Flax  branch  of  the  Trade,  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  Flax  plant  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  extension  of 
machinery,  and  the  supply  of  the  Raw  Material  is  not  now  equal 
to  the  requirements  of  the  Trade.  For  some  years  past  the  price 
of  Flax  has  been  high,  but  high  prices  have  not  been  inducement 
enough  to  stimulate  the  farmers  in  the  Flax  growing  countries  of 
Europe  sufficiently  toextendthe  acreage  under  the  plant.  A  short 
supply  of  Flax  is,  and  must  be,  disastrous  to  the  Linen  producing 
countries  ;  and  it  is  a  problem,  the  solution  of  which  is  of  the 
greatest  importance, — by  what  means  to  get  the  supply  of  Flax 
kept  up  with  the  increased  and  still  increasing  consumption. 

Russia  is  the  great  Flax  producing  country  of  Europe,  and, 
accordingto  the  pamphlets  published  by  the  Russian  Government 
for  the  Paris  Exhibition,  upon  the  productive  power  of  that 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

country,  it  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  almost  every 
Government  of  that  great  empire,  both  in  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  Governments  where  Flax  is  most  largely  cultivated,  and  the 
quantity  of  fibre  and  seed  produced  in  each,  are  as  under : — 

Governments.  Flax.  Linseed. 


Pskoff,                  Tons,  35,600            Tons,  9500 
Smolensk,                      20,500                „    12,200 

Vologda, 

17,500 

,     3,200 

Kostroma, 

15,000 

,     3,200 

Livonia, 
Vladimir, 

12,000 
6,000 

,     1,300 
,     2,500 

Vitebsk, 

5,500 

,     1,600 

Viatka, 

4,500 

,     1,100 

Total       „  116,000    Total    „  34,600 

No  statement  of  the  quantity  of  Flax  produced  in  any  of  the 
other  Governments  is  given,  but,  as  nearly  all  of  them  grow  more 
or  less  of  it,  the  estimate  of  150,000  tons,  given  in  page  319,  is 
now  probably  considerably  under  the  quantity  actually  raised. 

Although  the  cultivation  of  Flax  in  Eussia  may  have  been 
increased  of  late  years,  the  quantity  available  for  export  cannot 
be  much,  if  any,  greater  than  it  was,  because  the  local  Linen 
manufacture  of  the  country  has  been  extending  year  by  year  for 
some  time  past.  The  various  branches  of  the  Flax  trade,  from 
raising  the  plant  to  weaving  the  Linen,  occupy  the  first  rank 
among  the  textile  industries  of  Russia,  and  so  general  is  the 
trade,  that  the  Government  has  not  been  able  to  make  up  cor- 
rect statistics  regarding  it,  but  the  following  is  a  near  approxi- 
mation to  the  truth.  Pskoff  and  Livonia  export  nearly  all  they 
grow,  and  there,  as  well  as  in  other  districts,  improvements  have 
lately  been  made  in  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of  the  fibre, 
but  the  processes  employed  still  leave  much  to  be  desired.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Volga  and  in  Yaroslav  and  Kostroma,  many  works 
have  recently  been  erected  for  spinning  flax.  In  1864  more  than 
5000  people  were  employed  in  the  mills  there,  and  the  value  of 
the  yarn  spun  was  more  than  half  a  million  pounds  sterling  ; 
since  then  considerable  extensions  have  been  made,  and  the  in- 
crease still  goes  on.  In  Vologda,  Vladimir,  Kostroma,  Yaroslav, 
Novgorod,  Twer,  and  Archangel  powerloom  weaving  has  made 
great  progress  of  late.  Yaroslav  is  famed  for  its  fine  Linens,  made 
in  imitation  of  Irish  goods  ;  Kostroma  for  fine  linens,  and  for 
damasks  and  other  table  linen ;  and  Vladimir  and  Novgorod  for 


>i  H  LKMENT  TO  TUB  LINEN  TKADE.  B 

ravens-cluck,  and  for  bed  sheeting,  &c.  In  18C4  there  were  73 
powerloom  works  in  these  Governments,  with  13,000  workers, 
and  producing  goods  to  the  value  of  about  three  quarters  of  a 
million  pounds  sterling,  and  they  have  been  greatly  extended 
since.  It  is  estimated  that  3,000,000  people  are  employed  in 
spinning  Flax,  and  500,000  in  weaving  Linen,  in  both  branches 
chiefly  by  hand,  in  Russia.  The  annual  value  of  the  Flax  Trade 
in  all  its  branches  in  Russia,  is  estimated  at  nearly  twenty 
million  pounds  sterling.  The  importance  of  the  trade  to  Russia 
istherefore  immense,  but  the  introduction  and  constantextension  of 
machinery  for  spinning  and  weaving  consumes  at  home  larger 
and  larger  quantities  of  the  Flax  grown,  and  curtails  the  supply 
available  for  export. 

It  thus  appears  that  adequate  supplies  of  Flax  to  meet  an  ex- 
tending consumption  in  this  and  in  other  countries  cannot  be 
expected  from  Russia.  Hopes  were  at  one  time  entertained  that 
sufficient  supplies  might  be  raised  in  India,  but  hitherto  almost 
no  Flax  has  been  imported  from  that  country,  and  at  the  pre- 
sent time  it  is  difficult  to  see  whence  an  abundant  supply  of 
strong  coarse  Flax  can  be  got. 

Canada  has  both  a  suitable  soil  and  climate  for  Flax,  and  the 
plant  has  been  cultivated  successfully  there,  but  it  is  doubtful  if 
it  can  be  grown  largely,  as  the  population  is  small,  and  thinly 
spread  over  the  country,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  get  people 
at  the  precise  time  to  conduct  the  various  operations  when  re- 
quired. Australia  has  also  been  experimenting  on  the  cultivation  of 
Flax,  and  practical  good  may  yet  result,  but  hitherto  there  has 
been  little,  if  any,  exported  to  this  country. 

The  cultivation  of  Flax  is  extending  in  France  and  Belgium, 
but  the  increasing  consumption  there  keeps  pace  with  the  en- 
larged supply,  and  no  more  is  available  for  exportation. 

Consul  John  Goodwin,  in  his  report  to  the  Government, 
for  the  year  I860,  dated  Palermo,  9th  May,  1867,  mentions  that 
Sicily  has  ceased  to  grow  wheat,  and  is  now  cultivating  Flax  and 
rice  instead,  and  that  both  have  been  abundant.  Little  benefit 
may  be  derived  by  this  country  from  that  circumstance,  but  it 
is  pleasant  to  hear  of  the  raising  of  Flax  extensively  in  any 
laud  where  little  had  been  grown  before. 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


Supplement  to  Statement  on  Page  111. 

TOTAL  QUANTITIES  OP  FLAX  AND  Tow  IMPORTED  INTO  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 
IN  EACH  YEAR,  FROM  1862  TO  1866,  AND  TO  31sT  AUGUST  1867. 


Year. 

FLAX,   &c. 

Vverage  yearly  Inr 
)orts  for  the  5  yr.->. 
ending  ns  under. 

HEMP,  JUTE,  &c. 

From 
Russia 
and 
Prussia, 

From 
other 
Parts. 

From  all 
Parts. 

From 
Russia. 

From  all 
Parts. 

Hemp 
from 
Russia, 

Jute 
from 
Calcutta 

Total 
from  all 
Parts. 

1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
To31st 
Aug., 
1867 

Tons. 
69,357 
50,798 
67,559 
72,224 
62,275 

28,709 

Tons. 
20,561 
22,150 
24,588 
23,433 
15.105 

14,326 

Tuns. 
89,918 
72,948 
92,147 
95,657 
77,380 

43,025 

Tons. 
53,948 
54,799 
57,566 
61,513 
64,442 

Tons. 
73,128 
74,878 
78,987 
83,470 
85,610 

Tons. 
30,450 
25.600 
27,005 
31,846 
31,770 

8,771 

Tons. 
48,497 
62,639 
102,:i04 
106,041 
81,909 

50,183 

Tons. 
97,585 
114,547 
152.899 
159,326 
131,964 

69,766 

The  cultivation  of  Jute  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
deltas  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra,  but  there  is  sufficient 
field  there  to  raise  greatly  more  than  supply  the  present  demand, 
large  though  that  undoubtedly  is.  The  competing  crop  is  rice, 
and  as  the  relative  prices  of  Jute  and  Eice  regulate  the  quantity 
of  each  sown,  a  ilse  of  a  few  pounds  per  ton  might  increase  the 
supply  almost  indefinitely.  Hitherto  the  Jute  grown  has  been 
sufficient  to  meet  the  increased  consumption,  and  the  great 
fluctuations  which  frequently  occur  in  the  price  are  the  fruit 
of  speculation,  rather  than  the  result  of  scarcity. 

QUANTITY  OF  JUTE,  JUTE  CUTTINGS,  GUNNY  CLOTH,  AND  GUNNY  BAGS, 
EXPORTED  FROM  CALCUTTA  IN  THE  YEARS  UNDERNOTED. 
(From  Toulmin  and  Go's  Reports.) 


JUTE. 
Bales  of  300  Ibs. 

r  LIE  CUTTINGS. 

Bales  of  225 
Ibs. 

GUNNY  CLOTH. 

Pieces  weighing 
66  Ibs. 

GUNNY  BAGS. 
Bags. 

Great  Britain, 

Total. 

Total. 

Total. 

Total. 

1852 

47,865 

54,986 

561,086 

13,262,946 

'  1853 

81,267 

92,594 

53^409 

382,298 

15,287,148 

1854 

123,807 

164,538 

., 

293,138 

12,672,624 

1855 

203,303 

245,241 

.. 

494,826 

17,135,076 

1856 

284,651 

326,338 

-*•* 

1,234,907 

20,659,702 

1857 

242,770 

301,100 

. 

427,448 

15,845,764 

1858 

197,441 

261,372 

673,192 

15,265,122 

1859 

391,741 

449,698 

901,532 

13,570,745 

1860 

360,725 

398,346 

869,509 

12,653,061 

1861 

301,798 

356,048 

250,662 

18,408,900 

1862 

365,505 

419,665 

214,196 

18,550,852 

1863 

707,078 

745,547 

47J617 

24.091 

21,403,289 

1864 

552,848 

738,759 

45,397 

24,388 

19,599,813 

1865 

754,714 

818,777 

95,124 

152,696 

31,155,142 

1866 

536,970 

607,158 

31,750 

536,795 

30,065,407 

To  31st 

July, 

1867           329,226 

362,302 

14,359 

347,938 

13,582.874 

M  ITU-.UKNT  TO  THK  LINEN  TKAl'i:. 


Supplement  to  Statement  on  pagt  726. 

COMPAHATIVE  STATEMENT  OF  CLEARANCES  AND  ACTUAL  SAILINGS  OF  JDTK 
FROM  CALCUTTA  TO  GKKAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  TWELVE  MONTHS  OF  THE  SEASON  1  - 

Reported  Clearances.  Actual  Shipment*. 


For  details  of  tho'N 

Jute  and  Cuttings.       Jute. 

Cuttings. 

—  \ 
T..tnl. 

eight  months,  Sc(>-  (^ 
t.-ml  ,-r   to   April,  ( 

Bales,           640,459               583,942 

45,574 

629,516 

—See  Page  726.      ) 
May, 

29.720                20,760 

6,740 

27,500 

June, 

„                 39,473                 22,072 

3.960 

20,<»32 

July, 

31,063 

6,200 

4I.J.VJ 

August, 

36,410                 25,417 

600 

26,ol7 

Total 

777,125               6P7.843 

63,074 

750.917 

iu— 

SEASON  1864-5. 

Reported  Clearances.                j 

Lctual  Shipments. 

Jute  and  Cuttings.        Jute. 

Cuttings. 

Total. 

September, 

Bales,            88,170               47,482 

630 

48,112 

October,     . 

36,076               10,192 

110 

10,302 

November, 

57,069               13,050 

— 

13,050 

December, 

„               98,339               95,377 

755 

96,132 

January, 

76,840             103,937 

6,160 

110,097 

February, 

79,689               82,785 

6,560 

89,345 

March, 

50.459               70,782 

1,210 

71,992 

April, 

36,827               52,150 

2,010 

54,160 

May, 

90,519               59,535 

16,620 

76,155 

June, 

57,385               74,002 

14,100 

88,102 

July. 

49,002               30,885 

4,250 

35,135 

August, 

71,099               32,340 

2,470 

34,810 

Total, 

„              791,474             672,517 

54,875 

727,392 

SEASON  1865-6. 

Reported  Clearances. 

Actual  Shipments. 

September, 

Jute  and  Cuttings.        Jute. 
Bales,            81,300               82,308 

Cuttings. 
10,630 

Total. 

02.938 

October,     . 
November, 

53,730              20,032 
,               99,997               69,555 

4,470 
17,510 

24,502 
87,065 

December, 

76,975               88,148 

6,870 

95,018 

January,     . 

70,767               60,157 

9,050 

09,207 

February,  . 

45,827               55,402 

7,140 

62,542 

March, 

45,301               73,463 

2,424 

75,887 

April, 

,               18,069               19,566 

— 

19  566- 

May,  .         . 

7,003               17,430 

30 

17^460 

June, 

26,412               11,340 

11,340 

July, 

23,021               31,736 



31,736 

August, 

29,344              27,107 

109 

27,216 

Tota 

1,       ,,             557,746          ^5*6,244 

58,233 

614,477 

SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


COMPARATIVE  STATEMENT  OF  CLEARANCES  AND  ACTUAL  SAILINGS  OF 
JUTE  FKOM  CALCUTTA  TO  GREAT  BRITAIN  FOR  SEASON  1866-7. 


I 

\eported  Clearances. 

Actual  Shipments. 

Season  1866-67. 

Season  1866-67. 

Jute  and  Cutting?. 

Jute.             Cuttings. 

Total. 

September,       . 
October,    . 

Bale?, 

62,927 
73,702 

49,626                100 
41,811             2,900 

49,726 
44,711 

November, 

t 

107,822 

57,731            4,431 

62,162 

December, 

59,262 

99,643            3,145 

102,788 

January,    . 

9 

35,485 

55,761               — 

55,761 

February, 

77,017 

35,316               - 

35,316 

March,      . 

i 

65,555 

87,421             1,028 

88,449 

April, 

36,560 

50691             1,555 

52,246 

May, 

M 

22,870 

31,581 

31,581 

June, 

31,005 

24,993             1,040 

26,033 

July, 

»• 

63,977 

44.928             1,572 

46,500 

AUgUST,       . 

If 

' 

,uuu 

' 

Total 


684,182 


627,502 


15,771         643,273 


The  progress  of  the  Linen  Trade  of  the  country  is  best  shown 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  Keturns,  as  they  give,  in  a  condensed 
form,  the  Imports  of  the  Kaw  Material,  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute, 
and  the  Exports  of  Yarns  and  Linens.  The  Keturns  for  1864, 
1865,  and  1866,  and  for  the  first  eight  months  of  1867  are  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Sapplement  to  Page  678. 


FLAX, 

(Dressed  and  Undressed)  and  Tow 
or  CODILLA  of  FLAX. 

For  the  12  Months  ending  31st  Dec. 

For  Eight 
Months 
ending  31st 
Aug.,   1867. 

1864. 

1865 

1866 

Tons.  Cwt 
62,275    9 
3,423  14 
7,429  10 
4,251    5 

From  Russia  and  Prussia, 
Holland,  . 
Belgium,       .        . 
Other  countries, 

Total,     . 

Tons.  Cwt. 
67,559    2 
8,750    5 
7,801    4 
8,036  16 

Tons.  Cwt. 
72,224    5 
8,465    9 
10,130    6 
4,836  12 

95,656  12 

Tons.    Cwt. 
28,709    5 
3,151    4 
5,988  15 
5,135  14 

92,147    7 

77,379  18 

43,034  18 

HEMP. 

(Dressed  and  Undressed)  and  Tow 
or  CODILLA  of  HEMP. 

For  the  12  Months  ending  31st  Dec. 

For  Eight 
Months 
ending  31st 
Aug.,   1867. 

1864 

1865 

1866 

From  Russia, 
Austrian     Territoi  ies    and 
Venetia, 
British  East  Indies,      . 
Philippine  Islands,  . 
Other  Countries,  . 

Total, 

Jute,  and  other  Vegetable  Sub-  ) 
tances  of  the  nature  of  Hemp,  ( 

Tons.    Cwt. 
27,004  13 

7,864  19 
3,776    2 
9,197    3 
2,691  11 

Tons.   Cwt. 
31,846    9 

8,524  18 
893    7 
9,742    6 
2,278    5 

Tons,    Cwt. 
31,769  13 

9,197  6 
1,343  15 
4,774  8 
2,969  16 

Tons.    Cwt. 
8,771    8 

5,586    7 
272  16 
2,976    0 
1,976    0 

50,534    8 

53,285    5 

50,054  18 

19,582  11 

102,364  7 

106,040  13 

81,988  14 

50,183    6 

SUIT  MOMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


LINEN  MANUFACTURES, 

For  tho  12  Months  emlhifc  31st  Dec. 

For  Eight 
Months 

(Piece  Goods  of  all  kinds.) 

1864 

1865 

1866 

•nding  aist 
Aug.,   1807. 

Yards. 

Yards. 

Yards. 

To  Russia, 

:M-I 

184,192 

Prussia,     . 

621,118       776,637 

737,078 

648,470 

Hanse  Towns,    . 

8,515,845  10,011,984 

8,609,552 

7,172,945 

Holland,    . 

765,498       631,350 

619,163 

389,303 

France, 

3,612,920|    3,329,978 

5,529,446 

3,385,642 

Portugal,  Azores  and  Madeira, 

l,464,082i    1,591,756 

1,868,714 

1,343,214 

Spain  and  Canaries, 

2,272,751    2,020,254 

1,830,681 

1,601,790 

Italy—  Sardinia, 

1,150,603 

1,216,778 

643,333 

485,804 

,,      Tuscany, 

1,047,011 

986,835 

540,372 

488,632 

„      Naples  and  Sicily, 
United  States,  . 

2,680,139 
76,963,326 

1,985,288 
111,984,297 

1,145,703 
119,343,207 

1,214,999 
60,258,,307 

Cuba, 

18,908,074 

14,569,187 

15,629,223 

10,297,244 

St  Thomas, 

4,053,255 

6,513,039 

4,503,950 

1,991,214 

Hayti, 
Brazil, 

3,364,412 
10,549,057 

3,161,039 
12,139,578 

4,019,479 
15,869,272 

1,037,197 
9,399,029 

Chili, 

4,175,414 

4,312,371 

4,102,634 

4,107,057 

Peru, 

2,142,732 

3,120,333 

2,813,990 

2,221,858 

British  "WVst  Indies, 

7,223,255 

7,877.949 

8,114,558 

3,444,849 

,,      India, 

4,934,091 

3,775,845 

3,155,231 

2,027,878 

Australia, 

6,443,150 

9,682,107 

8,595,576 

3,758,289 

Other  Countries,      . 

48,578,037 

46,811,862 

47,035,045 

28,355,292 

Total  of  all  kinds     . 

209,859,714 

247,012,329 

254,943,531 

143,813,2C5 

„     of  White  and  Plain, 

£6,427,392 

£7,133,883 

£7,620,869 

4,230,836 

„     Checked  Printed  or  Dyed, 

505,599 

587,679 

531,658 

149,152 

,,     Cambrics  and  Lawns, 

186,892 

311,888 

355,916 

207,831 

,,     Damask  and  Diaper, 

93,335 

112,369 

125,716 

65,561 

„    of  Sail  Cloth, 

394,284 

378,146 

354,757 

172,522 

Total  declared  value, 

£7,607,502 

£8,523,965 

£8,988,916 

£4,825,902 

For  the  12  Months  ending  31st  Dec. 

|  For  Eight 

LINEN     YARN. 

ending  31st 

1864 

1865 

1866 

Aug,  1867. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

To  Hanse  Towns, 

8,878,321 

6,828,344 

5,968,007 

5,591,551 

Holland, 

3,688,771 

4,162,161 

3,744,934 

2,622,738 

Belgium,   . 

639,106 

1,359,049 

1,048,092 

1,074,277 

France, 

988,558 

2,941,336 

2,752,208 

2,566,60( 

Spain  and  Canaries, 

13,574,377 

11,823,865 

11,823,920 

7,352,001 

Gibraltar, 

3,103,578 

2,360,641 

2,507,811 

234,136 

Other  Countries, 

9,638,256 

7,301,938 

5,821,360 

4,866,923 

Total, 

40,510,967 

36,777,334 

33,666,338 

4,308,286 

Total  declared  value, 

£2,991,909 

£2,505,497 

£2,380,032 

£1,750,01 

For  the  12  Months  ending  31st  Dec.                    por  Eight 

JUTE. 

1864 

monam 
1865                   1866              ZS^iSS 

^m^de^ir68  n0t}    13>675>318  yds 

15,332,353yds  19,477,420yds  15,418,746yds 

Do.     made  up,           £46,000 

£26,J67              £7946                  £202 

Yarn,       .        .           5,491,761  Ibs. 
otalDeclrd.  value,         £471,267 

4,992,047  Ibs.    7,778,987  IKs.    5,244,127  Ibs. 
£392,691           £491,216            £351,601 

10 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TJJAPK. 


Supplement  to  Page  673. 

LINEN  MANUFACTURES,  THREAD,  &c.,  AND  YARNS  EXPORTED  FROM  THE  UNITED 
KINGDOM  FOR  1864,  1865,  1866,  AND  TO  31ST  AUGUST,  1867. 


Years. 

LINEN  MANUFACTURES. 

Thread,  Tapes 
and  Small 
Wares. 

LINEN  YARN. 

Entered  by  the  Yard. 

Yards. 

Declr'd.  Value. 

Declr'd  Value 

Lbs. 

Declr'd  Value 

1864 
1865 
1866 
To  31st 
Aug., 
1867 

209,859,714 
247,012329 
254,943,531 

143,813,205 

£7,607,502 
8,523,965 
8,988,916 

4,825,902 

£565,312 
630,666 
587,247 

249.591 

40,510,967 
36,777,334 
33,666,338 

24,308,286 

£2,991,959 
2,505.497 
2,380,032 

1,750,031 

The  Linen  Trade  has  grown  rapidly  in  Prussia,  in  Austria, 
in  France,  in  Belgium,  and  in  other  Continental  countries,  during 
the  past  few  years ;  and  spinning  and  weaving  by  power  has 
made  immense  progress.  The  Jute  branch  of  the  trade  has  been 
largely  developed  in  France,  and  extensions  are  still  being  made 
there  and  in  other  countries.  London  is  the  great  depot  for  Jute 
for  European  consumption,  and  the  export  of  the  article  from 
the  United  Kingdom  shows  the  progress  of  the  trade  there.  It 
is  as  follows :  - 

EXPORTS  OF  JUTE  FROM  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  IN  1864, 1865,  1866,  AND 
FOR  EIGHT  MONTHS,  ENDING  S!ST  A  UGUST,  1867. 


1864 
Tous,  13505 


1865. 
Tons,  20,899 


1866. 
Tons,  20,818 


To  31st  Aug.,  1867. 
Tons,  33,384 


Flax  spinning  and  weaving  by  power  has  made  little  progress  in 
England  during  the  last  few  years,  but  several  works  have  lately 
been  erected  in  various  parts  of  that  country  for  spinning  and  weav- 
ing Jute.  The  spindles  and  powerlooms  on  Flax  do  not  now  vary 
much,  on  the  gross,  from  the  numbers  given  in  page  680,  but 
the  spinning  of  Jute  was  scarcely  begun  in  England  when  that 
Return  was  made  up.  At  the  present  time  there  may  be 
about  12,000  spindles  and  500  power- looms  employed  on  Jute 
in  England,  and  the  trade  appears  to  be  increasing. 

In  Ireland  an  amazing  increase  has  been  made  to  the  number 
of  spindles  and  powerlooms  employed,  since  the  details  given  in 
page  681  were  made  up.  The  following  abstract  made  up  by  the 
Linen  Trade  Committee  shows  the  numbers  at  the  periods  named 
It  is  in  continuation  of  the  Tables  in  page  420  and  727 : — 


i'l'LKMKNT  TO  TilK   LINKS'   TKADK.  11 

FLAX  SPINNING  MILLS  AND  POWER-LOOM  FACTORIES  (LINEN) 

IN  IKKLAM*. 
FROM  REPORTS  RENDERED  BY  PROPBIKTORS  TO  LINEN  TRADE  COMMITTEE. 

1ST—  SPINNING  MILLS. 

Pate  of  Spiiullf.s          spiiiil'i-.s  'i.'t.-il  Pioposed 

;urn.  Mill-*.       1-mploy.  «!.     riu-mpli-yfil.       !»pii  illes.  sions. 

1859  82  500,642  !•  1,230  651,872 

May,    1864            74            641,914              S.SM)           650,774  :«  spindles. 

Jan.,    1866                                 152           11,362           770,814  103,792        do. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  there  are  :    - 

Employed  in  Twisting  Thread,             .            17,786  4,656        do. 

In  course  of  erection— Mills  capable  of  containing  62,000        do. 

2o— POWER-LOOM  FACTORIES. 

Date  of                               Looms             Looms              Total  Proposed 

K-tirn.       Factories,     Employe  I.     Unemployed.       Looms.  Extensions. 

1859  28  ;i,r_'4  ;M  3,633  

is-'.  I  35  324  4,933 

May,  1864            42               7, '.'•_")                 258               8,187  1,685  Looms. 

Jan.,    1866           44             10,538                 266             10,804  6,484      do. 
In  course  of  erection—  Factories  capable  of  containing        1,400      do. 

Mr  Win.  Ewart,  Jan.,  in  a  paper  read  by  him  before  the 
Social  Science  Association  in  Belfast,  on  19th  September,  18G7, 
mentions  that  there  were  then  in  operation  in  Ireland  800,000 
spindles,  and  12,000  power  looms. 

Many  of  the  private  spinning  and  weaving  establishments  in 
Ireland  have  merged  into  limited  liability  companies,  and  they 
are  now  carried  on  by  managers  and  bodies  of  directors.  The 
great  development  of  the  Linen  trade  in  France  is  also  due  to  the 
establishment  of  joint  stock  companies  there,  many  of  the  works 
being  now  owned  by  them.  Several  limited  liability  companies 
have  been  formed  in  Glasgow,  and  the  larger  Linen  works  there 
are  now  carried  on  by  them,  but  the  principle  has  not  yet  been 
adopted  in  or  around  Dundee,  the  business  being  still  left  to  the 
enterprise  of  individuals  or  private  firms. 

The  following  table  gives  the  statute  acres  under  Flax  in  the 
provinces  and  counties  in  Ireland  in  the  years  specified.  It  is 
a  continuation  of  the  tables  given  in  pages  411  and  412.  The 
Scutching  Mills  in  1866  are  also  given: — 

FLAX  GROWN  IN  IRELAND  IN  1864,  1865,  1866,  &  1867. 

MUNSTER. 

Scutching  Mi 


1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 

in  1866. 

Clare,  - 

1412 

1146 

1082 

878 

4 

Cork,  E.R., 
Cork,  W.R.,   - 

1318 

lU-Jl 

616 
1148 

618 
861 

|  1197 

20 

Kerry,  - 

123G 

929 

773 

548 

2 

Limerick, 

773 

460 

238 

140 

2 

Tipperary,  N.R., 
Tipperary,  S.R., 

505 
498 

170 

34'J  \ 
85  j 

>  363 

8 

Waterford, 

257 

176 

152 

124 

3 

Total,  7620          -4079          4151          3250  39 


12 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


LEINSTER. 


Carlow,  - 

Dublin,  - 

Kildare, 

Kilkenny, 

King's,    - 

Longford, 

Louth,    - 

Meath, 

Queen's 

Westmeath, 

Wexford, 

Wicklow, 

Total, 


Galway, 
Leitrim, 
Mayo, 

Roscommon, 
Sligo,      - 

Total, 


Antrim, 

Armagh, 

Cavan,  - 

Donegal, 

Down,  - 

Fermanagh, 

Londonderry, 

Monaghan, 

Tyrone, 

Total, 


Munster, 
Leinster, 
Connaught, 
Ulster,    - 

Total  Ireland, 


Scutching  Mills 

1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 

in  1866. 

81 

94 

48 

27 

2 

31 

23 

12 

25 

1 

19 

35 

21 

6 

0 

270 

256 

184 

77 

2 

786 

489 

693 

442 

6 

1704 

968 

1150 

1336 

4 

2541 

2314 

2695 

3840 

7 

882 

641 

1051 

1342 

9 

268 

423 

741 

158 

5 

595 

372 

344 

233 

8 

200 

240 

380 

562 

5 

6 

3 

7 

2 

0 

7383 

5858 

7326 

8050 

_49 

CONNAUGHT. 

Scutching  Mills 

1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 

in  1866. 

1537 

1148 

1037 

599 

7 

2226 

1625 

1816 

2045 

4 

2086 

2244 

1873 

2252 

8 

1590 

i:,oo 

1165 

1785 

5 

1146 

1088 

859 

633 

8 

8585 

7405 

6750 

7314 

32 

ULSTER. 

Scutching 

;  Mills 

1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 

in!8€ 

16. 

34,847 

26,442 

27,929 

22,687 

180 

31,673 

28,668 

27,227 

27,820 

132 

15,924 
29,659 

11,932 
23,441 

13,565 
25,946 

16,369 
24,736 

29 
295 

59,137 

48,999 

51,769 

48,000 

269 

7,494 

5,844 

7,221 

8,008 

23 

32,734 

28,457 

30,327 

26,673 

202 

23,486 

22,709 

23,575 

24,561 

64 

41,318 

46,699 

37,873 

35,637 

199 

278.272 

233,  191 

245,432 

234,491 

1393 

ABSTKACT. 

m—^m^ 

__^_^ 

Scutching  Mills 

1864. 

1865. 

1866. 

1867. 

in  186 

5. 

7620 

4979 

4151 

3250 

39 

7383 

5858 

7326 

8050 

49 

8585 

7405 

6750 

7314 

32 

278272 

233191 

245432 

234491 

1393 

301,860    251,433 


,659     253,105 


1,513 


The  following  interesting  table  is  taken  from  the  Belfast 
News  Letter.  It  exhibits  the  total  acreage  under  crop  in  Ire- 
land for  each  year  from  1850  to  1866  inclusive ;  also  the  por- 
tion thereof  under  Flax — the  total  produce  of  Flax  in  tons,  and 
the  produce  of  Flax  per  statute  acre  in  stones  and  pounds  for 
same  years. 


SUPPLEMENT  TO   HIM  LINKS'    PRADE. 


Total  Acreage 
umli-r  CM.  p. 

Acreage  under 

Produce  of 

I'hix  in 

Tnna 

Prodam 

per 
Acre. 

*"""•    atns 

.   Ibs. 

1850 

5758292 

91040 

22427 

39 

5 

1851 

5858951 

110536 

33861 

38 

8 

1886 

5739214 

137008 

86402 

41 

6 

L868 

000606] 

174579 

4'W2 

40 

3 

1854 

5570610 

151403 

35606 

37 

9 

LS.V) 

5(188881 

9707,-) 

23428 

3H 

9 

i&v> 

5753547 

1  0631  1 

18791 

28 

4 

1857 

5859117 

97721 

14475 

23 

10 

1866 

5882052 

91646 

17  M 

30 

9 

isr>9 

5862605 

136282 

21576 

25 

5 

I860 

5970139 

126600 

23760 

29 

8 

1861 

5890536 

147957 

22568 

24 

6 

1862 

5753610 

150070 

24258 

26 

3 

is<;:* 

5662487 

214099 

42646 

31 

12 

1864 

5676321 

301693 

64506 

34 

6 

I860 

5648403 

251433 

39661 

25 

2 

1866 

5519678 

263659 

No  return 

This  table  shows  that  during  these  years  the  acreage  under 
Flax  fluctuated  greatly,  but  the  last  few  years  exhibit  a  decided 
increase  over  the  previous  ones.  It  also  shows  that  the  produce 
of  Flax  per  acre  is  decreasing,  the  average  for  the  first  eight 
years  being  almost  36  stones  per  acre,  while  for  the  latter  eight 
it  was  little  more  than  28  stones  6  Ibs  per  acre. 

Great  efforts  have  been  made  to  extend  the  cultivation  and 
improve  the  quality  of  Flax  in  Ireland,  but  the  success,  although 
considerable,  and  so  far  very  gratifying,  is  not  at  all  equal  to 
what  it  ought  to  be.  Prejudices  against  the  raising  of  Flax  still 
prevail,  even  among  people  otherwise  intelligent.  The  failure  of 
some  parties,  from  ignorance  and  want  of  care,  to  raise  and  pre- 
pare a  really  merchantable  fibre  that  will  bring  a  fair  price  in 
the  market  has  deterred  others  from  sowing  Flax.  In  this  way 
the  cultivation  of  Flax  is  retarded,  and  both  the  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  portions  of  the  people  are  losers  in  consequence. 

No  trouble  should  be  spared  to  find  out  the  cause  of  the 
diminution  of  the  produce  of  Flax  per  acre,  and  to  discover 
and  apply  an  effectual  remedy.  Should  this  not  be  done,  both 
grower  and  consumer  will  suffer,  as  it  will  deter  farmers  from 
cultivating  Flax,  and  the  want  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  raw 
material  will  stop  farther  extensions,  and  interfere  with  the  pro- 
per working  of  the  present  spinning  and  weaving  machinery. 

On  16th  August,  1867,  an  Association  was  formed  in  Belfast 
for  the  extension  of  the  cultivation  and  improvement  of  the 
quality  of  Flax  in  Ireland,  and  as  an  influential  committee  was 


14 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


formed  to  carry  out  the  objects  contemplated,  it  is  expected  that 
the  result  will  be  beneficial  to  the  entire  Flax-spinning  trade. 

At  the  period  when  The  Linen  Trade  was  published  (July 
1864),  the  trade  of  Dundee,  and  of  the  district  around,  was  in 
a  prosperous  state,  and  it  so  continued  for  some  time  thereafter. 
The  halcyon  days  which  prevailed  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
American  war,  and  for  some  time  subsequent  thereto,  have  left 
their  mark  on  the  district.  Old  mills  were  rebuilt  arid  extended, 
and  new  ones  erected  ;  power-loom  factories  sprung  up  in  all 
directions,  and  for  a  time  builders  and  engineers  had  the  entire 
command  of  the  position.  The  result  has  been  to  transform  and 
beautify  and  extend  towns  previously  prosperous,  and  to  vivify 
and  invigorate  others  which  were  fast  falling  into  decay. 

Many  of  the  spinners  and  manufacturers  in  Dundee  and 
Lochee,  especially  those  engaged  in  the  Jute  branch  of  the 
trade,  realized  handsome  fortunes  during  these  prosperous 
years.  Abundant  evidence  of  this  is  to  be  seen  in  the  mag- 
nificent and  gorgeously  furnished  mansions  which  they  have 
recently  erected — in  the  picturesque  and  beautiful  gardens  by 
which  they  are  surrounded — in  the  noble  conservatories,  filled 
with  the  choicest  plants,  which  adorn  these  grounds — in  the  splen- 
did equipages  and  spirited  horses  which  enliven  the  streets — and 
in  the  other  refinements  and  luxuries  which  meet  the  eye  on 
every  side,  and  which  wealth  alone  can  procure. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  actual  progress  made  in  any 
branch  of  the  trade  in  any  particular  town  or  district,  or  even  in 
the  entire  district,  as  the  ramifications  are  so  multifarious  and  so 
intertwined  that  it  is  impossible  to  unravel  them.  An  estimate  of 
the  general  progress  in  the  district  may  be  formed  from  the 
following  statements  of  the  Imports  into  and  Exports  from 
Dundee,  which  are  made  up  to  the  most  recent  date. 

Supplement  to  Statement  on  Page  633. 
IMPORTS      INTO      DUNDEE. 


JUTE. 

Total 

Year. 

Flax. 

Codilla. 

Hemp, 

CodiLa. 

Tons. 

By  Sea. 

ByR.il. 

Total 

Tons   im- 
ported. 

1864 
1865 
1866 
To  31 
-Vug. 
1867 

29,902 
36,147 
34,561 

23,123 

3,537 
6,  (124 
8,000 

2351 

1,430 
2,050 
2,328 

615 

'i'76 

34,896 
44,821 
45,065 

26.089 

35,544 
55,337 
33,291 

34.520 

20,860 
16,365 

18,888 

13,257 

56,404 
71,702 
52,179 

47,777 

91,273 
116,523 
97,244 

73.866 

SriTl.KMKNT  T()  TIIK  LINEN  TKAKK. 


15 


16 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN   TRADE. 


3.8845 

a<j^tj«      tn 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


17 


:§    :§ 


a, 
a  £ 

*  85 

M      D 


j«g- 

3  5g 


5  5  s 

•«     £    rH 


•£~ 

1 1  -      co 

it-        O 


s! 


IflCO 


I  Tf  O  O       ,     C^l  CC        I     I-H 

>£«23    !=!«    I  - 


1—1 3  22 

rH't-rr-rec" 


00  O 

O"^" 

rHCO 


2::;JM 


48  o. 


*: 

<o  o 


gs   I  o 

S 


S 


81  = 


of 


o"     otT     QO 


•M* 


«   s  i 

1^    -2 


:     g 


rH"         V          «0 


^ 
O 


lii  i 

^T3   S        •*» 

3 


18  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

From  these  statements  it  appears  that  the  present  annual 
consumption  of  Flax  and  Tow  in  Dundee  is  about  24,000  tons, 
of  Hemp  about  1000  tons,  and  of  Jute  about  65,000  tons,  ID 
aU  90,000  tons. 

The  Harbour  Trustees  and  the  Eailway  Companies  make  up 
their  returns  in  different  ways,  and  it  is  impossible  to  tell,  from 
the  returns  furnished,  either  the  total  weight  of  the  goods  sent  off, 
or  the  number  of  pieces  of  each,  or  of  any  kind.  If  the  weight,  as 
well  as  the  pieces  of  the  goods  shipped  was  given,  the  total  weight 
sent  from  Dundee  could  be  ascertained,  and  this  would  be  use- 
ful information  to  all  connected  with  the  trade. 

For  many  years  the  staple  trade  of  Dundee  was  spinning  and 
weaving  Flax.  Since  the  introduction  of  Jute  into  the  manu- 
factures of  the  town,  that  fibre  has  gradually  insinuated  itself 
into  the  trade.  Until  within  a  year  or  two,  one  or  two  firms 
confined  their  operations  entirely  to  Flax ;  but  now  Jute  is  used 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  every  establishment  in  town,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  the  works  are  entirely  upon  that  fibre. 

The  principal  articles  manufactured  in  Dundee  are  enu- 
merated in  page  630,  and  since  then  few  new  fabrics  have  been 
introduced.  The  coarser  descriptions  of  Jute  goods  are  chiefly 
used  as  wrappering,  either  as  pack-sheet  or  as  bags  for  nearly 
every  description  of  goods,  and  by  almost  every  nation  in  the 
world.  The  cheapness  of  Jute  fabrics,  and  their  sightly  ap- 
pearance, are  their  great  recommendation  to  general  favour, 
and  hitherto  no  material  used  in  the  textile  industries  of  the 
country  has  been  able  to  compete  successfully  with  them. 

For  a  long  period  Dundee  had  the  monopoly  of  the  Jute 
manufacture,  but  of  late  other  districts  have  taken  up  the  trade, 
and  there  are  already  numerous  works  in  operation  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  Some  of  these  are  of  large  extent, 
especially  one  in  Glasgow,  which  consumes  nearly  as  much  Jute 
as  even  the  larger  mills  in  Dundee.  The  works  in  and  near 
London  and  Liverpool  have  the  advantage  of  being  beside  the 
emporiums  for  Jute  and  a  market  for  their  productions,  but 
Dundee  has  compensating  advantages  which  place  works  in  that 
town  on  a  level  with  those  even  in  the  most  favourably  situated 
localities.  Dundee  will  therefore  have  little  difficulty  in  main- 
taining the  hold  which  she  has  so  long  possessed  of  the  Jute  trade. 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE.  19 

Great  improvements  have  of  late  years  been  made  in  spinning 
and  weaving  machinery,  especially  in  that  intended  for  Jute. 
Every  machine  has  been  made  stronger  than  formerly,  and  thus 
better  suited  than  the  slim  machinery  of  former  days  for  such  a 
fibre  as  Jute.  Softening  machines,  and  shell  breaker  carding 
engines,  and  other  novelties,  now  soften  and  subdivide  the 
fibres,  and  make  them  pliable  and  easily  spun.  By  the  use  of 
these  machines  the  quality  of  the  yarn  is  improved  and  the  pro- 
duction increased.  A  new  mode  of  spinning  Jute  has  been  re- 
cently tried.  The  Jute  is  softened  and  cut  into  lengths,  and 
then  by  one  operation  the  yarn  is  drawn  into  a  sliver  and  spun 
into  yarn.  In  this  way  Roving  and  other  processes  are  saved, 
and  the  waste  is  reduced  ;  but  this  mode  has  been  tried  for  too 
short  a  time  to  put  the  principle  to  a  thoroughly  practical  test. 
Various  improvements  have  also  been  introducedin  cope  and  warp 
winding,  in  weaving,  and  in  other  processes  in  the  manufacture 
of  Linen.  The  object  of  these  improvements  is  to  cheapen  [the 
cost  of  labour,  lessen  the  space  occupied  by  the  machinery,  save 
waste,  and  produce  better  yarn  and  cloth  than  was  formerly  done, 
and  in  many  instances  the  desired  result  has  been  attained. 

The  improved  external  appearance  of  the  recently  erected 
mills  and  factories  in  Dundee  and  throughout  the  entire  district 
is  very  marked,  but  the  internal  sanatory  and  economic,  arrange- 
ments for  preserving  the  health,  and  adding  to  the  comforts  of 
the  operatives  employed,  are  still  more  noteworthy  and  import- 
ant, and  a  visit  to  some  of  the  newer  works  is  not  more  interest- 
ing than  pleasant  and  instructive. 

The  Author  was  instructed  by  the  Local  Industries  Com- 
mittee of  the  British  Association,  to  prepare  a  paper  on  the 
Flax,  Jute,  and  Hemp  Trades,  with  the  view  of  having  it  pub- 
lished, along  with  papers  on  kindred  subjects,  by  the  Commit- 
tee, previous  to  the  meeting  of  the  Association  in  Dundee.  In 
furtherance  of  these  instructions  he  made  application  to  the 
proprietors  of  all  the  Flax,  Jute,  and  Hemp  Spinning  Mills  and 
Power-Loom  Factories  in  Scotland  for  certain  details  of  their 
respective  works,  with  the  view  of  making  up  an  abstract  of 
the  whole  to  be  included  in  the  paper.  The  publication  of  the 
volume  was  subsequently  delayed  by  the  Committee  until  after 
the  Meeting  of  the  Association,  and  the  Author  was  requested 


20  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

instead  to  read  a  short  Paper  on  the  Linen  manufacture  be- 
fore one  of  the  Sections  of  the  British  Association.  This  he 
did  before  section  F,  presided  over  by  M.  E.  Grant  Duff,  Esq., 
M.P.,  on  Monday,  9th  September,  1867.  The  Paper  was  most 
favourably  received  by  the  Association,  and  the  Author,  in 
addition  to  the  thanks  of  the  President  given  after  it  was  read, 
received,  at  the  concluding  meeting  of  the  Section,  a  special 
vote  of  thanks  for  the  Paper,  and  a  copy  of  it  was  requested 
that  it  might  be  published  in  the  Statistical  Journal.  The 
details  of  the  various  works  were  collected  with  considerable 
care,  and  from  the  returns,  furnished  in  almost  every  case  by 
the  proprietors  of  the  respective  works  (in  the  one  or  two 
instances  where  this  was  not  done  they  have  been  estimated  as 
correctly  as  possible),  the  following  Tabular  Statement  has 
been  very  carefully  prepared,  it  is  therefore  nearly,  if  not 
absolutely,  correct.  It  contains  the  nominal  horse  power,  the 
number  of  spindles  and  power-looms,  and  the  number  of  opera- 
tives employed  in  all  the  Flax  and  Jute  Spinning  Mills,  and 
Linen  Power-Loom  Factories  in  Scotland.  The  names  of  the 
proprietors  of  the  respective  works  are  not  given,  as  identi- 
fication of  the  several  works  by  parties  not  directly  interested 
in  them  seems  unnecessary,  but  each  proprietor  will  know  his 
own  Establishment.  All  the  works  of  each  firm  are  given  to- 
gether, excepting  in  two  or  three  cases  where  parties  have 
establishments  in  different  towns  widely  separated,  and  these 
are  entered  as  distinct  works.  The  whole  are  arranged  accord- 
ing to  the  horse-power  employed,  beginning  with  the  largest 
and  ending  with  the  smallest — the  extremes  being  785  and  6 
horse-power.  The  relative  sizes  of  the  various  establishments 
are  shown  by  the  Table.  Several  of  the  works  are  not  yet  wholly 
filled  with  machinery,  and  in  these  the  power  seems  out  of  pro- 
portion to  the  machinery  presently  in  operation,  but  this  is  a  usual 
proceeding,  power  being  generally  provided  at  first  for  the  pro- 
spective extent  of  the  mill  or  factory.  An  Abstract  is  appended 
containing  the  summation  of  the  several  details  of  each  town 
district,  and  also  the  totals  of  each  county  or  district  of  the 
country. 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


21 


RETURN  OF  THE  FLAX,  JUTE,  AND  HEMP  SPINNING  MILLS  AND  POWER-LOOM 
FACTORIES  IN  SCOTLAND,  IN  SEPTEMBER  1867. 


11 

is 

1 

la 

1* 

II 

n 

1 

M 

if 

If 

II 

! 

II 

§0. 

i£a 

J 

& 

1 
'S. 

ll 

li 

BjQ 

M 

fcW 

| 

M 

R 

*m 

02 

*w 

Bro't 

For'd 

10,326 

371,237 

9,549 

51.6JO 

1 

785 

16,814 

428 

2,175 

51 

80 



570 

720 

2 

750 

23,816 

l,r,M 

52 

80 

1,600 

50 

BO 

3 

700 

22,000 

1,200 

4.000 

53 

75 

3,080 

450 

4 

560 

18,000 

601 

3,500 

64 

72 



*400 

600 

5 

no 

11,500 

660 

3,300 

55 

70 

2,266 

100 

450 

6 

350 

18,476 

600 

2,000 

56 

70 

3,000 

40 

400 

7 

320 

10,216 

435 

,700 

57 

70 

3,318 

424 

8 

300 

16,000 

780 

58 

65 

2,100 

110 

350 

9 

290 

4,080 

'203 

,300 

59 

65 

2,300 

149 

520 

10 

880 

16,000 

,200 

60 

65 

3,500 

... 

330 

11 

205 

13,332 

"l20 

,393 

61 

65 

2,200 

... 

150 

12 

260 

16,970 

1,600 

62 

65 

2,540 

... 

160 

13 

230 

"788 

982 

63 

60 

2,800 

220 

14 

220 

5,000 

510 

2,100 

64 

60 

2,000 

250 

15 

208 

12,228 

798 

65 

60 

2,892 

"112 

500 

16 

200 

5,200 

"300 

960 

66 

60 

1,650 

65 

350 

17 

200 

4,348 

20 

500 

67 

60 

3,290 

59 

600 

18 

200 

4,200 

243 

750 

68 

60 

3,200 

400 

19 

185 

8,964 

780 

69 

60 

1,660 

'"16 

160 

20 

165 

6,000 

"120 

1,000 

70 

60 

4,038 

Standg. 

21 

160 

9,500 

700 

71 

60 

1,700 

••• 

220 

22 

150 

3,550 

"165 

1,060 

72 

60 

2,8:<6 

1  1 

230 

23 

140 

4050 

140 

665 

73 

60 

732 

48 

170 

24 

140 

7,800 

122 

750 

73 

56 



247 

360 

25 

135 

1,700 

446 

707 

75 

55 

2,500 

240 

26 

132 

3,600 

136 

1,000 

76 

50 

1,004 

"*12 

240 

27 

130 

520 

750 

77 

50 

1,800 

50 

300 

28 

120 

4,'896 

350 

78 

50 

2,100 

160 

500 

29 

120 

13,000 

800 

79 

50 

1,810 

78 

328 

30 

120 

4,006 

"56 

400 

80 

50 

...  • 

200 

200 

31 

120 

10,294 

900 

81 

50 

2,360 

170 

32 

114 

3,600 

"86 

520 

82 

50 

2,160 

•<• 

290 

33 

110 

5,500 

136 

800 

83 

50 

2.000 

120 

34 

110 

4,060 

500 

84 

48 

812 

**81 

250 

35 

110 

7,030 

"'32 

650 

85 

47 

1,950 

100 

400 

36 

110 

-,.4(41 

550 

86 

46 

•  •  •  • 

260 

350 

37 

100 

4,600 

**72 

740 

87 

42 

.... 

300 

380 

38 

100 

4,500 

300 

88 

42 



186 

225 

39 

100 

3,775 

300 

89 

40 

.500 

67 

250 

40 

100 

7,008 

576 

90 

40 

,400 

60 

250 

41 

100 

2,000 

"400 

500 

91 

40 

,360 

130 

42 

100 

4,600 

500 

92 

40 

,124 

"*12 

170 

43 

100 

4,000 

150 

500 

93 

40 

,716 

51 

260 

44 

96 

2,820 

106 

440 

94 

40 

,542 

110 

45 

93 

3,384 

140 

680 

95 

40 

,700 

.  . 

150 

46 

90 

2,968 

32 

250 

% 

40 

... 

200 

213 

47 

88 

2,380 

281 

590 

97 

40 

2,350 

t  t 

200 

48 

80 

3,000 

100 

650 

98 

40 

,500 

••• 

100 

49 

80 

2,400 

40 

330 

99 

40 

,100 

130 

320 

50 
Carry 

80 

2,672 

160 

460 

100 

40 

700 

38 

180 

For'd 

10,326 

371,237 

9,549 

51,690 

^&rry 
Foi'd 

13,044 

458,433 

13,500 

66,280 

22 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


BBTUBN  or  THE  FLAX,  JUTE,  AND  HEMP  FACTORIES  IN  SOOTLASD.— Continued. 


ll 

If 

J 

*O 

M 

l| 

l| 

|| 

rf 

<D 

M 

II 

$ 

K 

0  0 

*! 

I* 

k 

1 

II 

ft 

Bro't 
For'rd 
101 

13,044 

38 

458,433 

13,50( 
272 

66,280 
350 

Bro't 
For'd 
151 

1MU 

481,325 

18'21 

74,498 

102 

36 

U20 

42 

250 

152 

16 



34 

40 

103 

36 

1,500 

90 

153 

16 



136 

170 

104 

35 

260 

330 

154 

16 

...... 

34 

50 

105 

35 

1J816 

.  . 

190 

155 

16 



100 

100 

106 

35 

117 

136 

156 

16 

..— 

50 

60 

107 

35 

230 

300 

157 

16 

702 

50 

108 

35 

150 

200 

158 

16 

"90 

140 

109 

35 

1  50C 

120 

159 

16 

i,'6bo 

50 

110 

33 

1,'692 

138 

160 

16 

'"42 

50 

111 

32 

"100 

180 

161 

16 

"700 

40 

112 

30 

1J368 

120 

162 

16 

"33 

38 

113 

30 

*210 

360 

163 

15 

t.  .. 

50 

60 

114 

30 

•  •  .  . 

108 

180 

164 

15 

600 

tt 

25 

115 

30 

.... 

240 

366 

165 

15 

450 

20 

116 

30 

«... 

203 

300 

166 

12 

"41 

70 

117 

30 

200 

250 

167 

12 



90 

140 

118 

30 

*1,400 

132 

168 

12 



45 

50 

119 

30 

192 

205 

169 

12 



30 

32 

120 

30 

.. 

300 

400 

170 

12 



45 

50 

121 

30 

i*,ioo 

95 

171 

12 

...... 

40 

65 

122 

30 

*224 

220 

172 

12 

9  t 

48 

70 

123 

30 

i',200 

70 

173 

12 

488 

18 

124 

30 

'iss 

250 

174 

10 

140 

45 

125 

25 

...» 

35 

60 

175 

10 

'  50 

80 

126 

25 

.... 

50 

80 

176 

10 

.  .... 

55 

80 

127 

25 

i',508 

96 

177 

10 



34 

68 

128 

25 

*222 

295 

178 

10 

,  t 

75 

120 

129 

25 

..  .. 

100 

130 

179 

10 

710 

44 

130 

25 

"sie 

,. 

50 

180 

10 

*40 

75 

131 

25 

100 

100 

181 

10 

( 

30 

68 

132 

25 

.... 

280 

260 

182 

10 

616 

27 

133 

25 

.... 

75 

80 

183 

10 

*53 

55 

134 

25 

i,'66o 

43 

184 

10 

54 

58 

135 

24 

40 

'"94 

150 

185 

10 

'ife 

46 

77 

136 

24 

80 

140 

186 

8 

20 

30 

137 

24 

"soo 

70 

187 

8 

•  •  •• 

21 

30 

138 

24 

1,288 

75 

188 

8 

26 

35 

139 

24 

"200 

200 

189 

8 

.... 

50 

80 

140 

22 

i',66o 

40 

180 

190 

8 

400 

t  . 

45 

141 

20 

136 

150 

191 

8 

.... 

44 

50 

142 

20 

•  •  .  • 

105 

150 

192 

7 

.... 

28 

27 

143 

20 

584 

36 

193 

7 

280 

.. 

14 

144 

20 

322 

61 

194 

6 

...» 

15 

30 

145 

29 

"96 

106 

195 

6 

.... 

37 

60 

146 

20 

100 

112 

196 

6 

•  .  .  • 

14 

30 

147 

14Q 

20 

I  "I  Af 

100 

79 

197 

6 

.... 

20 

30 

Ma 
149 

20 

'56( 

*  * 

fZ 

50 

Total, 

14,952 

487,079 

19,917 

77,195 

150 

20 



"*60 

140 

For'd 

14,411 

481.325 

18,259 

74,498 

SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


23 


ABSTRACT  OF  THE  FORIOOINO  RETURNS  OF  FLAX,  JUTE,  AND  HIM?  FACTORIES 
IN  SCOTLAND-  -SIPTKMBEB  1867. 


Districts. 

Dundee, 
Arbroath,  \<\, 
Mont  rose,  &c., 
Forfar,  . 
Brechin, 
Carnoustie,    . 


No.  of 
Works. 

72 
18 

6 

6 

4 


108 


Kirkcaldy,  &c.,  18 

Dunfennline,  5 

Leven  District,  9 

Eden      Do.,  16 
Tajport, 


Blairgowrie,   . 
Coupar  Angus, 
Alyth, 
Perth,  &e.t      . 


T 


l8T.~FOHJAR.SH  IRK. 


Nominal 

H.-PnWlT. 

5,822 
892 
495 
232 
190 
84 

7,715 


No.  of 
Spindles. 


33,966 
6,400 


27s,r>r,4 


2D.— FlFMHIRE. 

909  28,670 

410  1,100 

856  32,350 

444  10,478 

72  2,060 

74,658 


3D.— PERTHSHIRE. 
662  18,2% 

62  1,268 

42 

181  1,600 


847 


21,064 


No.  of  Power 
Looms. 


830 
122 
1,401 
639 
445 

11,329 


1,612 

l,sr,s 

252 

1,271 

45 

6,038 


393 
224 
178 
653 

1,348 


GENERAL  ABSTRACT. 

Forfarshire,     .      108 

7,715 

278,564 

11,329 

Fifeshire,         .        51 

2,691 

74,658 

6,038 

Perthshire,       .        17 

847 

21,064 

1,348 

Eincardinesbire,        5 

74 

2,818 

Aberdeen,  .        .        1 

785 

16,814 

"428 

Total,           182 

12,112 

393,913 

18,143 

Other  parts  of)      .. 
Scotland,          f     15 

2,840 

93,661 

1,774 

Grand  Total,       197 

14,952 

487.579 

19,917 

Persona 
Employed. 

35,310 


2,483 
1,865 
1,322 


46,571 


2,410 

3,044 

2,038 

200 

11,579 


2,050 
467 
315 
908 

3,740 


46,571 
11,579 

3,740 
120 

2,175 

64,185 
13,010 

77,195 


In  Dundee  the  increase  during  the  three  years  which  have 
elapsed  since  the  table  given  in  pages  656  and  657  was  made 
up,  both  in  spindles  and  in  power-looms,  is  about  19  per  cent, 
showing  that  the  relative  proportion  of  spindles  to  power- 
looms  has  been  maintained  during  these  years.  The  increase 
in  the  other  towns  in  Forfarshire,  taken  together,  is,  in  spindles 
19  per  cent,  and  in  power-looms  90  per  cent.  As  no  account 
of  the  spindles  and  power-looms  for  the  whole  of  Fifeshire 
was  made  up  in  1864,  the  per  centage  of  increase  has  not  been 
ascertained.  By  comparing  the  returns  now  given  with  those 
made  up  about  six  years  ago,  and  presented  to  the  House  of 


24  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

Commons  on  llth  February,  1862,  (see  pages  680,  681,  and 
682),  the  increase  during  this  period  will  be  seen.  In  Forfarshire 
it  is  48  per  cent,  in  spindles,  and  105  per  cent,  in  power-looms ; 
in  Fifeshire,  37  per  cent,  in  spindles,  and  176  per  cent,  in  power- 
looms  ;  and  in  the  whole  of  Scotland  56  per  cent,  in  spindles 
and  133  per  cent,  in  power-looms. 

The  operatives  employed,  as  enumerated  in  the  Tables,  are 
those  engaged  in  and  about  the  Spinning  mills  and  Power- 
loom  factories.  There  are  also  many  persons  employed  in 
hand-loom  weaving  and  winding,  sewing  sacks  and  bags,  and 
in  other  departments  of  the  Linen  manufacture,  as  well  as  in 
the  auxiliary  branches  of  the  trade,  but  the  number  of  these 
has  not  been  ascertained.  It  is  estimated  that  the  total 
number  of  persons  engaged  in  the  Linen  Trade  in  Dundee  at 
the  present  time  cannot  be  much,  if  at  all,  under  55,000,  or 
nearly  20,000  more  than  are  directly  employed  in  the  mills  and 
factories  under  the  Factory  Act.  The  total  number  of  persons 
engaged  in  the  Linen  Manufacture  of  Scotland,  in  all  its  branches, 
may  be  estimated  at  from  100,000  to  110,000. 

In  Dundee,  and  in  the  district  around,  there  are  several  mills 
and  factories  in  course  of  erection,  and  when  these  are  com- 
pleted, as  they  will  probably  be  within  a  few  months,  the  total 
number  of  spindles  in  Scotland  will  considerably  exceed  500,000, 
and  the  power-looms  will  number  nearly  21,000. 

The  estimated  quantity  of  yarn  spun  annually  in  Dundee  is 
now  about  31  million  spindles,  which,  at  the  average  rate  of  2s  3d 
per  spindle,  is  £3,487,500;  and  in  the  district  around  29  millions, 
which  at  same  rate  is  £3,262,500,  making  the  total  value  of  the 
yarn  spun  in  the  district  £6,750,000.  The  number  of  yards  of 
Linen  manufactured,  either  in  Dundee  or  in  the  district,  has  not, 
for  want  of  available  data,  been  ascertained ;  but  the  total  annual 
value  of  the  Yarn  and  Linen  made  cannot  be  estimated  at  less 
than  £8,000,000.  The  value  of  the  Linen  manufactures  of  the 
other  districts  of  Scotland  is  about  £2,000,000.  The  total 
value  of  the  Linen  manufactures  of  Scotland,  at  the  present 
time,  is  therefore  about  £10,000,000  annually. 

The  capital  invested  in  the  Flax  and  Jute  Factories  in  Dundee 
is  estimated  at  about  £2,500,000  ;  in  the  district  of  which  that 
town  is  the  centre  £2,200,000 ;  and  in  the  other  districts  of 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE.  25 

Scotland  £1,000,000;  making  the  total  capital  laid  out  in  Mills 
and  Factories  in  Scotland  £5,700,000.  In  the  bleach  works, 
calenders,  and  other  auxiliary  branches  of  the  trade,  there  is  a 
farther  sum  invested  of  about  £1,300,000,  being  a  total  of 
£7,000,000.  On  the  average  it  will  take  quite  six  months 
from  the  purchase  of  the  raw  material  before  it  can  be  manu- 
factured and  the  proceeds  received.  The  average  value  of 
the  stock-in-trade  in  the  hands  of  spinners,  manufacturers,  and 
merchants  cannot,  therefore,  be  less  than  £5,000,000.  The 
total  capital  required  to  carry  on  the  Linen  manufacture  of 
Scotland  is  thus  about  £12,000,000. 

Dundee  has  made  immense  advances  in  various  ways  during 
the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  if  the  Jute  manufacture,  which 
is  now  the  great  staple  of  the  town,  makes  as  much  progress 
during  the  next  decade  as  it  has  done  in  the  past  (and  the  pro- 
babilities are  that  it  will  do  so,  as  the  trade,  although  already 
large,  is  only  yet  in  its  infancy),  the  annual  consumption  of  Jute 
will  then  exceed  one  million  of  bales,  and  the  population  will 
have  increased  to  150,000.  The  prospects  of  Dundee,  not- 
withstanding the  gloom  and  depression  which  at  present  hang 
over  the  trade  of  the  town  and  district,  are  therefore  promising. 

The  following  statement  of  the  wages  paid  to  Mill  and  Factory 
operatives,  &c.,  in  Dundee  in  1866  was  compiled  for  the  Govern- 
ment by  the  Secretary  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  it 
appears  in  a  Blue  Book  published  this  year.  Since  that  state- 
ment was  made  up  a  reduction  in  the  wages  has  taken  place, 
amounting  to  from  sixpence  to  one  shilling,  or  in  some  cases 
two  shillings  per  week.  The  wages  of  the  operatives  in  the 
Linen  Trade,  as  in  other  trades,  are  regulated  by  the  supply 
and  demand,  and  changes  in  the  rates  paid  are,  therefore,  not 
unfrequent,  but  of  late  years  the  wages  have  gradually  risen, 
andh  is  only  recently  they  have  begun  to  fall  again. 


WAOIS  PAID  IN  DUNDEE  IN  1866,  COMPILED  BY  THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE  CHAMBER 

OF  COMMERCE. 
LINEN  AND  FLAX  MANUFACTURES. 

SI-INNING.  MALES.  FINALES. 

Preparers  for  spinning,      .  4s  6d  to    8s  Od  feOdtolOsOd 

Spinners,      .  .        '   ;  8s  6d  to  14s  6d 

Do.,      Girls,       ..  SaOdto   7sOd 

Twisters,      ...  8s  6d  to  12s  Od 


26 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


WAGES  PAID  IN  DUNDEE  IN  1866.—  Continued. 

Reelers,        .                                           — 

8s  Od  to  13s  6d 

Do.,      Girls, 

Hacklers,     . 

21s 

4sOdto   5s  Od 
6s  6d  to  10s  6d 

Do.,      Boys, 

4sOdto  7s  Od 

Mechanics,  . 

20s  Od  to  39s  Od 



Warehousemen, 

12s  Od  to  24s  0d 



Overlookers, 

14s  Od  t®  35s  Od 

_ 

Labourers,  . 

12s  Od  to  17s  Od 

— 

WEAVING. 

Winders,      . 

__ 

7s  Od  to  15s  Od 

Do,,      Girls, 



4sOdto   5s  Od 

Warpers, 

20s  Od  to  25s  Od 

9s  Od  to  lls  Od 

Do.,      Boys, 

4s6dto  7s  Od 

Weavers,     . 

6s  Od  to  15s  Od 

Overseers,    . 

25s  Od  to  34s  Od 

Assistant  do., 

12s  Od  to  20s  Od 

— 

JUTE  MANDFACTUBES. 

SPINNING. 

Preparers  for  spinners,  Boys,      7s  Od 
Spinners,     .                                           — 

8sOdto  9s  Od 
10s  Od 

Do.,      Girls, 

— 

7s  Od 

Reelers, 

— 

10s  6d 

Mechanics,  . 

24s  Od  to  24s  3d 

Warehousemen, 

18s  4d  to  20s  Od 



Overlookers, 

21s  lOd  to  28s  Od 

— 

Do.,         Lads, 

14s  Od 



Labourers,    . 

14s  Od  to  16s  Od 

- 

WEAVING. 

Winders,      . 



10s  9d  to  12s  4d 

Do.,       Girls, 

— 

8s  9d 

Warpers,     . 

— 

8s  Od  to  14s  7d 

Weavers, 

— 

12s  6d  to  13s  4d 

Overseers,    . 

22s  Od  to  40s  Od 

— 

Assistant  do.  and  Beamera,        16s  Od  to  17s  Od 

— 

Shipwrights, 
Ship  Smiths, 


SHIPBUILDING  AND  ROPE  AND  SAILMAKEES. 
SHIPBUILDING  (OP  WOOD.) 

24s  Od  and  2§s  Od 
24s  Od   to  30s  Od 
16s  Od 
24s  Od 
23s  Od 

24sOdand26sOd 
30s  Od 
18s  Od 


Strikers  o»  Helpers, 

Sawyers,      . 

Joiners, 

Ship  Carpenters,    . 

Foremen, 

Skilled  Workmen, 

Apprentices, 

Labourers,  . 

Platsrs  and  Boilermakers 

Angle  Iron  Smiths, 

JRivetters,    . 

Holders  Up, 

HOPE  AND  TWINS  SPINNERS 
Rope  Yard  Spinners, 
Twine  Spinners,    . 
Apprentices, 

ROPE,  SAIL,  AND  SAIL  CLOTH  MAKERS. 

Rope  Maker, 

Sail  Maker, 

Weaver,      . 

Warpers  and  Winders, 

Warpers,  Females, 


to  35s  Od 
to  22s  Od 
6s  Od  to  12s  Od 

13s  Od  to  15s  Od 

27s  Od 

28s  Od 

23s  Od 

15s  Od 


19s  Od 

19s  Od 

3s  6d 


to    93  6d 


19s  Od 
2lsOd 

4s  Id  to  4s  7d  per  bolt. 

Os  2£d  per  bolt. 

Os  Id  per  spl 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


27 


DUNDEE  PRICES  CURRENT— LAST  WEEK  IN  OCTOBER  1864,  1865,  AND  1866, 
AND  SECOND  WEEK  IN  OCTOBER  1867.— Continued  from  Page  653. 


1864 

1865 

1866 

186T 

FLAX,  HEMP,  &  JUTE. 

£      8.       £      8. 

£     8. 

£     8. 

'      8. 

£    s. 

£     8.        £     8. 

Flax—  Riga,  FPK....  Ton 
,,    W      ...  ,, 

S3  10    54    0 
16    0    47    0 

55    0 

48    0 

56    0 
49    0 

56    0 
46    0 

57    0 
47    0 

7    0    57  10 
48    0    49    0 

,    D       .-  » 

33    0    35    0 

44    0 

45    0 

39    0 

40    0 

41    0    42    0 

„  PHD    ...  „ 

8t  Petersb'g  12-Head  „ 
9-Head  „ 

48  10    49  10 
42    0    50    0 
31    0    35    0 

47    0 
46  10 
40    0 

48    0 
52  10 
42    0 

48  10 
42    0 
33    0 

49    0 
53    0 
35    0 

45    0    47    0 
45    0    53    0 
37    0    38    0 

Archangel  3d  Crown  „ 

65    0    66    0 

70    0 

71    0 

70  10 

71    0 

66    0    67    0 

Zabrack      ,, 

52    0    55    0 

60    0 

62    0 

60  10 

61    0 

57    0    58    0 

No.  ITow   „ 

53    0    54    0 

53    0 

54    0 

49    0 

50    0 

45    0    46    0 

:M  c.Miiihx  ,, 

34    0    35    0 

36    0 

37    0 

32    0 

33    0 

27    0    29    0 

jibau  4-Brand.  „ 

43    0    44    0 

44    0 

45    0 

40    0 

41    0 

45    0    46    0 

Memel,    „       „ 

44    0    44  10 

45    0 

46    0 

43  10 

44  10 

45    0    46    0 

HEMP. 

St  Petersburg  Clean   „ 

31  10    34    0 

35    0 

36  10 

31  10 

33  10 

38    0    40    0 

Hi  era  Rhvn6 

35  10    36  10 

36    0 

38    0 

36    0 

38    0 

40    0    41  10 

JUTE. 

Fine        „ 

26    0    30    0 

26  10    27  10 

22    0 

22  10 

22  10    23  10 

20    0    22    0 

22    0    24    ( 

18    0 

19    0 

9  10    21    0 

Jrood  Common  „ 

17    0    18    0 

17    0    18    0 

14    0    15    0 

18    0    19    0 

13    0    15    0 

13  10    15    0 

12    0    13  10 

16  10    17  10 

YARN. 

S.     D.      8.     D 

S.     D. 

8.     D. 

S.     D. 

S.     D. 

8.     D.     S.     D. 

21bs.  Flax,  Fine,  Sp. 

2    4      2    4$ 

2    4$ 

%   2    54 

2    2 

2    2} 

2    0}    2    1 

3    ,,    do.,      „            ,, 

2  11      2  11 

2    9 

2  10 

2    4}    2    5 

2    4}    2    5 

34  Ibs.  Tow,  „            „ 

2929. 

2    64 

2    7} 

1   U   8   S] 

2    0      2    01 

5    „      do.,  Medium  ,, 

3    1      3    li 

3    1 

3    2 

2    4 

2    5 

2    1}    2    2 

>    ,,      do.,        ,,        ,, 

3    34    3    4 

3    5 

3    6 

2    8 

2    9 

2    5}    2    6 

7    „     Jute,  Fine,...  „ 

2    7}    2    8 

2    74 

2    8 

1  10}    1  11} 

1    9}     1  10 

LINENS.          Yd 

Osnbg.  20  por.  25  in  Tow 

0    3|    0    4| 

0    3| 

0    4 

0    3|    0    3} 

0    2|    0    3 

24   „    25  „  do. 

o    -0    o    f, 

0    4. 

0    4| 

0    4ft    0    4g 

0    3|    0    3| 

Dowls.  28   „    25  „  do. 

0    5*    0    5 

0    5J 

0    5; 

0    4\ 

0    5ft 

0    48    0    4 

32    „    27  ,,Flax 

0    6J    0    7 

0      6; 

0    6: 

0    6 

0      6; 

0    5|    0    5 

Br.  Shtg.  20  pr.  33  in.  Tow 

0    54    0    5 

0    5j 

0    5j 

0    4i 

0    4j 

0    3$    0    4 

24  „  35  „  do. 

0    7|    0    7i 

0    6: 

0    7 

0    6| 

0    61 

0    5|    0    6 

30  ,    35  ,,Flax 

0    7f    0    8 

0    7j 

0    7| 

0    6i 

0    7, 

0    6|    0    6 

Bl.  Shtg.  28  ,    35  ,,Tow 

0808 

0    7| 

0    8 

0    7 

0    7 

0    6}    0    6| 

32  ,    36  ,,Flax 

0    9J    0    9 

0    8 

0    9 

0    8 

0    8. 

0    7}    0    7 

36  ,    38  „  do. 

0  1  1  ;     0  11 

0  lOi 

0  11 

0    9^ 

0  10 

0909 

Hessian  15  ,    40  ,,Jute 

0    4|    0    5 

0    4i 

0    43 

0    3. 

0    4 

0    3|    0    3 

18  ,    40Jt&Tw 

0    54    0    5 

o  5; 

0    & 

0    4 

0    4 

0    3J    0    4 

16  ,    60    do. 

0    74    0    7 

0    7 

0    7 

0    6 

0    6 

0    5i    0    5 

40in  104oz.  Jute 

0    39    0    4 

0    3j 

0    4 

0      3; 

0    3 

0    2|    0    2 

Cot.  Bg.42  „  Ulb.Jute 

0    5i    0    5 

0    4 

0    5 

0    4 

0    4 

0404 

Sacking  27  „  H  ,,  do. 

0    5J    0    5 

0    4J    0    5 

0    4 

0    4 

0404 

29  „  14  „  do 

0    6J    0    6 

DM05 

0    4 

0    5 

0    4|    0    4 

Woolpacks,101b.  each.. 

3607 

3    4 

3    5 

2  11 

3    0 

29      2  10 

SBshlSks.  24  „    „   .. 

0  11      10 

0  10*    0  11 

o  9; 

r       0       9 

0    83     0    8| 

Canvas,  Com.  Brn.  No. 

0    9|    0  10 

0  10 

0  10 

0    & 

F    0    8 

0    8}    0    9 

Com.  Bid.  No. 

0  llf     1    0 

0  11 

0  11 

o  10; 

0  10 

0  10}    0  11 

Sup.  Navy  Flax,  No. 

1314 

1     2 

1     3 

1     2 

1    2 

1212} 

28  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

The  progress  made  in  the  district,  of  which  Dundee  is  the 
centre,  during  the  last  few  years  has  been  remarkably  great. 
Mills  and  Factories  have  been  erected  in  various  towns  previously 
without  them.  In  some  towns,  the  works  formerly  in  operation 
have  been  enlarged  and  improved,  and  in  others  many  new 
Factories  have  been  put  up,  and  old  ones  extended.  The  great 
increase  is  in  Power  Loom  Weaving,  which  in  some  places  has 
all  but  superseded  the  hand  loom. 

Alyth  has  now  its  two  Power  Loom  Factories,  one  of  which  is 
of  considerable  extent.  Arbroath,  in  the  extent  of  its  Linen 
manufactures,  is  second  only  to  Dundee.  The  increase  since 
1864  in  the  spindles  employed  exceeds  twenty  per  cent,  but  the 
number  of  power  looms  remains  without  much  change. 

Blairgowrie  has  added  both  to  its  spindles  and  power  looms  ; 
the  increase  in  the  former  being  about  forty  per  cent.,  and  on 
the  latter  nearly  sixty  per  cent.  Brechin  is  now  alive  with 
power  looms.  The  small  work  erected  a  dozen  years  ago  has 
lately  been  doubled  in  size,  and  two  new  Factories  of  large 
extent  have  recently  been  erected,  and  are  now  in  full  operation. 

Coupar  Angus,  Phoenix  like,  has  risen  into  new  life.  A  few 
years  ago  it  was  rapidly  falling  into  decay,  but  the  erection 
since  then  of  two  Spinning  Mills,  and  three  Power  Loom 
Factories,  one  of  the  works  being  already  of  no  small  extent, 
has  given  it  new  vitality,  and  the  little  town  has  now  a  bustling 
appearance,  and  wears  a  cheerful  look  not  seen  before.  Cupar 
Fife  has  now  two  Power-Loom  Factories,  one  of  which  is  exten- 
sive, and  employs  many  people.  Carnoustie  has  now  also  two 
Power  Loom  Works.  The  one  erected  about  ten  years  ago  has 
recently  been  enlarged  to  twice  its  original  size,  and  it  is  now 
one  of  the  most  extensive  Factories  in  the  district. 

Power  Loom  Weaving  has  made  much  progress  in  Dunferm- 
line  of  late  years.  The  town  now  contains  four  large  Factories, 
two  of  which  rank  among  the  greatest  in  the  country.  Other 
two  are  in  course  of  erection,  and  it  is  probable  that  one  or  two 
more  may  soon  be  added.  The  erection  of  these  large  works  is 
changing  the  character  of  the  trade  of  the  place,  and  ere  many 
years  elapse  hand  loom  weaving  will  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 

There   are    now   four     Power    Loom     Factories    in    the 
parish  of  Falkland,  three  of  which  are  in  the  village  of  Freuchie, 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TKADE.  29 

and  one  of  these  is  an  extensive  work.  When  Power  Loom 
Works  were  tried  in  Forfar,  it  was  found  that  they  were  well 
adapted  for  the  fabrics  made  there,  and  within  a  short  period 
thereafter  several  works  were  erected.  In  September  1867, 
when  the  returns  which  are  given  in  pages  21  to  23  were  made 
up,  there  were  eight  works  belonging  to  six  firms  in  the  town. 
Since  then  another  factory  has  been  started,  and  there  are  now 
nine  works  belonging  to  seven  firms  in  operation,  being  in  the 
aggregate  of  267  horse  power,  and  containing  about  1500  power 
looms.  These  factories  produce  the  greater  part  of  the  cloth 
required,  and  hand  loom  weavers  have  now  difficulty  in  getting 
employment,  and  are  fast  dying  out. 

The  extensions  in  Kirkcaldy,  Dysart,  and  neighbourhood, 
embrace  both  spinning  and  power-loom  weaving,  and  within 
the  last  three  years  the  increase  in  both  departments  is  about 
one  hundred  per  cent.  At  the  present  time  some  other  factories 
are  in  course  of  erection,  and,  when  these  are  started,  which  will 
probably  be  shortly,  Kirkcaldy  will,  after  Dundee  and  Arbroath, 
take  the  third  place  among  the  Linen  manufacturing  towns  of 
the  district.  Some  of  the  manufacturers  in  Kirriemuir  have 
been  proposing  to  erect  power-loom  factories,  but  there  is  a 
difficulty  in  getting  suitable  ground  having  a  supply  of  water. 
This  has  hitherto  delayed  operations,  and  the  weaving  is  still 
entirely  performed  by  hand  there.. 

The  increase  in  Montrose  is  confined  to  the  spindles,  and  is 
equal  to  about  sixteen  per  cent,  during  the  last  three  years. 

Two  Power-Loom  Factories  and  one  Spinning  Mill  have  been 
erected  in  Tayport  since  1864,  and  another  Factory  is  to  be  put 
up  shortly.  Power-loom  works  have  recently  been  erected  at 
Auchtermuchty,  Kingskettle,  Ladybank,  Strathmiglo,  and  in 
other  parts  of  Fifeshire,  and  considerable  additions  have  been 
made  to  several  of  the  spinning  mills  on  the  Leven  and  in  the 
Eden  district.  A  spinning  mill  has  also  been  started  in  Perth, 
and  a  large  addition  has  been  made  to  the  power-loom  factory 
formerly  in  operation  in  that  City. 

In  Glasgow  and  in  the  district  around  some  extensive  works 
have  been  put  up  within  the  last  few  years,  both  for  spinning 
and  weaving  Flax  and  Jute.  Two  of  the  establishments  are 
now  owned  by  Limited  Liability  Companies. 


30 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


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32 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


STOCK  OF  JUTE  IN  AND  AFLOAT  TO  LONDON  AND  LIVERPOOL  ;  WITH  PRICES  OF 

SAME  AND  OF  FIRST  CLASS  7-LB.  JUTE  YARNS  AT  DUNDEE,  AT  THE 

UNDER-MENTIONED  DATES. 


1st  JANUAEY. 

STOCK. 

Prices  of  Jute. 

Prices  of  Medium 
Jute,   for    fair 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 

Bales.          Tons. 

£     S.         £     s. 

colour,  7  Ibs. 

£    S.              £    S. 

Per  Spl. 

1854 

82,133  =  11,001  22  10  to  25  10 

24  10    to      00 

2s  l^d 

1855 

146,551  =  19,627  18  10       23  10 

22    0             00 

Is  ll^d 

1856 

112,841  =  15,11216    0        23    0 

19    0           22    0 

2s  3d  to  2s  4d 

1857 

96,730  =  12,89716    0        25    0|l8  10           22    0 

2s  3d 

1858 

99,957  =  13,387113    0       22    015    0           18    0 

Is  7d  to  Is  8d 

1859 

146,957  =  19,68218    0       23  1019  10           21    0 

IslOd 

1860 

215,457  =  28,85513  10        22    016    0           17  10 

Is8d 

1861 

194,709  =  26,07615  10        25    018    0           20    0 

Is  9|d  to  Is  9J 

1862 

166,870  =  22,34814  10        25    OJ17    0           18    0 

Is9d 

1863 

162,380  =  21,747119  10       30  1026    0           27    0 

2s  6d 

1864 

256,205  =  34,313  20    0       34    026  10           29  10 

2s  lid  to  2s  lljd 

1865 

299,574  =  40,12113    0       30    019    0           21     0 

2s9|d 

1866 

419,537  =  56.18716    0       30    025    0           27    0 

2s  7d 

1867 

359,785  =  48,186  12    0        22  10118    0           19    0[  la  lOd  to  Is  lid 

1st  FEBRUARY. 

STOCK. 

Bales.        Tons. 

Prices  of  Jute. 

Prices  of  Medium 
Jute,  for  f.ir 
colour,  7  Ibs. 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 
Per  Spl. 

£    s.          &    S. 

£    S.               £    S. 

1854 

88,945  =  11,913 

24  10  to  27    0 

25    0    to    25  10 

2s  3H 

1855 

156,109  --  20,908 

17    0       22    018    0           20    0 

Is  lid 

1856 

144,264  =  19,321 

15    0       23    019    0           20    0 

2s  lid  to  2s  2id 

1857 

115,863  =  15,448 

16    0       25    018  10           22    0 

2s  3d 

1858 

134,988  =  18,079 

14    0        22    016    0           18  10 

Is  9d  to  Is  9id 

1859 

221,240  =  29,630 

18    0    .25    019  10           21  10 

ls9W 

1860 

242,097  =  32,424 

14    0       22  1017    0           18  10 

Is  8d  to  Is  8id 

1861 

229,113  =  30,684 

15  10       25    018    0           20    0 

Is  9d  to  Is  9id 

1862 

200,581  =  26,863 

14  10        25    017    0           18    0 

Is9id 

1863 
1864 

189,313  =  25,304 
384,082  =  51,485 

19  10       30    0  25    0           27    0 
20    0       34    027    0           29    0 

2s7id 
2s  8d  to  2s  8id 

1865 

325,128  =  43,543 

13    0       30    020    0           23    0 

2s  7d 

1866 

417,829  =  55,959 

15  10        30    024    0           26  10 

2s  6d 

1867 

387,316  =  51,872 

13  10        24  1019  10           20  101s  11  1  to  Is  lljd 

1st  MARCH. 

STOCK. 

Bales.         Tons. 

Prices  of  Jute. 
£    s.          £    s. 

Prices  of  Medium 
Jute,    for    fair 
colour,  7  Ibs. 
£    S.               £    S. 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 
Per  Spl. 

1854 

93,138  =  12,475 

24  10  to  27    0 

25  10    to    26    0 

2s  4d 

Ifc55 

159,960  =  21,423 

15    0        21    0 

17    0           19    0 

Is  lid 

1856 

158,411  =  21,215 

14    0       23    0 

18    0           19    0 

Is  Hid  to  2s 

1857 

131,882  =  17,584 

16    0       25    0 

18  10           22    0 

2s  2d  to  2s  24d 

1858 

156,379  =  20,943 

14    0       22    0 

16    0           18  10 

Is  9d  to  Is  9|d 

1859 

217,457  =  29,125 

18    0       26    0 

19  10           21  10 

Is  8id  to  Is  9d 

1860 

248,598  =  33,187 

14  10       23    0 

17  10           19    0 

Is  94S  to  Is  lOd 

1861 

219,476  =  29,395 

15  10       25    0 

18    0           20    0 

Is  9d  to  Is  9/,d 

1862 

220,032  =  29,468 

14  10       25    0 

17    0           18    0 

Is  9>,d  to  Is  9|d 

1863 

207,848  -  27,836 

19  10       29  10 

25    0           26  10 

2s  6d  to  2s  6£d 

1864 

452,587  =  60,615 

19    0       33    0 

26    0           28    0 

2s  9d  to  2s  9M 

1865 

397,861  =  53,284 

12    0       30    0 

17    0           22    0 

2s  5id  to  2s  6d 

1866 

492,176  =  65,916 

15  10       30    0 

24    0           25  10 

"2s  4d 

1867 

400,276  =  53,608 

13    0       24    0 

19    0           20  10 

IslO^dtolslld 

SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE.  33 

STOCK  OF  JDTI  IK  AND  AFLOAT  TO  LONDON  AND  LIVERPOOL.— Continued- 


litAPBIL. 

STOCK. 

Price*  of  Jute. 

Prices  of  Medium 
Jute,   for  fair 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 

Pairs.            Tons. 

colour,  7  Ibs. 

Per  Spl. 

£.    8.          £    8. 

£    8.             £    8. 

I8M 

92,755  =  12,423 

26    0  to  33    0 

26    0    to    28    0 

2s  8il 

1855 

157,431  =  21,085 

15    0       21    0 

18    0           19  10 

Is  lid 

is:,.; 

187,361  =  25,040 

13    0       22    0 

16    0          17    0 

Is  9Ad  to  Is  lOd 

IBM 

131,153  =  17,565 

17    0       26    0 

20    0           23    0 

2s  4d  to  2s  4.}d 

1866 

175,635  =  23,522 

14    0       22    0 

16    0           18    0 

Is9d 

1859 

256,600  =  34,300 

16    0       26    0 

18    0           20    0 

Is  7Ad  to  Is  8d 

I860 

243,932  =  32,669 

15    0       24    0 

18    0           19  10 

IslOd 

is.;  i 

'.or,  =  32,74<; 

15    0       24  10 

16  10           18  10 

Is  7A,d  to  Is  8d 

1861 

•j;-.i.s>:,  -  :u.o.v. 

14  10       24    0 

17    0           18    0 

is8.$d 

1868 

192,258  «  25,749 

19    0       29  10 

24    o           27    0 

2s  6d  to  2s  7d 

1864 

396,174  =  53,060 

19    0       33  10 

26    0           28    0 

3d  0}d  to  3s  Id 

1866 

432,719  =  57,953 

11    0       27    0 

15    0           21    0 

2s  Id  to  2s  2d 

1866 

491,881   ~  65,877 

14  10       29    0 

23    0           24    0 

2s  3dto  2s  3Ad 

1867 

394,051  ts  52,774 

12  10       24    0 

19    0           20    0 

Is  lOd  to  Is  10*d 

1st  MAT. 

STOCK. 
Bales.        Tons. 

Prices  of  Jute. 
£.    s.        £   s. 

Prices  of  Medium 
Jute,  for  fair 
colour.  7  Ibs. 
£    S.            £    S. 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 
Per  Spl. 

1854 

101,135  =  13,539 

29    0  to  34    0 

31    0    to      00 

2s7-id 

1855 

150,562  =  20,164 

14  10       22    0 

18    0           19  10 

Is  lid 

1856 

178,383  =  23,835 

11  10       21    0 

14    0           17    0 

Is  9d  to  Is  lOd 

1857 

133,121  =  17,828 

19    0       27  10 

22  10           24  10 

2s  5Ad  to  2s  6d 

la^s 

171,931  =  23,074 

14    0       22    0 

16  10           18    0 

Is  8ld  to  Is  9d 

245,389  =  32,867 

15    0       23  10 

18    0           19    0 

Is  7d  to  Is  7Ad 

I860 

255,338  =  34,200 

15    0       25    0 

17    0           19  10 

Is  9A.d  to  Is  lOd 

1861 

237,430  =  31,798 

15    0       24    0 

16  10           18    0 

Is8d 

1*12 

216,269  -  32,981 

14  10       24    0 

17    0           18    0 

Is  8Ad 

1863 

195,799  -  26,222 

19    0       30    0 

25    0           27    0 

2s  6d  to  2s  6Ad 

1864 

394,179  =  52,79218    0       32  10 

24    0           27    0 

3sld 

1865 

450.170  =  60,290 

11  10       26    0 

16    0           20    0 

2s  Id 

1866 

481,302  =  64,460 

13    0       27  10 

21  10           23  10 

2«  to  2s  Id 

1860 

360,828   =  48,325 

12  10       24    0 

19    0           20    0 

Is  lOd  to  Is  10.}d 

1st  JUNE. 

iPrices  of  Medium 

STOCK.             Prices  of  Jute.      ^'f0,  ,ta'r 
Bales.             Tons.  L                  „           „  C°  3ur«  7  'P3* 
£8.            £     S.  Mb     S.              «•      8. 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 
Per  SpL 

1854 

101,038  =  13,53l'27    0  to  31    0!29    0    to      00 

2s  6d 

1855 

153,673  =  20,58214  10       22    018    0           19  10 

Is  10A.d  to  Is  lid 

1856 

186,310  =  24,84211  10       21    014    0           17    0 

Is  lOd  to  Is  lOAd 

1857 

140,155  =  18,77019    0       27  1022  10           24  10 

2s4dto2s5d 

1858 

148,038  =  19,83014  10       22    016  10           18    0 

Is  8d  to  Is  8Ad 

1859 

264,470  =  35,42514  10       23    016  10           18    0 

Is  6d  to  Is  6Ad 

I860 

233,811  =  31,31315    0       25    017    0          19  10 

Is  9Jd  to  Is  lOd 

1861 

231,980  =  31,06815    0       24    016  10           18    0 

Is  74d  to  Is  8d 

1862 

236,301  -  31,65014  10       24    017    0           18    0 

Is  8Jd  to  Is  8jd 

1863 

200,243  =  26,81719    0       30    025    0           27    0 

2s  6d 

1864 

393,421  =  52,68818    0       32  1024    0           28    0 

3s  Id  to  3s  l$d 

1865 

435,249  =  58,^9211  10       26    0,16    0           20    0 

2s  lid 

1866 

448,364  =*  60,049  12    0       26    0  20  10           22    0 

2s  OAd  to  2s  1  id 

1867 

533,485  =  98,35114    0       24  1019  10           20  10 

Is  lid  to  Is  11  id 

34  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LTNEN  TRADE. 

IMPORTS  OF  JCTE  IN  AND  AFLOAT  TO  LONDON  AND  LIVERPOOL.—  Continued. 


1st   JULY. 

STOCK. 

Prices  of  Jute. 

Prices  of  Me'liun 
Jute,   f  r  fa  r 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 

Bales.          Tons. 

£    s.          £    s. 

colour,  7  Ibs. 
£    S.             £    S 

Per  Spl. 

1854 

107,125  =  14,348  23  10  to  28    0 

25    0    to    26    C 

2s  5d 

1855 

153,190  =  20,51714  10        22    0 

18    0           19  1C 

Is  104d 

1856 

164,061  =  21,875  12  10       21    0 

15  10           17  15 

Is  104d  to  Is  11  id 

1857 

127,155  =  17,02921  10        29    0 

24    0           26  10 

~2s6d 

1858 

145,920  =  19,45715    0        22    0 

17    0           18  10 

Is  9-id  to  Is  lOd 

1859 

244,529  =  32,74915    0       23  10 

17    0           18  10 

Is  7d  to  Is  7^d 

1860 

226,896  =  30,38715    0       25    0 

17    0           19  10 

Is  9^d  to  Is  9|d 

1861 

233,457  =  31,26514    0        23    0 

16    0           17    0 

"Is7d 

1862 

2  1  5,  977  =  28,92515    0       24    0 

17  10           19  10 

Is  9]d  to  Is  9id 

1863 

207,534  =  27,795  20    0        30  10 

25    0           27  10 

2s  74d  tn  2,  8d 

1864 

393,766  =  52.736  18    0       32  10 

24    0           29    0 

3s  Id 

18i5 

424.614  =  56,8681210        2410 

16    0           19    0 

2s  OM  to  2s  1^1 

1866 

437,141  =  58.54612  10        25  10 

21  10           22  10 

2s  Old  to  2   Id 

1867 

319,962  =  42,852  16  10        24  10 

19  10           21    0 

Is  lid  to  Is  11^-1 

1st   AUGUST. 

STOCK. 
Bales.          Tons. 

Prices  of  Jute. 
£    S.          £    s. 

Prices  of  Medium 
Jute,   for  fair 
colour.  7  Ibs. 
£    S.             £    s. 

Prices,  of  7  Ibs. 
Per  Spl. 

1854 

129,499  =  17,344 

25    0  to  28    026    0    to      0    0 

2s  4.id 

1855 

141,023  =  18,887 

14  10       22    018  10           19  10 

Is  lid  to  2s 

1853 

159,156  =  21,222 

14  10       22    018    0           20    (' 

2s  to  2s  Id 

1857 

114,798  =  15,375 

22  10       29    024  10           26  10 

2s  5d 

1858 

139,097  =  18,630 

16    0       22    o; 

18    0           19  10  Is  9M  to  Is  lOd 

1859 

245,757  =  32,913 

15    0        23  1017    0           18  10         "Is7d 

1860 

223,431  =  29,92215    0        25    0|l7    0           1910    Is  9d  to  Is  9Ad 

1861 

229,445  =  30,7291310        23    01510           1610    Is  7d  to  Is  7U 

1862 

182,800  =  24,48315  10        25    018  10           20  10  Is  10i  1  to  Is  lid 

186 

178,712  =  23,954 

20    0        30  1025    0           27  10            2s  8d 

1864 

343,796  =  46,047 

16  10       32  10  24  10           29  10           3s  Id 

1865 

400,944  =  53,697 

1210        241016    0           19    0    2s  OH  to  2s  Id 

1866 

413,544  =  55,385 

12  10        25  1021  10           22  10    2s  11  to  2,  lid 

1867 

269,511   =3609517    0        241020    0           2110          Is  l!d 

1st  SEPTEMBER. 

STOCK. 

] 
Prices  of  Jute. 

Prices  of  Medium 
Jute,    for   la  r 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 

Bales.            Tons. 

£    S.           £    S. 

i  olour,  7  L  s. 
£    S.               I'    F. 

Per  Spl. 

1854 

133,090  =  17,824 

25  10  to  28  10  26  10    to    27    0 

Nominal. 

1S55 

135,047  =  18,08716    0       23    0  19    0           20    0 

Is  lid  to  2s 

1856 

141,079  =  18,81215  10       23    0 

80            21    0 

2s  Id 

1857 

106,795  =  14,302:22  10        29    0  24  10           26  10 

2s  4  d  to  2s  5d 

1858 

136,341  =  18,25917    0       23    0  19    0           20    0 

IslOd  to  Is  10$  d 

1859 

228,974  =  30,66615    0       23  1017    0           18  10 

Is  7d  to  Is  74d 

I860 

215,147  =  28,814115    0       25    017    0           1910 

Is  9;|d  to  Is  9"$d 

1861 

188,«53  =  25,18514    0       23    01510           17    0 

Is  7d  to  Is  7Ad 

1862 
1863 

174,574  =  23,38017  10        25  102;)  10           22    0 
179,480  =  24,05520  10        31    026    0           28    0 

2s  3'd  to  2s  4d 
2s  8d  to  2s  8.-»,d 

1864 

368,131   =  49,302 

L5  10       31  1023  10           26  10  2s  10M  to  2s  lid 

18t)5 

365,800  =  48,991' 

L2  10       25    0170           19  10    2s  OU  10  2s  Id 

1866 

392,654  =  52,5871 

12    0        24  1020  10           21  10!    2s  Od  to  2s  OAd 

1867 

240,449  =  32,  203!  17    0        23101910           21    0  Is  lOd  to  Is  lOjd 

StH'PLEMKNT  TO  THE  LINKN  TRADE.  35 

STOCK  OF  JOTE  i»  AND  AFLOAT  TO  LOKDOK  AND  LIYIBPOOL.— Continued. 


lit  OCTOBEB. 

fTOCK. 
Btles.          Tons. 

Prices  of  Jute. 

Prices  of  Medina 
Ju-e.  for   f.dr 
col  .ur,  7  Ibs. 

Prices  of  711*. 
Per  SpL 

£    8.           £     8 

£    S,             £    8. 

1854 

150,109  =  20,10. 

20    0  to  25    ( 

irl    0    to    22  1C 

2s 

1866 

135,466       18,14: 

16    0       23    C 

19    0          20    C 

lsllAdto2s 

1866 

126  858       16.91* 

16    0       23  1C 

18  10          21  1C 

2s  Id 

is:,  : 

93,966       12,58! 

22  10       29  1C 

A  10           26  1C 

IS  id 

is:,s 

140,305       18,79C 

18    0       23  1C 

19  10           21    (J 

2s 

IS  V.I 

209,474       28,054 

14  10       23    C 

16  10           18    0 

It  74 

is.;,) 

208,543       27.93C 

15    0       25    C 

17    0           19  10 

Is9d 

18G1 

171  592        22.JW1 

14    0       23    0 

15  10           17    0 

Is  7d  to  Is  7  {  d 

1.-V.2 

154,044       20,6:« 

Nominal. 

Nominal. 

2«  6d  to  2*  7d 

laita 

154,206       20,650 

23  10       32  10 

28  10           29  10 

2s  lid  to  2s  HAd 

362,081        48,493 

13  10       30  10 

20    0           24    0 

2s  lOd  to  2s  lOAd 

1866 

429,192  =  57.481 

12  10       25  10 

19    0           20  10 

2s  2Ad  to  2s  3d 

!>>.;.; 

371,267  -  49,723 

12    0       23  10 

19    0           21    0 

Is  lid  to  Is  11  A.d 

1867 

233.-J68  =  31,010 

6  10       23  10 

9  10           20  10 

s  9Ad  to  Is  lOd 

1st    NOVEMBER. 

STOCK. 
Bales.          Tons. 

Prices  of  Jute. 
£.8.        £    s. 

Prices  of  Medium 
Jute,    for  fair 
colour,  7  Ibs. 
£    8.             £    8. 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 
Per  Spl. 

1854 

145,080  =  19,430 

19    0  to  23    0 

20    0    to    22    0 

Is  lid 

1855 

124,474  =  16,671 

16    0       23    0 

19    0           20    0 

2s  Id  to  2s  2d 

1856 

120,054        16,007 

15    0       24  10 

18  10           21  10 

2s  Id 

1857 

90,112       12,110 

20    0       29    0 

22    0           24    0 

2s  3Ad  to  2s  4d 

1858 

138,350       18,529 

17  10       22    0 

19    0           20    0 

Is  lOAd 

1859 

220,879       29,58j 

13  10       22    0 

16    0           17  10 

Is7d 

1860 

207,943        27,851 

15  10       25    0 

17  10           19  10 

Is  9d  to  Is  9Ad 

1861 

1  0,913       24,230 

15    0       25  10 

17  10           18  10 

Is8}d 

1862 

143,898       19,271 

Nominal. 

Nominal. 

2s  2Ad  to  2s  3d 

1863 

132,959        20,48; 

23  10       34    0 

29  10           30  10 

3s  3Xd  to  3s  4d 

1864 

371,115       49,70: 

13    0       30    0 

19    0           21    0 

2s  7d  to  2s  7Ad 

1865 

407  008        54,510 

13  10       27  10 

22    0           24    (' 

2s  7id  to  2s  8d 

1866 

358,726       48,043 

12    0       22  10 

18    0           19    0 

Is  10d  to  Is  lid 

lit   DECEMBER. 

STOCK. 

Prices  of  Jute. 

Jute,     for  fair. 

Prices  of  7  Ibs. 

Bales.          Tons. 

£     S.         £     S. 

colour,  7  !•'».  s 
£    S.             £ 

Per  SpL 

1854 

143,673       19,241 

20    0  to  24    0 

il    0    to    22  10 

2s 

1835 

107,631        14,415 

16    0       23    0 

19    0           20    0 

2s  3d  to  2s  4d 

1856 

102,439       13,161 

15  10       24  10 

18  10           22    0 

2s  2d 

1857 
18o8 

92,761       12,417 
158,738       21,266 

Prices  Irregular 
16  10        22    0 

Piic<  s  Irregular. 
18    0           19    0 

Prices  Irregular. 
Is  9d  to  Is  9Ad 

1859 

205,536       27,527 

13  10       22    0 

16    0           17  10 

Is7d 

I860 

195,672       26,205 

15  10       25    0 

18    0           20    0 

Is  9Jd  to  Is  9Ad 

18H1 

165,077       22,108 

15    0       25  10 

17  10           18  10 

Is  8<}d  to  Is  9d 

1862 

147,327        19,731 

19    0       30    0 

24    0           25    0 

2s  3Ad  to  2s  4d 

1863 

223  264       29,902 

23  10       35    ( 

30  10           31  10 

3s  2jd  to  3s  3d 

1864 

326,542        43,73? 

13    0       30    C 

19    0           21    i 

2s  9d 

1865 

440,744        59,028 

15    0       28    C 

23    0           25    0 

2s  6d  to  2s  7d 

1866 

367,232       49,183 

12    0       22  10 

18    0           19    0 

i*  icu  to  it  lid 

36  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

The  following  interesting  notes  are  taken  from  the  Official 
Keport,  by  John  Stevelly,  Esq.,  on  the  Flax  and  Jute  Yarns  and 
Linens  in  the  French  International  Exhibition  of  1867 : — 

There  are  621  Exhibitors  of  these  goods,  and  the  show  of 
Linens  is  very  extensive  and  varied.  France  has  devoted  a 
larger  space  to  her  Linen  manufactures  than  to  any  other  of 
her  industries,  and  the  series  is  very  complete.  The  Linens  of 
France  have  nothing  in  common  with  our  makes,  or  consistent 
with  our  ideas  of  what  she  would  find  most  profitable,  but  they 
are  no  doubt  suitable  for  and  preferred  by  the  French,  and  the 
qualities  and  finish  should  be  imitated  by  those  who  wish  to 
sell  their  manufactures  in  that  country. 

The  Exhibition  confirms,  what  was  previously  known  by 
experience,  the  fact  that  the  United  Kingdom,  although  no 
doubt  the  largest  Linen  manufacturer  in  the  world,  is  by  no 
means  a  great  consumer.  Continental  nations,  on  the  other  hand* 
are  large  consumers  of  Linen  goods,  and  in  some  countries  the 
quantity  used  is  enormous  ;  indeed,  in  many  places  the  wear- 
ing of  a  cotton  blouse,  or  a  cotton  shirt,  has  long  been  a  mark 
of  exceptional  poverty.  In  France  the  consumption  of  Linen  is 
estimated  at  250,000,000  yards  annually. 

It  is,  therefore,  of  great  importance  for  manufacturers  of  this, 
or  other  countries,  who  are  desirous  of  having  the  Linen  con- 
suming nations  on  the  Continent  for  customers,  to  make  them- 
selves thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  description  and  style  of 
the  Linen  consumed  there.  Unless  this  be  done,  and  Linens  in 
imitation  of  the  favourite  native  fabrics  made,  neither  a  large 
nor  a  profitable  business  need  be  expected.  The  Belgians  well 
understand  this,  and,  as  they  have  been  careful  to  adapt  their 
Linens  to  the  taste  of  their  French  neighbours,  they  and  they 
only  have  been  able  to  sell  their  goods  to  advantage  in  France. 

Neither  Scotch,  English,  nor  American  Linens  are  repre- 
sented in  the  Exhibition,  and  the  absence  of  Great  Britain,  in  a 
department  for  which  she  is  so  famous,  is  very  noticeable.  The 
reason  probably  is,  that  the  manufacturers  did  not  consider  the 
benefits  likely  to  accrue  equal  to  the  trouble  and  cost  of  exhibit- 
ing. The  Jute  Spinners  and  Manufacturers  of  Dundee  did  not 
consider  it  advisable  to  exhibit  their  productions  in  a  country 
from  which,  by  an  unjust,  because  one-sided  tariff,  they  are 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE.  37 

practically  excluded,  as  they  would  have  been  only  paying  to 
show  their  rivals  what  they  were  doing,  without  receiving  a 
single  compensating  advantage  in  return. 

The  present  French  tariff,  passed  in  1860,  was  an  experi- 
mental measure,  and  it  has  since  then  been  abundantly  proved 
that  the  French  Flax  and  Jute  Spinners  and  Manufacturers 
require  no  high  protective  duties  to  enable  them  to  prosecute 
their  trade  profitably;  it  is,  therefore,  high  time  that  these 
protective  duties  were  abolished,  and  the  duty  limited  to  the 
fiscal  wants  of  the  country,  and  to  that  only. 

On  1st  January,  1866,  France  had  at  work  266  mills,  con- 
taining 705,350  spindles.  In  the  Department  du  Nord  alone, 
there  were  4305  power  looms  at  work,  and  this  number  has 
since  been  so  largely  increased  there,  that  the  power  looms  now 
working  in  France  cannot  be  estimated  at  fewer  than  8000. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  during  the  wars  of 

the  Empire,  each  household  only  grew  what  Flax  it  required  for 

its  own  use,  and  little  or  none  was  exported.     In  1822  about 

35,000  acres  were  under  Flax,  but  in  1845  the  area  had  fallen 

to  11,000  acres  in  consequence  of  France  having  been  slow  to 

adopt  spinning  by  machinery.     After  that  period  Flax  culture 

and  mill  spinning  increased  simultaneously  year  by  year,  and  in 

1864  45,000  acres  were  grown  in  the  Department  du  Nord 

alone.      It  is  estimated  that  in  1866  France  had  60,000  acres 

under  Flax,  besides  importing  31,210  tons  Flax,  7400  tons 

Hemp,  and  16,900  tons  Jute ;  and  the  exports  were  7400  tons 

Flax  and  Hemp.     The  Flax,  &c.,  grown  and  imported  not 

being  adequate  for  the  consumption,  a  Company  was  formed 

some  years  ago  for  the  cultivation  of  Flax  in  Algiers,  where  the 

plant  is  indigenous,  and  already  some  success  has  been  attained 

as  the  Company  sold  1000  tons  last  year.     The  Flax  produced 

in  Algiers  is  of  good  quality  and  very  suitable  for  spinning  into 

medium  sizes  of  yarn,  and  the  seed  is  also  excellent  for  sowing, 

as  the  plant  is  nearly  a  foot  longer  than  from  Riga  seed,  and  the 

fibre  finer.    Flax,  the  produce  of  Algiers,  may  yet  become  of 

great  consequence  to  the  Flax  spinner,  as  the  country  is  large 

and  might  produce  it  extensively,  and  cheaply,  possessing  as  it 

does  great  facilities  for  its  successful  cultivation. 

Normandy  was  the  cradle  of  family  linens  and  sheetings 


38  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

under  the  name  of  "  Cretonnes,"  and  they  are  still  made  there, 
but  these  fabrics  are  now  copied  largely  and  well  by  power  in 
Lille.  Blouse  Linens,  blue,  slate,  and  drab,  are  leading 
fabrics  in  France.  Heavy  shirtings,  and  sheetings  of  good 
quality,  are  used  largely  in  the  agricultural  districts ;  and  the 
sailcloth  made  in  Dunkirk  and  elsewh  re,  for  the  Hoyal  Navy  of 
France,  is  equal  to  any  made  in  Dundee. 

In  France,  Linens  are  used  largely  in  the  Naval  and  Military 
services,  as  well  as  in  the  Hospitals,  Prisons,  and  other  public 
departments,  and  various  fabrics  are  made  specially  for  these 
purposes,  all  of  which  might,  if  they  were  admitted  at  a  fiscal 
duty  only,  be  imitated  in  Britain  with  a  fair  chance  of  compet- 
ing with  native  manufactures  there. 

Hemp  is  used  largely  in  France  for  shoe  thread  and  cloth. 
Hempen  fabrics  and  coarse  Linens  are  steeped  in  a  preparation 
of  sulphate  of  copper  to  make  them  waterproof,  and  made  into 
cart  and  waggon  covers,  and  universally  used.  The  Hemp 
grown  in  the  Valley  of  the  Loire  is  the  best  in  the  world,  but 
fine  Hemp  is  also  grown  in  other  districts. 

Jute  yarns  are  spun  largely,  and  they  are  made  into  sacking 
and  hessians,  and  such  like  fabrics.  Roubaix  near  Lille,  and 
Laval  in  Mayenne,  make  drills  of  all  qualities  very  largely,  and 
these  goods  form  a  large  item  in  the  Linen  exports  of  France. 
In  the  Cholet  district,  light  Linen  and  Linen  handkerchiefs 
employ  20,000  looms.  Checked  Madras  handkerchiefs,  dyed  in 
the  yarn,  are  also  made  there,  and  exported  to  Spain,  Wales, 
and  other  countries  where  snuff-taking  still  lingers.  Cambrai 
is  famed  for  finer  handkerchiefs  and  fine  Linens,  and  also  for 
its  "  batistees,"  and  other  fabrics.  The  Damask  trade  has  made 
immense  progress  in  France  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  the 
goods  now  made  are  very  beautiful,  and  unsurpassed  either  in 
the  designs  produced,  in  the  whiteness  of  the  bleach,  or  in  the 
superiority  of  the  texture. 

Belgium  shows  many  Linens  in  common  with  the  Lille  district 
of  France.  The  foundation  of  the  Linen  manufacture  in  this  part 
of  the  Continent  is  attributed  to  certain  barbarous  tribes  from  the 
region  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  who  are  said  to  have  settled  in  this 
district  some  300  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Whether  there 
be  truth  in  this  legend  or  not,  it  is  certain  that  Flanders  Linen 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE.  39 

can  be  traced  back  to  a  very  early  period.  At  the  time  of  the 
first  invasion  of  Gaul  by  the  Romans,  these  Northern  people 
wore  the  u  sagiim,"  or  blouse,  which  Is  still  the  national  dress. 

Belgium  offers  many  advantages  for  the  development  of  the 
Linen  trade.  The  climate  is  very  suitable  for  the  growth  of 
Flax,  and  so  is  the  water  for  steeping  it.  The  people  are 
industrious  and  well-trained  in  its  cultivation  and  preparation, 
and  the  quality  of  the  Belgian  Flax  is  greatly  esteemed.  In 
1840  the  quantity  grown  was  estimated  at  21,000  tons,  and  in 
1864  at  25,000  tons.  The  finer  descriptions  are  exported  to 
England  and  Ireland,  and  the  coarser  sorts  to  Lille,  or  consumed 
at  home  by  the  250,000  spindles  which  are  iu  operation  in 
Belgium.  Yarn  to  the  value  of  £1,000,000,  and  Linens  to 
the  extent  of  £1,600,000,  were  exported  in  1804.  Belgian 
Linens  embrace  shirtings  and  sheetings  ;  blouse  Linen,  of  which 
an  enormous  quantity  is  made;  drills,  damasks,  hessians,  sacking, 
sail  cloth,  and  other  fabrics ;  and  the  quality  of  many  of  the 
goods  shown  in  the  Exhibition  is  very  superior,  and  quite  equal 
to  the  productions  of  Belfast  or  Dundee  of  a  like  kind.  Speci- 
mens of  excellent  yarns  are  also  exhibited,  and  there  are  some 
samples  of  hand  spun  yarns  ranging  up  to  1000  lea,  or  fully 
33  spindles  in  one  pound  weight.  The  blind,  aided  by  their 
fine  sense  of  touch,  succeed  best  in  this  delicate  manipulation. 
There  are  some  large  establishments  in  Belgium ;  oue  in  Brussels 
having  750  power  looms,  and  nearly  twice  that  number  of  hand 
looms,  and  employing  4000  workers,  and  producing  over 
11,000,000  yards  of  Linen  annually. 

The  Linens  shown  in  Holland  are  of  poor  quality. 

Prussia  and  the  German  States  are  large  exhibitors.  The 
region  around  Bielefeldt  has  from  time  immemorial  been  cele- 
brated for  its  fine  plain  Linens,  and  it  still  retains  its  well 
merited  reputation.  In  addition  to  many  old  established  hand 
spinning  and  hand  loom  weaving  concerns,  there  have  recently 
been  erected  eight  or  ten  large  Flax  Spinning  Mills,  on  the 
model  of  those  in  the  United  Kingdom,  averaging  20,000 
spindles  each,  and  many  of  them  have  large  Power  Loom 
Factories  attached.  Osnaburg  still  manufactures  the  fabric  of 
that  name,  and  Hanover  makes  almost  every  description  of 
Linens  from  fine  shirting  to  common  hessians. 


40  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

Saxony,  the  classic  land  of  Damasks,  has  a  very  creditable 
show  of  these  goods,  and  also  drills,  handkerchiefs,  and  many 
plain  power-loom  fabrics.  Specimens  of  the  products  of  the 
"  Kramsta,"  one  of  the  largest  houses  in  Germany,  if  not  in  the 
world ;  and  also  of  the  King  of  Prussia's  fine  model  Flax  Mill, 
are  exhibited.  The  former  concern  had  only  17,000  spindles 
on  Flax,  and  500  power-looms  on  Linen  goods,  but,  including 
their  Cotton  and  Lioen  manufactures,  they  give  employment  to 
10,000  persons,  and  buy  yearly  420,000  bundles  of  English 
yarn.  At  the  latter  work  4,000  persons  are  employed,  the  fabrics 
made  being  drills,  diapers,  and  family  Linens.  Prussian  Silesia 
has  long  had,  and  still  has,  a  high  reputation  for  her  Linens. 

The  Linens  of  Austrian  Silesia  bear  so  great  a  resem- 
blance to  those  of  Prussian  Silesia  as  clearly  to  point  to 
the  common  origin  of  the  manufactures  on  both  sides  of  the 
mountains.  The  quantity  of  Austrian  Linen  shown  is  not 
extensive,  but  some  of  the  specimens  from  Silesia,  Moravia, 
and  other  districts,  are  very  good  indeed.  Since  the  recent 
war  in  these  countries,  many  new  mills  have  been  or  are  in 
course  of  erection.  Wirtemberg  also  exhibits  some  light 
Linens  of  more  than  ordinary  merit.  Switzerland  shows  few 
Linens  worthy  of  note.  Spain,  by  poor  samples  of  manufac- 
ture, shows  the  effect  of  a  long-continued  system  of  protection. 
Portugal  has  only  some  of  the  very  coarsest  towelling,  hessians, 
sailcloth,  &c.  to  exhibit.  Italy  has  a  good  display  of  em- 
broidered towels,  but  with  this  exception  she  produces  little  to 
entitle  her  to  retain  the  high  rank  her  Linen  manufactures 
formerly  held.  Sweden  shows  sailcloth  that  might  have  come 
from  Dundee,  but  her  damasks  and  plain  Linens  appear  as  if 
they  had  been  made  a  century  ago.  The  primitive  appearance 
of  the  Turkish  Linens  shown  are  their  principal  merit.  Russia 
is  advancing.  She  employs  good  materials,  and  some  of  the 
samples  of  yarn  and  cloth  are  excellent.  The  native  manu- 
factures in  white  shirting,  hessians,  &c.  are  interesting ;  and 
the  various  fabrics  used  in  their  naval  and  military  services, 
exhibited  by  the  Russian  Government,  are  of  good  quality,  and 
very  suitable  for  the  purposes  intended. 

The  United  States  do  not  even  put  in  an  appearance.  They 
are  too  intelligent,  says  Mr  Stevelly,  not  to  feel  that,  even  with 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE.  41 

their  natural  advantages  and  Saxon  industry,  their  protective 
system  prevents  their  competing  on  an  equal  footing  with 
European  nations,  and  they  are  too  proud  to  figure  by  the  side 
of  Spain  or  Italy. 

Belfast  has  nobly  sustained  the  reputation  of  the  British  Em- 
pire, her  unrivalled  exhibition  of  Linens  embracing  every  article 
which  can  be  made  from  Flax,  from  nail-bags  made  of  Scutchers 
Tow  to  the  finest  Linens  and  Damasks,  and  each  unsurpassed. 

The  extraordinary  advance  of  this  industry,  and  the  enormous 
importance  which  it  has  now  acquired,  may  be  gathered  from 
the  following  figures  : — In  Belfast  and  within  a  radius  of  seven 
miles,  the  value  of  the  Spinning  Mills,  including  buildings, 
'Steam  engines,  and  machinery,  is  estimated  at  £2,700,000,  and 
the  Power-looms  at  £300,000.  The  imports  of  Flax-seed, 
Flax,  Tow,  Linen  Yarn,  and  Thread,  to  this  district  amounted 
for  the  year  1866  to  £2,117,500 ;  and  the  exports  for  the  same 
period  to  £7,150,000.— Extracted  from  the  Supplement  to  the 
Belfast  Linen  Trade  Circular,  No.  807,  dated  22d  October, 
1867. 

In  an  article  on  Flax  cultivation  in  the  Northern  Whig  ot 
24th  August,  1867,  it  is  said  that  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Sixth,  the  Bishop  of  Dromore  held  an  annual  exhibition  for  the 
.display  of  the  finest  parcels  of  Flax,  and  the  best  "  bunches" 
of  yarn.  Many  prizes  were  distributed,  and  eager  was  the 
competition  between  the  farmers  and  spinners  on  these  festive 
occasions.  Lord  Strafford  did  much  to  extend  the  culture  oi 
Flax  during  his  administration  of  affairs  in  that  country.  In 
a  letter,  dated  25th  July,  1636,  he  says—"  The  Irish  earth  is 
apte  for  bearying  Flax,  and  I  have,  therefore,  sente  to  Hollaynde 
to  procure  seede,  that  being  better  than  the  sorte  we  have.  This 
year  I  have  sowne  a  thousande  poundes  weight  of  this  seede/' 
Pretty  accurate  accounts  are  kept  of  the  breadth  of  the  land 
under  Flax  in  Ireland  during  the  eighteenth  century,  and  from 
the  data  given,  it  would  appear  that  the  area  rarely  exceeded 
50,000  acres,  plantation  measure,  and  was  often  only  about 
half  that  extent.  In  1809  Ulster  had  nearly  23,000  acres 
sown,  and  the  other  provinces  only  about  12,000  acres  so 
occupied. 

A  very  interesting  and  for  a  time  a  very  successful  experi- 

D 


42  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TKADE. 

ment  was  made  to  introduce  the  Linen  manufacture  into  the 
south  of  Ireland  by  Sir  Richard  Cox,  Bart.,  in  the  middle  of  last 
century.  An  account  of  this  patriotic  experiment  was  given 
in  a  letter  from  Sir  Richard  to  Thomas  Prior,  Esq.,  "  showing 
from  Experience  a  sure  method  to  establish  the  Linen  manu- 
facture, and  the  Beneficial  Effects  it  will  immediately  produce." 
Dublin :  Printed  for  Peter  Wilson  in  Dame  Street,  1752. 

Sir  Richard's  grandfather,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  undertook  to  fix  an  English  colony,  and  to  erect  a  seat 
for  his  family  in  the  parish  of  Fanlobbus,  near  the  source  of  the 
river  Bandon,  in  Cork.  When  Sir  Richard  succeeded  to  the 
property  in  1733  little  progress  had  been  made  by  the  new 
colony,  and  his  account  of  the  condition  and  habits  of  the  people 
might  have  been  written  at  the  present  time,  so  truly  does  it 
describe  what  now  exists.  At  first  Sir  Richard  encouraged 
horse-racing,  but  this  made  bad  worse,  and  in  a  happy  moment 
he  was  led  to  think  of  making  his  people  industrious  by  starting 
a  manufacture  among  them.  At  first  he  thought  of  the 
Woollen  manufacture,  but  various  considerations,  detailed  in 
the  letter,  induced  him  to  try  Linen  instead. 

In  1735  Sir  Richard  commenced  by  growing  Flax,  he  then 
instructed  the  people  to  spin  it,  and  afterwards  to  weave  the 
yarn  into  Linen.  At  first  he  was  the  manufacturer  himself,  but 
afterwards  he  thought  it  better  to  get  the  people  to  manufac- 
ture on  their  own  account,  and  with  this  view  offered  premiums 
of  various  kinds  to  encourage  them  in  the  work.  The  result 
was  very  gratifying.  In  1746  the  quantity  manufactured  was 
11,174  yards  of  Linen,  value  £676  16s  2d,  and  by  1750,  the 
last  year  for  which  the  record  of  the  experiment  is  given  in  the 
pamphlet,  the  quantity  had  been  increased  to  26,841  yards  of 
the  value  of  £1730  18s  8d. 

These  figures  may  appear  small  to  those  who  are  accustomed 
to  the  large  production  of  Linens  in  modern  days,  but,  looking 
to  the  time,  and  the  place,  and  the  circumstances  in  which  the 
experiment  was  tried,  they  represent  great  and  noble  and 
gratifying  results.  The  effect  of  this  experiment  upon  the 
habits  of  the  people  was  most  wonderful.  The  beggar  was 
changed  into  the  industrious  artizan,  the  morals  of  the  people 
were  greatly  improved,  and,  instead  of  squalor  and  wretchedness, 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TRADE.  43 

comfort  and  content  then  reigned  throughout  the  district ; 
i  n< iced,  the  transformation  was  complete,  and  in  every  respect 
creditable  to  Sir  Richard  and  to  his  people. 

This  letter  might  with  great  propriety  be  reprinted  at  the  present 
time,  when  attempts  are  being  made  to  ameliorate  the  condition 
»i  1 1 ic  people  in  the  south  and  west  of  Ireland,  by  introducing 
manufactures  among  them,  and  I  commend  it  to  the  careful 
consideration  of  all  who  have  the  welfare  of  that  country 
seriously  at  heart.  What  was  done  by  a  good  landlord  in 
1737  might  be  done  again  in  1867,  and  experiments  of  a 
similar  class,  but  suited  to  the  altered  circumstances  of  the 
country,  might,  with  great  propriety,  and  with  every  prospect 
of  success,  be  once  more  tried. 


NOTK.— The  Statement  of  Imports  into  and  Exports  from  France,  given  in 
pages  30  and  31,  are  taken  from  the  Linen  Trade  Circular  of  Lille. 


44  SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  LINEN  TBADE. 


ERRATA. 

Page. 

11— Line  17— For  this  read  these. 

12       „    22— For  10,010  read  10,000. 

48       ,,    38— For  eud  read  end. 

65       „    39— For  loose  read  lose. 

85— Summation  of  arrivals  1844— For  8,324  read  28,324. 

88— Line  16— For  baled  cuttings  read  bales  cutting". 

92       „    29— For  differrent  read  different. 
125       „    19— For  inhabtants  read  inhabitants. 
134       ,,    27 — For  covering  read  coverings. 
160       „    39— After  cloth  insert  by. 

163  „    11— After  it  insert  at. 

16  *  „  39— For  a  stringent  read  astringent. 

164  „  89— For  Lincere  read  Sincere. 

165  „      1 — For  Lincerus  read  Sincerus. 
Ifi5  ,,      2— For  Line  Cera  read  Sine  Cera. 

180— Title,  chap,  iv— read  Carthagenian  and  Babylonian  Linen. 

182— Line  35— After  have  insert  been. 

204      „     6— For  holders  read  heddles. 

219       „    18— For  skillful  read  skilf uL 

262       „      5— For  after  read  afterwards. 

262       „    11 — For  previous  read  previously. 

314       „    32— For  Belgium  read  Belgian. 

317       „    28- For  sets  read  set. 

344      „      S—For  Linens  read  Linen. 

353       „    10— After  as  insert  the. 

429       „    26— After  success,  paragraph  in  page  430,  beginning  with  "In  1696, 

should  have  been  inserted. 
431       „    57— For  in  read  by. 
433       „      7— After  of  insert  the. 
440       „    27— After  Journal  insert  1863. 
442       „    24— For  1846  read  1746. 
462       „    15— For  everything  read  every  tima 
477       „    14— Year  1748  read  £54,452  Is  6dJ. 
477— For  average  price  11  read  11  4-12— Do.,  do.,  9r  read  9  7-12. 
480— Average  price  728— For  11  read  11  4-12. 
550- Line  22— For  1,4'  0  read  14,000. 
582       „      5— For  1727  read  1707. 
601       ,,    26—  For  tons  read  tuns. 
004       ,,    19 — For  yarns  read  yards. 
606       „    35— For  to  read  by. 
617       „    29-For  1816  read  1826. 
621       ,,    29 — For  or  read  and. 
631       ,,    25 — After  total  insert  annual 

639  „    15— For  yd.  read  sp.,  and  line  24,  after  Osnaburgs,  insert  yd. 

640  „     22— After  10  to  20  Ib.  do.,  do.  insert  lb.« 

641  , ,    20— After  6  Ib.  shorts  do  insert  Ib. 
652  and  653— Line  42— For  Ib.  each  read  oz. 

670— Underneath  exports  insert  Great  Britain  over  first  column,  and  Ireland. 

over  second  column. 
673— Line  13— For  and  Flax  read  &c. 
689       ft      g — For  automatic  read  automatic. 
691       „      8— For  Kendrews  read  Kendrew. 

693  „    18— For  overcomes  read  overcome. 

694  „      9— After  Dundee  insert  vide  page  690. 

695  „    33— For  placing  read  passing. 
716       ,,    12 — For  are  read  is. 

721        ,    12— Delete  which. 


THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


SECTION  I. 

THE  RAW   MATERIAL 


THE  Linen  Manufacture  is  of  undoubted  antiquity.  Portions 
of  Linen  are  still  in  existence  which  were  fabricated  more  than 
four  thousand  years  ago.  In  the  dawn  of  civilization  the  cul- 
tivating,  spinning,  and  weaving  of  Flax  occupied  the  anxious 
minds  and  employed  the  active  hands  of  many  of  the  world's 
inhabitants.  The  product  of  this  celebrated  plant  finds  a  place 
in  the  early  pages  of  the  Sacred  record,  the  oldest  and  most 
authentic  history  extant.  The  Father  of  Historians  speaks  with 
admiration  of  the  wonderful  productions  of  the  Egyptian  loom, 
and  the  spindle  and  distaff  were  not  unworthy  of  Homeric  lays. 
Since  the  days  when  the  children  of  the  Nile  first  learned  to 
spin  and  weave  the  world  renowned  Linen  of  Egypt,  many  re- 
volutions and  mighty  changes  have  happened  on  the  earth's 
surface.  Men  have  risen  from  obscurity  to  greatness,  have  ex- 
changed the  shepherd's  crook  for  the  kingly  sceptre,  have  graced 
a  throne,  and  died.  Monarchs  who  marched  with  trium- 
phant legions  through  subdued  kingdoms,  and  wept  because 
they  had  no  more  world's  to  conquer,  had  at  last  to  yield  to  a 
greater  conqueror,  and  go  down  to  the  grave,  leaving  only  a 
name  and  fame  behind.  Dynasties,  which  for  ages  dazzled  the 
world  with  their  prowess  and  glory,  at  last  waned  and  disap- 
peared for  ever.  Mighty  nations  have  been  born,  attained 
manhood,  lived  to  a  good  old  age,  passed  away,  and  been  forgot- 

A 


2 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


ten.  Not  so  the  manufacture  of  Linen.  It  has  outlived  the  reign 
of  kings,  it  has  survived  the  fall  of  nations,  and  while  warriors 
have  come  and  gone,  this  useful  art,  this  gentle  handmaid 
of  industry  and  skill  remains  with  us  still. 

In  the  seat  of  its  birth,  or  its  early  childhood,  it  attained  $ 
ripe  maturity.  Sometimes  its  progress  was  prosperous,  but  it 
also  had  its  seasons  of  adversity  and  distress.  At  one  time 
the  favoured  of  kings  and  priests,  at  another  the  object  of 
their  direst  hate.  Now  sending  forth  vigorous  shoots  to  bud 
and  blossom  in  other  lands,  and  anon  lopped  of  its  branches 
with  little  left  but  a  lifeless  trunk.  Its  history  is  an  eventful 
one,  and  pregnant  with  instruction. 

Unfortunately  the  peaceful  arts  and  sciences  offer  few  striking 
incidents  to  attract  the  notice  of  historians,  and  while  wars  and 
rumours  of  wars,  strife  and  carnage,  are  pompously  recorded, 
little  is  said  of  aught  that  makes  life  valuable.  Manufactures, 
trade,  and  commerce,  are  only  mentioned  incidentally  by  ancient 
authors,  and  few  of  them  give  an  intelligible  account  of  this 
important  branch  of  manufacture.  Detached  sentences  or  short 
paragraphs  on  the  subject  are  here  and  there  to  be  found,  and  little 
more.  It  is  only  by  collecting  and  arranging  these  that  information 
is  elucidated,  as  one  passage  throws  light  on  another,  and  from  the 
whole  some  notion  of  the  trade  in  the  various  countries  is  obtained. 

Even  in  mediaeval  times  there  are  few  data  left  to  form  a  con- 
nected history  of  the  Linen  trade,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  only 
by  adopting  a  similar  course  that  much  information  can  be  got. 
This  mode  will  generally  be  adopted  throughout  the  volume. 
Sometimes  the  ideas,  and  at  other  times  the  words,  of  the  vari- 
ous authorities,  will  be  given,  without  note  or  comment  where 
they  appear  to  be  sufficiently  plain  of  themselves.  Where  that 
is  not  the  case,  they  will  be,  as  far  as  possible,  explained  and 
made  intelligible. 

It  is  proposed  that  each  country  and  each  subject  shall,  as 
far  as  practicable,  be  treated  of  in  distinct  chapters  ;  but  from 
the  intimate  connection  between  many  of  them  it  will  not  be 
possible  to  keep  them  from  occasionally  running  into  and  trench- 
ing upon  each  other  ^Repetitions  will,  however,  be  introduced 
as  seldom  as  is  consistent  with  the  proper  elucidation  of  the 
subject. 


1  I. AX   CL'LTl  J 

1  ii  an  account  of  the  Linen  trade  it  appears  proper  to  begin  at 
the  beginning,  and  with  that  view  the  culture  and  preparation  of 
the  various  fibres  employed  demand  the  first  place.  In  every 
branch  of  manufacture,  the  raw  material  is  of  primary  import- 
ance, as  it  is  the  foundation  of  the  completed  fabric — the 
superstructure  upon  which  the  whole  process  rests.  Flax  holds 
the  first  rank  in  the  trade ;  indeed  to  its  product  is  the  term 
Linen  alone  properly  applicable,  and  to  it  accordingly  is  the 
priority  given. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FLAX    CULTURE. 

THE  beasts  of  the  field  and  the  fowls  of  the  air  in  a  state  of 
nature  require  no  artificial  covering.  The  great  Creator  has 
clothed  each  with  a  natural  dress,  beautifully  adapted  to  the 
nature  ol  the  animal,  and  to  the  life  it  was  intended  to  lead. 
Hair,  fur,  scales,  feathers,  or  other  covering,  is  provided,  suitable 
to  the  clime  and  element  in  which  the  animal  is  placed,  whether 
that  be  the  arctic  regions  or  the  torrid  zone. 

Man  has  no  such  natural  covering,  but  GOD,  in  His  great 
goodness,  has  endowed  him  with  a  mind  to  invent,  and  furnished 
him  with  hands  to  prepare,  artificial  clothing  to  protect  his  body 
alike  from  the  cold  of  winter,  and  the  heat  of  the  summer  sun. 
Nature  abounds  with  substances  suitable  for  such  a  purpose,  and 
she  has  placed  them  within  the  easy  reach  of  man.  For  cold 
climates  warm  clothing  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  it  is 
abundantly  provided  from  the  fleece  of  the  flock.  Warmer 
regions  require  a  cooler  material,  and  it  is  liberally  supplied  by 
the  plants  of  the  field. 

The  fibrous  or  stringy  texture  is  very  prevalent  in  many  vege- 

A  2 


*  THE  RAW  MATERIAL 

table  substances.  In  some  cases  it  is  found  in  the  bark  and 
wood  of  trees,  in  others  in  the  stalks  of  green  or  herbaceous 
plants,  and  the  leaves  both  of  plants  and  trees  abound  with  it. 
In  all  such  plants  and  leaves  the  fibres  are  held  or  cemented 
together  by  a  glutinous,  mucilaginous,  and  azotized  compound, 
which  must  be  removed  before  the  fibrous  parts  can  be  made 
practically  useful.  Those  plants,  the  fibrous  parts  of  which  are 
most  easily  freed  from  this  extraneous  matter,  and  the  fibres  of 
which,  when  so  freed,  are  strongest  and  most  flexible,  are  natu- 
rally the  most  valuable.  Of  all  the  plants  with  which  civilized 
nations  are  acquainted,  the  one  combining  these  properties  in  the 
highest  degree  is  Flax.  Early  in  the  world's  history  this  valu- 
able plant  was  known  to  man,  and  since  then  he  has  not  failed 
to  apply  it  to  his  own  use  as  an  article  of  clothing,  and  for  other 
and  kindred  purposes.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  has  added 
much  to  his  comfort,  and  that  the  facility  for  changing  body 
linen  has  greatly  conduced  both  to  health  and  longevity. 

Flaxy  (Ger.,  Flachs  ;  Du.,  Vlasch  ;  Rus.,  Len  ;  Fr.,  Lin  ; 
It.  and  Sp.,  Lino  ;  Lat.,  Linum),  belongs  to  the  Natural  Family 
of  Linaceas,  its  botanical  name  being  Linum  usitatissimum. 
Its  native  country  is  unknown,  but  it  has  been  cultivated  from 
the  earliest  ages  by  civilized  nations,  and  it  is  probably  a  native 
of  Oriental  regions,  from  which  it  has  travelled  westward  and 
northward  into  Europe. 

Flax  is  an  annual,  rising  on  a  single  stalk,  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  soil,  climate,  and  other  circumstances, 
to  the  height  of  from  twenty  to  forty  inches.  The  stem 
is  smooth,  simple,  and  erect,  of  an  elegant  green  colour,  and, 
when  at  its  full  height,  it  is  crowned  with  a  number  of  small, 
bright,  blue  flowers,  of  very  delicate  texture,  and  beautifully 
formed.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  sessile,  linear-lanceolate,  and 
smooth,  and  the  flowers  are  arranged  in  a  corymbose  panicle. 
The  sepals,  or  green  outer  leaflets  of  the  flower,  are  five  in  num- 
ber, ovate  acute,  slightly  ciliated,  and  nearly  equal  to  the  capsule 
in  length.  The  five  petals  are  obscurely  crenate,  comparatively 
large,  and  deciduous.  The  stamens  are  alternate  with  the 
petals,  and  have  their  filaments  united  together  near  their  base 
into  a  sort  of  ring.  The  ovary  or  young  seed  vessel  is  divided 
into  five  cells,  surmounted  by  five  stigmata,  and  the  capsnle  or 


i  i..\\   01  LT1  i IK.  5 

bull  is  roundish,  but  rather  pointed  at  the  apex,  divided  into 
five  cells,  each  subdivided  into  two,  thus  forming  ten  divisions, 
each  of  which  contains  one  seed.  The  seeds  are  of  an  oval 
shape,  plump,  smooth,  and  shining,  generally  brown  externally 
but  white  internally,  the  seed  coat  mucilaginous,  and  the 
krnial  oily  and  farinaceous.  The  stem  consists  of  a  pith  and 
woody  part,  with  the  layer  of  bast  fibres,  covered  with  cut 
on  the  outside.  When  carefully  cultivated  for  the  fibre,  there 
are  only  two  or  three  seed  vessels  to  each  stalk,  and  few  or  no 
branches,  but  any  there  are  spring  from  near  the  top  of  the 
item* 

Shortly  after  flowering  the  appearance  of  tho  plant  becomes 
changed,'  and  the  handsome  flowers  give  place  to  the  small 
rough-cased  globules  or  bolls,  filled  with  seed.  When  Flax  is 
in  bloom  it  is  highly  ornamental,  and  nothing  in  nature  can  be 
more  beautiful  than  the  appearance  of  a  field  of  it,  undulating 
in  long  waves  under  the  pressure  of  a  gentle  breeze.  Certainly 
no  crop  which  the  farmer  can  produce  is  more  graceful  during 
the'  stages  of  its  growth  than  Flax,  nor  will  the  other  products 
of  his  fields  at  all  compare  with  it  in  beauty. 

Besides  other  species  of  the  same  genus,  there  are  some 
varieties  of  the  true  Flax  plant  known,  but  they  are  not  so 
numerous  as  is  the  case  with  other  long  cultivated  plants.  Dr 
Lindley  describes  two  different  forms.  The  Linum  humile  or 
crepitans,  a  plant  shorter  and  more  inclined  to  branch,  and 
with  larger  capsules  (which  burst  with  considerable  elasticity 
when  ripe)  than  the  true  winter  flax  already  described,  and  the 
capsules  of  which  firmly  retain  their  seeds.  The  Indian  plant, 
(ulk-d  Ulseew  Tesee,  has  acquired  certain  characters  from  the 
peculiarities  of  soil,  of  climate,  and  of  culture.  It  is  always 
short,  rising  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  height,  much 
branched,  and  loaded  with  bolls  which  are  filled  with  large 
plump  seed.  Until  within  the  last  few  years  the  plant  was  cul- 
tivated solely  for  its  seed  throughout  India,  the  fibrous  part 
being  considered  of  no  value  in  that  country.  Probably  by  thick 
sowing  and  careful  cultivation  the  plant  might  change  its  habit, 
and  become  assimilated  to  the  common  European  variety. 

Although  Flax  requires  careful  nurture  to  produce  it  of  » 
superior  quality,  it  is  not  difficult  to  rear,  and  it  is  capable  of 


D  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

being  grown  throughout  a  great  range  of  latitude.  No  doubt 
it  thrives  best  in  a  temperate  climate,  but  it  is  also  grown  ex- 
tensively and  profitably  in  the  northern  districts  of  Russia,  and 
in  the  sunny  plains  of  Egypt  and  of  India.  By  careful  cultiva- 
tion it  will  flourish  in  every  country,  and  its  products  are  sought 
for  and  valued  by  every  race.  Its  culture  would  therefore 
appear  to  be  as  universal  as  its  utility. 

The  climate  most  suitable  for  the  growth  of  the  plant  is  one 
having  a  regular  supply  of  genial  moisture  in  spring,  without  an 
excess  of  wet  in  autumn,  and  where  the  temperature  is  pretty 
equable  throughout  the  season.  A  severe  drought,  with  a  hot 
sun,  after  the  plant  has  risen  two  or  three  inches  above  the 
ground,  is  very  detrimental  to  it.  The  delicate  leaves  are  then 
unable  to  exclude  the  scorching  rays  from  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  and  as  the  roots  have  not  had  time  to  penetrate  sufficiently 
deep  to  secure  a  supply  of  moisture,  the  plant  droops,  turns  a 
whitish  yellow,  and,  if  the  drought  continues  long,  it  dies.  In 
such  a  case  Flax  may  be  beneficially  watered,  and  a  regular 
water  cart  will  go  over  an  acre  a-day.  Long  continued  droughts 
are  therefore  a  great  enemy  to  the  Flax  grower,  and  as  these  are 
less  frequent  in  the  British  Islands  than  on  the  Continent,  they 
would  appear  to  be  the  more  suitable  places  for  its  cultivation. 
When  the  plant  thoroughly  covers  the  ground  dry  weather  does 
little  injury ;  but  occasional  gentle  showers  are  very  requisite  to 
stimulate  its  growth,  from  the  germinating  of  the  seed  until  the 
Flax  attains  maturity.  Alternate  showers  and  sunshine  make 
the  most  vigorous  plant,  and  produce  both  quantity  and  quality 
of  fibre. 

Short  hot  summers  induce  too  rapid  a  growth,  and,  although 
the  quantity  of  fibre  produced  is  large,  the  quality  is  never  fine. 
In  Egypt,  though  the  plant  attains  great  luxuriousness  in  the  rich 
alluvial  soil  of  the  Nile,  and  great  efforts  have  of  late  been  made 
to  improve  its  culture  and  preparation,  yet  the  fibre  does  not 
attain  the  degree  of  fineness  and  softness  requisite  for  spinning 
into  very  small  sizes  of  yarn.  The  hot  summers  of  Russia  and 
Prussia  are  also  inimical  to  fineness  of  fibre,  and  the  bulk  of  the 
Flax  grown  in  these  countries  is  dry  and  brittle,  and  wants  that 
•elasticity,  pliancy,  and  oiliness  which  are  found  in  the  produce  of 
more  temperate  countries.  There  is,  however,  less  care  bestowed 


FLAX  CULTURE.  7 

upon  the  cultivation  of  Flax  in  these  countries  than  in  Belgium 
ur  Ireland,  and  perhaps  this,  as  well  as  the  hotter  climate,  may 
tend  to  produce  a  coarser  fibre. 

The  Flax  plant  is  not  valuable  for  its  fibre  alone,  its  seed  also 
being  an  article  of  great  importance.  In  many  districts,  and 
even  in  whole  countries,  it  is  only  grown  for  its  seed,  and  the 
fibre  is  considered  so  worthless  that  it  is  thrown  aside  and  lost. 
The  kernel  or  almond  of  the  seed  contains  much  fixed  oil,  and 
Hi  (  xtensively  crushed  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  it.  The 
oily  matter  expressed  from  the  seed  is  called  linseed  oil,  and  is 
an  article  of  considerable  commercial  importance.  The  refuse 
is  valuable  for  feeding  cattle,  and  it  is  used  very  extensively  for 
that  purpose.  It  is  generally  compressed  into  hard  flat  pieces, 
and  sold  as  linseed  cake.  The  seeds,  or  even  the  cake,  ground 
into  meal,  is  a  favourite  emollient  with  medical  men,  and  has 
often  proved  a  great  relief  to  suffering  humanity  ;  but  for  this 
purpose  the  meal  of  the  ground  seed  is  best,  as  it  contains  valu- 
able properties  which  the  cake  wants. 

The  yield  of  oil  from  a  bushel  of  East  Indian  seed  is  from 
14$  Ib.  to  16  Ib. ;  of  Egyptian,  15  Ib. ;  of  Sicilian  from  14J  Ib. 
to  15J  Ib.  ;  of  Russian,  from  11  Ib,  to  13  Ib.  ;  and  of  Scotch, 
English,  or  Irish,  from  10J  Ib.  to  12  Ib.  Sometimes  the  oil  is  cold 
drawn,  but  it  is  usually  expressed  after  the  seeds  have  been 
subjected  to  a  heat  of  200  degrees.  It  has  the  property  of 
drying  into  a  hard  transparent  varnish,  and  this  peculiarity  is 
increased  by  boiling  the  oil,  either  alone  or  with  some  of  the 
preparations  of  lead. 

In  India,  as  already  mentioned,  and  in  some  parts  of  North 
America  the  Flax  plant  is  cultivated  almost  entirely  for  its 
valuable  seed.  Very  large  quantities  of  Flax  seed,  linseed, 
and  of  oilseed  cake,  are  imported  into  Great  Britain.  The 
crushing  seed  was  principally  imported  from  Kussia,  but  India 
now  furnishes  a  very  considerable  quantity.  Of  2,052,258 
bushels  of  linseed  imported  in  1829,  1,505,861  were  from 
Russia,  79,611  from  Prussia,  33,123  from  the  Netherlands, 
199,607  from  Italy,  156,373  from  Egypt,  68,710  from  the 
United  States,  &c.  In  1833  the  quantity  imported  was 
2,229,323  bushels.  In  1834  it  was  2,230,502  bushels.  In 
1860  and  1861  the  importation  was  as  follows: — 


THE  KAW  MATERIAL. 


Russia, 
Holland, 
Other  parts, 


Flax  Seedy  chiefly  for  Sowing. 

I860.  1861. 

Qrs.  25,045     £67,135               Qrs.  11,419      £30,831 

„     10,230       25,890                „  9,746        26,313 

„          284            734                „  2,995 


Qrs.  35,549     £93,759  Qrs.  24,160     £65,230 

Linseed,  chiefly  for  Crushing. 


Russia,  .        .       Qrs. 
Prussia,         .          „ 
Hamburg,      .         „ 
Belgium, 
Two  Sicilies, 
Egypt,  . 

631,452 
71,038 
7,269 

£1,575,150              Qr 
162,191 

17,462 

s.  502,010 
49,930 
,        3,122 
3,947 
11,969 
10,967 
3,300 
544,256 
6,609 

£1,305,201 
114,529 
7,289 
9,793 
32,075 
26,398 
8,745 
1,520,376 
18,419 

1,705 
4,419 

5,168 
10,863 
15,888 
1,493,039 
18,418 

British  S,  Africa,  „ 
British  E  Indies,  „ 
Other  Parts,           ,, 

5,538 
565,710 
7,933 

Qrs.  1,295,064    £3,298,179  Qrs.  1,136,110  £3,042,825 

Oil  from  Seed,  chiefly  Linseed. 


Prussia,         .        Tuns  2289 

£98,288 

Tuns  1715 

£72,330 

Hamburg,      .          „      1620 

68,716 

„     1440 

62,107 

Holland,        .          „      1706 

73,292 

„      1672 

74,262 

Beigium,       .          „      1043 

43,994 

„       695 

27,617 

France,          .          „      3810 

156,451 

„     1709 

58,834 

Portugal,       .          „        818 

33,819 

420 

18,455 

British  E.  Indies,     „      1136 

47,591 

„       783 

29,420 

Other  Parts,            „        573 

24,023 

„       439 

17,495 

Tuns  12,995       £546,174 
Oil  Seed  Cake,  chiefly  Linseed. 


Tuns  8873      £360,520 
Linseed  Oil  Seed  Cake. 


Russia,       .        Tuns  2,499 

£21,533 

Tuns  4,027 

£33,557 

„    1,528 

12,675 

Denmark,    .            „      9,386 

78,315 

„    5,618 

46,398 

Prussia,        .            „    11,754 

96,540 

„    7,445 

61,040 

Hanover,     .            ,,     2,414 

20,330 

Hamburg,   .            „    10,878 

91,220 

„    2,161 

17,788 

Belgium,     .           ,,     8,536 

71,896 

France,        .            „   19,823 

165,667 

,,  22,332 

214,507 

Italy,           .            „        965 

7,800 

,,    1,673 

16,674 

Austria,       .            „        197 

1,574 

„       466 

4,263 

United  States,        „    37,303 

314,319 

„  32,367 

331,432 

British  N.America,,,       573 

4,793 

„       462 

4,960 

Other  Parts,            „     4,498 

36,853 

„    1,143 

10,103 

Tuns  108,826         £910,840 


Tuns  79,222      £753,397 


It  is  thus  seen  that  Flax  seed  is  imported  both  for  sowing  and 
for  crushing,  and  it  is  used  very  largely  for  both  purposes.     The 


FLAX  CULTUKK.  9 

two  valuable  parts  of  the  Flax  plant  are  thus  its  fibre  and 
its  seed.  Both  can  be  produced  at  once  from  the  same  crop, 
but  great  care  is  required  that  the  one  be  not  sacrificed  to  the 
other.  To  produce  either  in  perfection  the  crop  must  be  cul- 
tivated for  the  one  object  alone,  and  then  the  finest  fibre  or 
the  finest  seed  will  be  got.  When  sown  in  order  to  produce 
a  good  crop  of  seed,  it  must  be  put  into  the  ground  thinly, 
so  that  the  plant  may  grow  up  with  a  strong  and  full  stem, 
fit  to  support  the  seed  bolls,  and  bring  them  to  perfect 
maturity,  and  it  must  not  be  pulled  until  it  is  fully  ripe. 
When  sown  sparingly  the  seeds  produce  stronger  plants,  with 
great  branching  tops  loaded  with  the  seed  capsules,  but  the 
quality  of  the  Flax  is  generally  found  to  be  deteriorated, 
and  always  coarser  than  when  the  seed  is  sown  thick.  Where 
the  saving  of  the  seed  is  the  primary  object,  the  Flax  should  at 
once  be  tied  up  in  bundles  without  rippling,  and  piled  up  in 
long,  narrow  rows  thinly  put  together,  that  it  may  obtain  the 
full  benefit  both  of  sun  and  air.  When  dry,  after  probably 
a  week's  exposure,  the  bundles  should  be  put  up  into  ricks  in 
an  open  stackyard.  During  the  winter  the  seed  must  be 
carefully  taken  off,  and  if  so  it  is  then  highly  suitable  for 
sowing,  as  its  reproductive  powers  remain  unimpaired,  It 
is  also  very  suitable  for  crushing  when  so  prepared.  After 
the  removal  of  the  seed  the  Flax  must  be  re-stacked  until 
spring,  when  it  can  be  watered  and  grassed  in  the  usual 
.way.  By  this  mode  the  fibre  of  Flax  grown  in  Belgium 
and  some  other  districts  is  said  not  to  be  deteriorated.  In 
other  countries  where  this  system  has  been  tried  it  has  not 
been  found  so  beneficial,  as  the  fibre  has  been  undoubtedly 
impaired,  although  not  to  a  serious  extent. 

When  the  bolls  are  first  taken  off  the  Flax  they  are  rather 
soft  and  green,  and  must  be  dried  thoroughly  to  make  them 
keep.  If  to  be  used  for  feeding  purposes  they  may  be  at 
once  removed  to  a  kiln,  and  gently  dried  there.  For  feed- 
ing, the  chaff  is  a  very  useful  auxiliary,  and  may  be  left 
on,  as  it  contributes  a  good  deal  to  the  efficiency  of  the 
bolls.  If  the  bolls  are  destined  for  seed  or  for  crushing, 
they  should  be  dried  outside  on  sheets,  when  the  weather 
admits,  or  indoors  in  airy  lofts,  over  which  they  must  be 


10  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

thinly  spread  This  leaves  the  rich  juices  in  the  seed,  and  is 
therefore  the  best  system,  even  for  feeding,  as  the  seed  is  more 
nourishing  than  when  dried  on  a  kiln.  When  sufficiently  dry 
the  bolls  for  crushing  must  be  thrashed,  and  the  seeds  separated 
from  the  husks  and  carefully  preserved.  When  the  Flax  is 
wanted  principally  for  the  fibre  it  must  be  sown  as  thickly  as  can 
with  safety  be  done,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  long  thin 
stems,  and  thereby  gaining  a  fine  quality  of  fibre.  It  is  the 
fibrous  part  of  the  Flax  which  goes  to  form  linen,  and  in  view 
of  this  the  history  of  the  plant  will  now  be  detailed. 

The  success  of  the  Flax  crop  depends  much  on  the  seed 
employed ;  the  greatest  care  is  therefore  requisite  in  selecting  it, 
and  none  but  the  very  finest  quality  ought  to  be  used.  Dutch 
seed  is  in  the  highest  estimation  for  sowing,  because  it  not  only 
ripens  sooner  than  any  other  imported,  but  produces  larger  crops 
of  the  finest  quality  of  Flax.  The  produce  from  American  seed 
is  not  so  large  as  from  Dutch  seed,  but  the  Flax  is  good.  Kiga 
seed  is  perhaps  used  more  extensively  than  any  other  for  sowing, 
and,  when  of  the  finest  quality,  it  is  well  adapted  for  this  climate. 
It  ought  to  be  from  the  previous  year's  crop  only,  because  if 
older,  it,  to  a  great  extent,  loses  its  germinating  power,  and  is 
then  only  fit  for  crushing.  To  prevent  deception,  the  year  of  its 
growth  is  stamped  on  the  barrel  by  sworn  inspectors  called 
"  brackers."  The  first  cost  of  inferior  seed  is  less  than  of  the 
finest,  but  it  is  a  poor  saving  to  use  it,  as  it  will  prove  most 
disappointing  when  the  crop  is  reaped.  The  interchange  of, 
seeds  is  no  doubt  beneficial  for  Flax  as  well  as  for  other  crops, 
but  perhaps  too  much  importance  is  attached  to  foreign  seed. 
Excellent  crops  have  been  grown  in  Ireland  from  seed  saved 
from  the  Eussian,  and  perhaps  a  change  of  seed  every  second 
or  third  year  may  produce  as  good  crops  as  any  other  ;  the  inter- 
mediate years  being  sown  with  seed  saved  from  the  crop  of  the 
previous  year.  In  Norfolk  and  Essex  although  good  crops  have 
been  grown  year  after  year  from  seed  produced  in  the  country, 
there  is  no  doubt  that,  unless  the  seed  be  occasionally  changed, 
the  quality  of  the  fibre  will  degenerate.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  change  should  at  all  times  be  to  foreign,  as  home-grown  from 
a  different  district  of  the  country  will  do  quite  as  well,  but  an 
occasional  change  to  Dutch,  Belgian,  or  Riga  will  be  beneficial. 


i  i  A\  ci  I.TI:KB.  11 

Riga  seed  is  imported  in  barrels  containing  3£  bushels,  and  as 
the  seed  usually  contains  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  weeds 
it  ought  to  be  carefully  sifted  before  sowing.  Dutch  seed  comes 
in  old  wine  hogsheads,  containing  7  bushels  each,  and  is  seldom 
adulterated.  Although  Riga  seed  is  preferred  by  many,  Dutch 
seed  is  by  some  thought  preferable,  especially  for  heavy  soils  and 
in  sheltered  situations.  American  seed  is  not  generally  approved 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  but  it  has  done  well  in  India. 

In  the  north  of  Ireland  the  average  produce  of  a  statute  acre 
of  air-dried  Flax  straw,  with  bolls,  is  about  two  tons,  which  by 
the  rippling  machine  is  reduced  to  about  thirty  cwt,  and  after 
scutching  the  yield  in  dressed  fibre  is  from  four  to  five  cwt. 
The  linseed  produced  is  from  12  to  16  bushels.  Prof.  Hodges, 
Queen's  College,  Belfast,  had  a  quantity  of  Flax  air-dried,  which 
in  that  state  weighed  7770  Ibs. ;  after  passing  it  between  two  iron 
rollers  to  bruise  out  the  seed  there  was  of  Flax  straw  5824  Ibs.  or 
52  cwt.,  and  husks  and  refuse  1946  Ibs.  This  produced  910  Ibs,  of 
clean  seed.  The  straw  lost  in  steeping  13  cwt.,  and  the  39 
cwt.  of  steeped  straw  produced  6  cwt.  1  qr.  and  2  Ibs.,  or  702 
Ibs.  of  marketable  fibre,  or  rather  more  than  9  per  cent,  of 
the  gross  weight  of  dried  straw  with  the  bolls,  rather  more 
than  12  per  cent,  of  the  dried  straw  without  the  bolls,  and 
rather  more  than  16  per  cent,  of  the  dry  steeped  straw. 

Of  100  tons  of  air-dried  Flax  straw  treated  by  Schenck's 
process  the  yield  at  the  steeping  works  at  Cregagh  was — 

1.  By  Seeding—  33  tons  of  seeds  and  husks,  leaving  of  seeded  Flax,  67  tons. 

2.  By  Steeping— 67  tons  of  seeded  Flax  yielded  of  steeped  straw,  39. 50    „ 

3.  By  Scutching— 394  tons  of  steeped  straw  yielded  of  dressed  flax,  5.90    ,, 

And  of  tow  and  pluckiugs,        .         .        .        1.47    ,, 

An  experiment  on  ordinary  Flax  straw  taken  from  the  bulk  of 
the  stock  at  Messrs  Leadbetter's  works,  and  treated  by  Watt's 
process,  gave  the  following  results : —  Weight  of  straw  with  the 
seed  on  experimented  upon,  13  j  cwt. ;  after  removal  of  the  seed, 
which  on  being  cleaned  thoroughly  from  the  chaff  measured  3| 
imperial  bushels,  the  straw  was  reduced  in  weight  to  10  cwt.  1 
qr.  2  Ibs.  It  was  then  placed  in  the  vat,  and  subjected  to  the 
steaming  process  for  about  eleven  hours.  After  steeping,  wet 
rolling,  and  drying,  it  weighed  7  cwt.  0  qr.  11  lb.,  and  on  being 
scutched,  the  yield  was  187  Ibs.  of  Flax,  12  lb.  6±  oz.  of  fine 
tow.  and  35  lb.  3  oz.  of  coarse  scutching  tow.  The  yield  of 


12 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


fibre,  in  the  state  of  good  Flax,  was  therefore  at  the  rate  of  13  J 
Ibs.  from  the  cwt.  of  straw  with  seed  on  ;  18  Ib.  from  the  cwt. 
of  straw  without  the  seed  ;  and  26  J  Ib.  from  the  cwt.  of  steeped 
and  dried  straw. 

Having  selected  the  finest  seed,  which,  generally  speaking,  is 
of  a  bright  brownish  or  brilliant  golden  colour,  oily  to  the  feel, 
heavy  and  quite  fresh,  the  next  process  is  the  sowing  of  it. 

It  is  of  essential  importance  to  the  practical  agriculturist  to 
make  himself  acquainted  with  the  composition  of  the  plant  he  is 
to  cultivate,  and  the  soil  most  suitable  for  its  production.  With- 
out this  knowledge  he  must  necessarily  proceed  in  a  hap  hazard 
manner,  perhaps  as  his  father  may  have  done  before  him,  but 
without  any  degree  of  certainty  whether  the  result  will  be 
favourable  or  the  reverse.  Master  of  his  subject  he  proceeds 
on  well  defined  laws,  and  he  is  encouraged  to  look  for  as  success- 
ful a  return  a  sthe  variable  nature  of  the  climate  will  admit. 

The  chemical  composition  of  Flax,  according  to  Professor 
Hodges  of  Belfast,  is, 

Water,        ....  63.852  Dry. 

Organic  Matter,     ;  .  .  34.732  96.08 

Ash,  .  .  .  .  1.416  3.92 


100.000 


100.10 


And  of  the  stem  of  the  plant 


Water, 

Organic  Matter, 
Ash, 


56.64  Dry. 

41.97  96.89 

3.39  1.11 


100.00         100.00 


Ash  per  cent ,  dried  at  212  degrees  Fahr,  3.20.  One  hundred 
parts  of  Irish  Flax  straw  give  0.53  of  nitrogen,  and  the  cap- 
sules 1.26  per  cent.  The  ash  of  the  dry  straw  and  of  the 
capsules  contain :  — 


Potash, 

Soda, 

Chloride  of  Sodium 

Lime, 

Magnesia,     . 

Oxide  of  Iron, 

Sulphuric  Acid, 

Phosphoric  Acid, 

Carbonic  Acid, 

Silica, 


Straw. 
20.32 

Capsules. 
16.38 

2.07 

6.25 

9.27 

12.98 

19.88 

13.95 

4.05 

3.91 

2.83 

0.38 

7.13 

14.51 

10.24 

23.26 

10.72 

6.37 

12.80 

0.67 

99.31 


i  I.A\  .  ri/iruK.  13 

The  analysis  of  Sir  Robert  Kane  differs  a  little  from  the  above 
in  the  proportion  of  some  of  the  substances,  but  the  difference  is 
not  important. 

Mr  Wilson,  in  his  endeavours  to  ascertain  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  the  produce,  ami  also  of  tin-  tlMrilmtion  of  the  in- 
organic matter  in  Flax  straw,  confirms  Dr  Hodges'  experi- 
ments. The  Flax  employed  had  been  steeped  in  the  ordinary 
way,  and  was  found  to  contain  1.73  per  cent,  of  ash.  Of  the 
air-dried  straw,  4000  Ibs.  weight  was  taken,  which  produced — 


These  Product*  contained 

Of  dressed  fibre,  500  Ib.        In  the  dressed  flax,  4.48  Ib.  of  ash 
„     fine  Tow,      132  ,.          M  fine  Tow,      .        2.08 
,.     coarse  Tow,  192  „  „  coarse  Tow,          2.56        „ 

Of  fibre  in  all,         824  Ibs.        Or  in  the  whole  of 

the  fibre,         9-12  Ib.  of  inorganic  matter. 

So  that  of  69.20  Ibs.  of  ash  which  the  crop  had  withdrawn 
from  the  soil,  60.08  remained  in  the  straw,  or  useless  portion, 
while  only  9.12  were  carried  off  in  824  Ibs.  of  the  dressed  fibre 
and  tow. 

The  following  is  the  analysis  by  Sir  R.  Kane,  of  three  kinds 
of  Irish  soil,  and  one  of  Belgium,  which  some  members  of  the 
Royal  Flax  Improvement  Society  of  Ireland  considered  to  be 
highly  favourable  for  Flax  : — 

No.  1.  2.  3  Belgium. 

Silica  and  Silicious  sand,  73.72  69.41  64.93  92.78 

Oxide  of  Iron, 
Alumina, 

Phosphate  of  Iron, 
Carbonate  of  Lime, 
Magnesia  and  Alkalies,  with 

traces  of  Mur.  and  Sulp.  Acid,  032  0.25  045  0.12 

Organic  Matter,                .            .  4.86  6.67  9.41  2  74 

Water 7.57  1148  8-73  2.03 


5.51  5.29  5.64  0.66 

6.65  5.70  897  1. 11 

0.06  0.25  0.31  0.21 

1.09  0.53  1.67  0.35 


Total,  99.78  99.58         100.11          100.00 

As  the  organic  matter  in  these  soils  was  rich  in  nitrogen,  their 
fertility  is,  from  the  analysis,  easily  understood. 

The  following  analysis  of  celebrated  flax  soils  from  Russia, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Ireland  is  interesting: — 


14 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


RUSSIA. 

BELGIUM. 

HOLLAND. 

Per  cent,  of 

Average  of 
2  samples. 

Average  of 
2  samples. 

One 
sample. 

Silica,        . 

82.21 

83.93 

60.94 

Lime, 

00.45 

00.35 

00.36 

Alumina, 

6.93 

1.29 

5.66 

Iron, 

Traces. 

Traces. 

6.04 

IRELAND.  IRELAND. 

Average  of  2  Slob  land  of  Lough 

samples  L.derry  Foyle  recently  re- 

and  Armagh.  claimed  from  Sea. 

69.32  79.36 

2.36  1.19 

7.81  3.31 

00.45  7.49 


The  best  soil  for  Flax  is  a  nice  dry,  sandy  loam,  or  an  alluvial 
soil,  not  too  light,  but  of  medium  weight,  with  a  strong  sub- 
soil, but  not  of  a  clayey  nature.  With  care  a  good  crop  may  be 
got  off  other  soils,  although  they  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  the 
purpose ;  but  where  it  is  possible  to  sow  it  in  soil  of  one  of  the 
above  descriptions,  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  do  so. 
While  the  soil  ought  to  be  such  that  water  may  permeate,  and  the 
roots  spread  through  it  in  every  direction,  yet  it  ought  to  be 
able  to  retain  sufficient  moisture  to  benefit  the  plant,  and  not 
let  it  run  off  at  once,  as  some  open  soils  do.  The  treatment  of 
the  soil  depends  much  on  its  quality,  but  the  land  should  be 
thoroughly  drained,  much  damp  being  injurious  to  the  crop.  It 
should  also  be  completely  freed  from  weeds,  because  noxious 
plants  rising  with  the  Flax  will  seriously  check  its  perfect 
development.  The  great  object  of  the  farmer  in  sowing  Flax  is 
to  have  a  fine,  dry,  deep,  and  clean  bed  for  the  seed,  and  the 
skilful  agriculturist  will  know  how  this  may  be  best  attained. 

In  Belgium,  Flax  is  usually  sown  after  oats,  but  in  Ireland 
it  is  thought  best  to  sow  it  after  wheat,  and  it  grows  well 
after  lea.  Perhaps  the  best  rotation  is  the  following: — 1st 
year,  lea  ;  2d,  oats ;  3d,  potatoes  and  turnips  ;  4th,  wheat, 
one-half  sown  out  with  grass ;  5th  half  hay,  one -fourth  Flax,  and 
one-fourth  beans.  More  or  less  Flax  than  this  may  be 
safely  grown  at  the  discretion  of  the  farmer,  but  Flax  ought 
never  to  be  raised  on  the  same  soil  oftener  than  once  in 
ten  years.  If  sown  the  first  year  after  a  potato  crop,  the  Flax 
grows  too  rank  to  thrive,  and  besides  this,  the  farmer  loses  the 
intermediate  very  profitable  crop  of  wheat  without  having  any 
real  benefit  to  counterbalance  the  sacrifice.  When  sown  after 
wheat  in  the  manner  mentioned,  it  is  really  an  extra  crop,  grown 
without  manure,  and  is  in  no  way  an  exhaustive  or  severe  crop, 
but  quite  the  reverse.  If  grown  oftener  than  once  in  ten  years,  it 


FLAX    'I  I.M.'KK.  1.) 

is  no  doubt  a  severe  crop,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  this  should  be 
done.  In  poor  soils  not  fit  for  growing  wheat,  Flax  may  be 
sown  after  potatoes  with  advantage.  It  would  thus  appear  to 
be  a  great  mistake  in  proprietors  to  prohibit  the  cultivation  of 
Flax,  because  it  is  really  not  more  exhausting  when  properly 
managed,  and  not  too  frequently  grown  on  the  same  soil,  than 
the  other  crops  they  are  permitted  to  raise. 

In  light  soils  it  is  considered  best  to  plough  the  stubble  in 
February,  or  early  in  March,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  get  a  little  frost.  It 
should  be  well  harrowed  before  sowing  and  the  weeds  carefully  re- 
moved. The  ground  should  be  made  as  even  as  possible,  in  order 
to  insure  uniformity  of  length  in  the  stems  of  the  plant  when  at 
maturity.  Depth  of  tillage  in  Flax  cultivation  is  of  great  im- 
portance, because  in  sustaining  so  tall  a  stem,  and  providing  the 
ingredients  necessary  for  its  proper  growth,  the  small  but  nume- 
rous fibrous  roots  have  to  penetrate  deeply  in  search  of  the 
required  nourishment.  Should  the  downward  course  of  the 
roots  be  checked  from  any  cause,  the  vigour  of  the  plant  will 
be  much  impaired. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  up  and  down  the  rig,  imme- 
diately after  the  harrowing  in  the  end  of  March,  or  the 
beginning  of  April,  and  a  fine  seed  harrow  and  light  roller 
then  passed  over  the  field  to  cover  the  seed,  which  should  be 
about  an  inch  below  the  surface,  and  to  finish  the  ground. 
Sowing  at  this  early  season  is  recommended,  because  it  is  fol- 
lowed by  slow  and  steady  growth,  which  is  indispensable  for 
obtaining  a  fine  fibre ;  and  it  enables  the  crop  to  be  gathered  in 
before  the  regular  corn  harvest.  If  sown  later  in  the  season  vege- 
tation is  more  rapid,  and  the  fibre  grows  quicker,  and  has  not 
time  to  fine  and  mellow.  Much,  however,  depends  on  the 
country  and  on  the  district,  as  what  would  be  the  best  season 
for  sowing  in  one  place  may  not  be  so  in  another,  and  the  most 
suitable  time  will  be  best  known  by  intelligent  farmers  them- 
selves. Mr  Wilson  considers  that  even  autumn  sowing  might  be 
suitable  in  some  localities,  as  he  says  is  sometimes  done  in  Austria 
and  in  the  North  of  Europe,  where  the  snow  lies  too  long  on  the 
ground  to  admit  of  early  tillage  in  the  spring.  It  has  not  been 
the  custom  in  this  country  to  sow  Flax  seed  in  autumn,  and  it 
may  be  doubted  if  the  practice  would  be  advantageous.  In 


1  G  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

Ireland  the  best  time  for  sowing  is  said  to  be  from  20th 
April  to  10th  May,  but  a  few  days  earlier  in  sheltered  situa- 
tions. 

The  quantity  of  seed  usually  sown  upon  a  statute  acre  is  from 
two  to  two  and  a  half  bushels.  The  latter  quantity,  or  about 
130  Ibs.  of  clean  seed,  may  perhaps  be  the  most  profitable,  because 
the  greater  the  number  of  stems,  the  yield  of  fibre  will  be  in- 
creased in  proportion.  If  a  crop  of  seed  be  the  principal  object, 
then  six  pecks  an  acre  is  sufficient. 

In  medium  soils  the  wheat  stubble  should  be  ploughed  pretty 
deeply  in  autumn.  In  spring  it  should  be  cross  ploughed  and 
well  harrowed,  to  make  the  soil  free  from  lumps.  Should  the 
land  be  damp,  the  ridges  ought  to  be  made  high  in  the  centre, 
and  the  furrows  well  cleaned  out,  that  the  water  may  be  carried 
off  quickly  during  the  winter  months.  Heavy  soils  are  not  well 
adapted  for  a  Flax  crop  ;  but,  should  it  be  tried  on  such,  more 
frequent  harrowing  and  rolling  will  be  necessary  to  break  the 
clods,  pulverise  the  ground,  and  bring  it  to  the  required 
smoothness. 

In  Belgium  the  farms  generally  vary  from  eight  or  ten  to 
twenty  or  thirty  acres,  and  every  farmer  grows  Flax  sufficient  to 
keep  his  people  employed  when  not  at  work  on  the  land.  There 
the  cultivation  of  Flax  is  conducted  with  the  greatest  care,  the 
ground  being  well  ploughed,  rolled,  enriched  with  liquid  manure, 
and  harrowed.  The  seed  is  then  sown,  harrowed  in  with  a 
light  harrow,  the  surface  rolled,  and  the  fields  when  thus 
prepared,  display  much  neatness  and  smoothness.  The  liquid 
manure  consists  of  the  urine  of  cattle,  in  which  rape  cake  has 
been  dissolved,  and  in  which  the  cleansings  of  privies  from  the 
neighbouring  towns  and  villages  have  been  mixed.  It  is  col- 
lected in  subterranean  vaults  of  brick  work,  and  about  2800 
gallons,  beer  measure,  are  allowed  to  the  imperial  acre. 

Manure  in  many  soils  is  useful,  but  in  others,  or  when  too 
much  is  applied,  the  Flax  is  apt  to  grow  coarse,  and  will  not 
yield  a  fine  fibre.  It  would  seem  to  succeed  best  after  a  corn 
crop  which  has  been  manured,  or  on  ground  recently  turned  up. 

The  elementary  principles  of  which  Flax  fibre,  as  well  as 
cotton,  sugar,  &c.,  consist,  are  now  known  to  be  derived  almost 
entirely  from  the  atmosphere.  Therefore,  by  taking  away  only 


FLAX  CWiTUHB.  17 

the  fibre,  and  returning  the  other  products  of  the  plant  to  the  soil, 
it  will  be  less  impoverished  than  by  almost  any  other  crop,  and 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  accomplishing  this.  The  seeds  can  be 
used  in  feeding  cattle  on  the  farm,  the  steep  water  can  be 
pumped  up,  and  by  means  of  a  water  cart  spread  over  the 
ground,  and  the  shive  or  woody  part  of  the  stem  can  be  mixed 
with  the  manure  in  the  farm-yard.  The  restoration  of  these 
will  serve  to  renovate  the  soil,  and  preserve  its  undirn hushed 
fertility  ;  it  must  therefore  be  short-sighted  policy,  arising  from 
ignorance,  that  could  wilfully  throw  away  such  highly  valuable 
ingredients.  With  proper  cultivation,  and  careful  preservation 
and  giving  back  to  the  soil  the  (to  the  Flaxspinner)  useless 
parts  of  the  plant,  Flax  is  the  very  reverse  of  an  exhaustive  crop, 
and  landlords  might,  with  great  propriety,  revoke  the  clauses 
prohibiting  its  growth,  which  stand  as  monuments  of  ignorance 
in  so  many  of  their  leases  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

After  the  Flax  has  been  sown  as  directed,  it  must  be  watched 
to  prevent  the  weeds  from  injuring  the  crop.  If  the  land  has 
been  well  cleaned  and  prepared  before  sowing  the  seed,  as  it 
certainly  ought  to  be,  few  weeds  will  appear.  Any  that  do  grow 
up,  however,  must  be  carefully  removed  when  the  plant  is  from 
five  to  six  inches  in  height.  If  done  earlier  a  second  weeding 
may  be  required,  and  if  done  later  the  plants  would  be  injured 
by  the  weeders,  as  they  would  not  recover  their  upright  position 
again.  The  weeders  should  not  be  allowed  to  wear  clogs,  or 
nails  in  their  shoes,  as  is  done  in  some  places,  and  they  ought  to 
work  with  their  faces  towards  the  wind,  always  pressing  the  stems 
one  way,  and  the  breeze  will  help  to  make  it  rise  again.  If  the 
plants  are  twisted  they  cannot  rise  again,  and  therefore  will  be 
lost..  After  the  Flax  has  fairly  started  into  growth,  it  may  be 
rolled  with  advantage,  but  this  should  be  done  only  on  a  dry  day. 

In  order  to  produce  a  fine  fibre  the  plant  must  be  pulled  be- 
fore it  is  quite  ripe.  The  best  time  for  gathering  it  is  between 
the  falling  of  the  flower  and  the  formation  of  the  seed,  because  the 
fibre  is  finer  and  more  solid  then  than  at  any  other  time.  If  pulled 
too  early  the  fibre  will  be  flimsy,  and  if  too  late  it  will  be  coarse  ; 
the  time  for  pulling  is  therefore  a  subject  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance. The  common  rule  is  to  let  about  two-thirds  of  the  stalk 
to  become  yellow,  and  not  to  allow  the  seed  capsules  to  become 
more  than  slightly  tinged  with  brown.  Perhaps  the  best  time 

B 


18 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


for  pulling  is  when  the  stalk  is  stripped  of  its  leaves  for  half  or 
two-thirds  its  length  from  the  root.  No  doubt  the  exact  period 
for  pulling  the  Flax,  as  for  reaping  all  grain  crops,  requires 
some  judgment,  but  the  intelligent  farmer  will  soon  learn  the 
proper  time  to  do  so,  and  act  accordingly.  It  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  have  the  operation  performed  on  a  fine  day,  and  care 
should  be  taken,  if  possible,  to  select  one  for  the  pulling  process. 
If  the  previous  day  or  two  has  been  fine  the  fibre  will  be  firmer 
than  it  would  otherwise  have  been. 

If  good  seed  is  required  for  future  sowings,  a  little  of  the 
Flax  should  be  allowed  to  remain  after  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is 
pulled,  that  it  may  ripen  fully,  and  yield  seed  with  the  germinat- 
ing principle  really  in  it. 

In  the  "  Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge"  it  is  said  that  low 
grounds  which  have  received  deposits  left  by  the  occasional 
overflowing  of  rivers,  or  where  water  is  found  not  very  far  from 
the  surface,  are  most  favourable  for  the  culture  of  Flax.  It 
is  attributed  to  the  latter  circumstance  that  Zealand  produces 
the  finest  Flax  grown  in  Holland.  There  two  or  three  bushels  of 
seed  are  required  for  each  acre  of  ground  for  Flax  for  ordinary 
purposes  ;  but  when  it  is  to  be  manufactured  into  lawn  or  cam- 
bric, double  the  quantity  of  seed  is  sown  on  the  same  space  of 
ground.  The  plants,  when  growing  nearer  to  each  other,  have 
a  tendency  to  shoot  up  into  long  slender  stalks,  and  as  the  same 
number  of  fibres  are  usually  found  in  each  plant,  these  will,  of 
course,  be  finer  in  proportion. 

If  the  crop  grows  short  and  branchy,  it  is  then  most  valuable 
for  its  seed,  and  the  plants  should  be  allowed  to  grow  to  maturity. 
But  if  the  stalks  grow  straight  and  long,  then  all  care  of  the 
seed  becomes  a  secondary  consideration,  and  the  Flax  should  be 
pulled  at  the  most  favourable  tune  for  obtaining  good  fibre. 
Experience  has  shown  that  when  the  bloom  has  just  fallen,  when 
the  major  part  of  the  stalks  begin  to  turn  yellow,  and  before  the 
leaves  fall,  the  fibres  are  softer  and  smaller  than  if  left  standing 
until  the  seed  is  quite  matured,  and  it  is  better  to  pull  the  Flax 
a  day  too  early  than  one  too  late.  Although  the  Flax  be  pulled 
at  this  stage,  the  seeds  will  ripen  sufficiently,  if  not  detached 
from  the  parent  plant  until  dry,  as  the  sap  which  it  con- 
tains contributes  towards  further  nourishing  and  perfecting  the 
seed, 


FLAX   CULTURE.  19 

The  Dutch  avail  themselves  of  this  fact  with  regard  to  their 
crop,  and  stack  the  Flax  after  pulling  it.  The  seed,  by  this 
means  becomes  ripe,  while  the  fibres  are  collected  at  the  most 
favourable  period  of  their  growth.  They  thus  obtain  both  of 
the  valuable  products  from  their  plants,  and  supply  their  less 
careful  neighbours  and  others  with  the  seeds.  If  they  can  do 
this  there  is  no  good  reason  why  it  may  not  be  done  in  Ireland 
and  in  other  Flax  growing  countries.  The  only  objection  is  that 
the  Flax  cannot  be  got  so  soon  ready  for  market ;  but  surely  the 
extra  value  of  the  seed  would  far  more  than  compensate  for  the 
want  of  the  money  for  the  Flax  for  a  few  weeks  or  months. 

In  pulling,  the  long  and  short  stems  should  be  kept  separate 
as  much  as  possible,  and  the  lower  ends  even.  A  small  quantity 
should  be  held  with  the  left  hand,  and  pulled  with  the  right 
hand,  placed  about  half  way  down  the  stalks.  The  handfula 
should  be  neatly  placed  over  each  other,  so  as  to  remain  distinct, 
and  no  earth  or  clay  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  roots. 

Some  parties  prefer  to  steep  the  Flax  with  the  bolls  upon  it, 
supposing  that  the  oil  of  the  seed  is  beneficial  in  assisting  fer- 
mentation, but  there  is  no  good  reason  for  such  a  supposition. 
The  most  approved  mode  is  to  remove  the  seed  capsules  before 
steeping,  the  more  so  as  they  can  then  be  made  available 
for  feeding  cattle,  and  in  that  way  will  much  more  than 
pay  the  cost  of  removing  them.  The  Flax  bolls  contain 
more  nourislimcnt  than  linseed  cake,  from  which  the  oil  has,  of 
course,  been  expressed ;  and  they  form  a  valuable  addition  to  the 
warm  food  prepared  during  winter  for  either  horses  or  cattle. 
In  addition  to  the  fattening  properties  of  the  bolls,  they  give 
the  animal  a  sleek  appearance,  and,  owing  to  their  slightly, pur- 
gative properties,  assist  in  warding  off  internal  disease.  It  is 
therefore  a  great  mistake  to  steep,  and  thus  waste  so  valuable  a 
commodity,  and  none  but  ignorant  or  prejudiced  people  would 
do  so. 

Warnes  says  the  wily  Dutch  were  certainly  the  first  to  pro* 
mulgate  the  notion  that  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  both  fibre 
and  seed  at  the  same  time.  This  notion,  however  absurd,  re- 
gulated the  practice  in  the  United  Kingdom  till  the  year  1841, 
many  parties  asserting  that  the  steeping  of  the  stalks  with  the 
seed  tended  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  Flax.  This  is  now 

B  2 


20  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

found  to  be  an  erroneous  opinion,  because  Flax  itself  contains 
oleaginous  matter  that  requires  extraction  instead  of  addition. 
Warnes'  practice  on  the  farm  of  Trimingham  in  Norfolk,  invari- 
ably was  to  remove  the  seed,  as  it  was  highly  valuable  for  feeding 
cattle,  the  culture  of  the  Flax  being  very  profitable,  although 
grown  for  the  seed  for  feeding  purposes  alone.  Certainly  the 
cogent  arguments  which  he  adduces  place  this  beyond  a  doubt 
and  the  wonder -is  that  the  plant  is  not  far  more  extensively 
cultivated,  not  only  in  England  and  Scotland,  but  in  Ireland 
also.  When  both  fibre  and  seed  are  made  available,  as  they 
ought  invariably  to  be,  the  plant  is  as  profitable  as  any  which 
can  be  grown. 

The  box  system  of  feeding  cattle  with  a  mixture  of  linseed 
and  other  compounds,  introduced  by  Warnes,  has  risen  into 
favour  wherever  known,  and  in  many  districts  of  England  no 
farm  is  considered  complete  without  it.  In  his  lifetime  he 
did  much  for  the  encouragement  of  the  cultivation  of  the  t(  golden 
crop"  (as  it  is  called  in  Belgium)  in  England,  and  his  system 
might  be  advantageously  introduced  into  Ireland,  as  it  would 
make  the  crop  much  more  profitable  to  the  farmers  in  that 
country  than  it  has  hitherto  been. 

When  the  Flax  is  pulled  it  should  be  made  up  into  small 
sheaves  or  bundles,  tied  slack  to  let  the  air  have  free  action 
through  them.  These  should  be  set  up  in  stocks  of  twelve 
sheaves,  with  the  bolls  up,  and  allowed  to  remain  from  two  to 
four  days,  to  ripen  and  firm.  In  very  sunny  weather  little 
time  is  required  for  this  purpose,  but  if  the  crop  has  been  heavy 
and  lodged,  it  will  require  a  little  extra  time,  as  it  should  under 
such  circumstances  be  pulled  a  little  sooner  than  if  it  had  been 
standing. 

When  the  bolls  are  to  be  removed  preparatory  to  steeping, 
and  this  ought  always  to  be  done,  as  they  are  very  valuable 
before  being  steeped,  but  worthless  after  steeping,  the  plants 
after  being  laid  in  handfuls,  as  mentioned,  should  then  be 
handed  to  the  "  ripplers,"  who  pass  the  tops  of  the  plant  through 
a  large  comb,  with  wooden  frame  and  iron  teeth,  called  a  ripple- 
The  best  ripples  are  made  of  1 J  inch  square  rods  of  iron,  placed 
with  the  angles  of  iron  next  to  the  ripplers,  3-16ths  of  an  inch 
asunder  at  the  bottom,  half  an  inch  at  the  top,  and  18  inches 


FLAX  CULTURE.  21 

long,  to  allow  a  sufficient  spring,  and  to  save  much  breaking  of 
Flax.  The  points  should  begin  to  taper  three  inches  from  the 
top.  Two  ripplers  sit  opposite  each  other  on  the  frame  of  the 
machine,  with  a  large  sheet  on  the  ground  below  it ;  and  tho 
bundles  of  Flax,  after  being  drawn  through  the  ripple,  and  the 
seed  taken  off,  should  be  bound  up  with  rushes  in  small  sheaves 
and  taken  to  the  watering  pool,  previously  made  ready  to  receive 
them.  It  is  better  to  leave  some  of  the  seed  on  than  ripple  the 
Flax  too  closely,  because  there  is  a  risk  of  splitting  or  bruising 
the  delicate  fibres  about  the  top  of  the  stem. 

The  stem  of  the  Flax  plant,  as  already  stated,  consists  of  a 
central  wood-like  part,  called  shove  or  boon,  and  of  the  tough 
fibres,  called  bast  or  harl,  covered  by  cuticle,  cemented  together 
by  gummy  compounds.  These  parts  are  so  closely  adherent 
to  each  other,  and  the  fibres  to  one  another,  and  to  the  cellular 
tissue  of  which  all  fibres  are  formed,  that  they  are  with 
difficulty  separated  from  each  other,  and  the  fibres  obtained  for 
use.  If  green  vegetable  matter  be  exposed  to  the  continuous 
influence  of  wet  or  of  drought,  disunion  of  the  adherent  parts 
takes  place,  and  they  may  then  be  readily  separated  from  each 
other.  The  same  effect  is  produced  if  some  of  the  constituent 
parts  are  dissolved  by  a  chemical  solvent,  or  by  water  at 
different  temperatures ;  the  rest  being  set  free,  the  fibres  may 
then  be  easily  separated.  All  these  methods  have  been  and  ar« 
employed  for  the  separation  of  Flax  fibre  in  different  localities, 
and  it  is  a  matter  of  vast  importance  to  know  which  mode  is 
the  most  economic  of  the  fibre,  both  as  to  quantity  and  quality. 
Much  scientific  skill  has  at  different  times  been  made  to  bear  on 
this  subject,  and  many  schemes  have  been  brought  forward  with 
this  view,  which  after  a  fair  trial  have  been  found  wanting  in 
some  essential  points,  given  over  and  forgotten,  and  the  old 
modes  again  resorted  to.  Some  of  the  most  promising  plans  for 
this  object  will  be  noticed  hereafter. 

It  may  be  proper  here  to  refer  to  Lee's  system  of  prepar- 
ing and  scutching  Flax,  which  was  brought  forward  in 
1810,  and  which  for  several  years  raised  great  expectations, 
but  which  in  the  end  were  not  realised.  Mr  Lee  not 
only  patented  his  invention,  but  obtained  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment, by  which  the  specification  was  ordered  to  be  deposited 


22 


T£E  KAW  MATERIAL. 


in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  to  be  kept  secret  from  the  public 
for  fifteen  months,  and  then  to  be  produced  only  by  order 
of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  by  him  to  be  examined  when- 
ever occasion  required.  Indeed,  his  discovery  was  thought  of 
such  importance,  that  Parliament  granted  him  the  peculiar 
privilege,  that  the  time  for  the  specification  of  his  patent  should 
be  extended  from  six  months  to  seven  years.  The  Irish  Linen 
Board  was  dazzled  by  the  scheme,  and  for  several  years  they 
paid  large  sums  for  the  patent  machines,  and  offered  premiums 
for  cloth  manufactured  from  Flax  prepared  in  the  new  mode, 
but  all  in  vain.  After  many  careful  and  extensive  experiments, 
made  by  Mr  Williamson,  of  Lambeg  House,  one  of  the  most 
intelligent  merchants  of  his  day,  he  reported  to  the  Linen  Board, 
and  the  report  was  confirmed  by  many  of  the  leading  spinners, 
manufacturers,  and  bleachers  of  Belfast,  that  the  system  was 
found  unsuited  to  the  linen  manufacturers  of  Ireland. 

It  was  also  tried  for  a  considerable  period  at  Kirkland  Works 
in  Scotland,  and  although  the  proprietors  of  the  works  thought 
highly  of  it  at  first,  yet  after  a  fair  and  impartial  trial,  they 
found  its  promised  advantages  altogether  delusory,  and,  in 
January  1816,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Dundee  Advertiser  de- 
tailing its  defects,  and  cautioning  others  from  being  led  away 
by  the  fair,  but  illusory  promises  of  the  patentee  and  his 
agents.  They  stated  that  the  glutinous  matter  of  the  plant 
was  not  extracted  from  it  by  Lees*  method  ;  that,  although  the 
Flax  was  greatly  improved  by  being  put  through  fluted  rollers 
after  being  slightly  broken,  the  process  was  slow  and  expensive, 
and  that  bleaching  the  Flax  was  impracticable  on  a  large  scale. 
The  same  year  the  Board  of  Trustees  in  Scotland  also  pro- 
nounced judgment  against  the  machines,  both  as  to  the  small 
quantity  and  inferior  quality  of  the  Flax  cleaned  by  them. 

The  system  proposed  was  to  do  away  with  steeping  or  water- 
retting,  and  the  ordinary  mode  of  scutching,  and  to  substi- 
tute in  their  stead  a  thrashing  machine,  a  breaking  machine, 
a  cleansing  machine,  and  a  refining  machine,  and  to  bleach 
the  Flax  fibre  before  being  spun.  The  cumbrous  and  expen- 
sive machinery  was  enough  of  itself  to  condemn  this  mode 
of  preparing  Flax,  but,  in  addition,  the  fibre  was  too  much 
broken,  and,  being  cut  transversely,  it  did  not  join  well  in  spin- 


FLAX  CULTURE.  23 

ning,  and  this  defect  was  also  shown  in  the  dressing  and 
weaving  operations,  both  warp  and  weft  being  weak,  and 
giving  way  with  the  least  strain.  The  failure  of  Lee's  system 
cannot  be  ascribed  to  any  unwillingness  in  those  interested  to 
improve,  but  rather  to  its  own  inherent  defects,  as  it  got  a  fair 
trial  in  various  places,  and  from  parties  who  were  most  desirous 
that  it  should  succeed. 

The  steeping  process  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  pre- 
paration of  Flax.  The  odour  produced  during  fermentation 
is  very  pungent  and  foetid,  and  the  offensive  smell  is  felt  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  place  in  which  the  plant  is  steeped. 
It  is  well  known  that  all  plants  imbibe  carbon  through  the 
fibrous  roots,  after  it  has  been  dissolved  in  the  soil  by  water, 
and  that  it  is  retained  to  give  firmness  and  solidity  to  the  plant. 
In  the  fermentation  or  putrefaction  of  vegetable  matter,  and  in 
steeping  Flax,  a  putrid  fermentation  takes  place,  carbonic  acid 
and  nitrogen  is  produced,  which  act  like  a  narcotic  poison  to 
animal  life.  The  disagreeable  smell  arising  from  a  Flax  steep- 
ing pond  results  from  the  evolution  of  various  odorous  com- 
pounds of  valerianic  acid,  butyric  acid,  &c.  Indeed,  the  noxious 
effluvia  constantly  exhaled,  like  marsh  miasma,  carry  with  them 
the  germs  of  painful  diseases,  which  attack  both  animals  and 
men. 

Courtrai  in  Belgium  has  long  been  famous  for  the  quality  of 
its  Flax,  and  there  the  straw  is  steeped  in  the  river  Lys,  the 
water  of  which  is  remarkably  pure,  and  very  suitable  for  the 
purpose.  The  mode  adopted  in  the  Courtrai  district  is  as  fol- 
lows : — -The  Flax  is  placed  perpendicularly  into  wooden  crates 
or  frames,  about  twelve  feet  long,  eight  wide,  and  three  deep, 
tied  up  in  small  sheaves,  bound  round  with  three  bands.  It  is 
packed  close  together,  the  sheaves  standing  on  the  butt  end, 
which  prevents  any  damage  to  the  top.  The  Flax  is  well 
covered  with  straw,  and  the  crates  are  then  launched  into  the 
river  Lys,  and  kept  under  the  water  with  large  stones.  It  is 
never  allowed  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  river,  because  the 
mud  would  damage  the  fibre,  and  the  nearer  it  is  kept  to  the 
top  of  the  water  the  better,  as  the  heat  of  the  weather  quickens 
the  process.  When  the  necessary  change  has  taken  place,  which 
is  known  by  the  woody  part  pulling  out  of  the  fibre  for  six  or  eight 
inches,  the  crates  are  hauled  on  shore,  where  the  Flax  is  unpacked 


24 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


and  carted  to  the  grass.  The  sheaves  are  then  placed  on  the 
butt  end  to  dry,  and  after  this  is  thoroughly  done,  which  it  will 
be  in  two  or  three  days,  if  the  weather  be  favourable,  they  are 
ready  for  stacking.  The  process  of  bleaching  or  stacking  is  per- 
formed by  the  farmer  at  his  leisure,  but  March  is  a  favourite 
month  for  this  operation,  and  it  is  often  done  then  as  it  is  con- 
sidered the  best  bleaching  time. 

Steeping  is  a  regular  trade  to  many  men,  and  two  or  more 
unite  in  the  possession  of  a  number  of  crates  adapted  to  a  given 
expanse  of  water,  for  which  they  pay  no  rent,  and  the  Govern- 
ment protects  them  from  the  interference  of  shipping.  For 
many  miles  along  both  banks  of  this  celebrated  river  the  steep- 
ing process  is  conducted,  and  farmers  send  their  Flax  long 
distances,  in  some  cases  forty  miles  by  land,  to  be  steeped. 
Some  send  it  by  water  longer  distances  than  that,  indeed,  it  is 
sent  even  from  Holland  for  this  purpose.  Stacking  the  Flax 
for  some  time  after  it  is  steeped  is  said  to  enhance  the  value, 
particularly  with  respect  to  colour. 

Those  parties  who  require  the  money  for  their  Flax  before 
spring,  sell  it  while  growing  to  factors,  at  a  price  per  acre.  When 
the  finest  qualities  of  Flax  are  wanted  this  is  the  more  necessary, 
because  it  must  be  kept  in  the  straw  all  winter,  steeped  next  sum- 
mer, again  stacked,  and  only  grassed  and  scutched  the  following 
spring,  so  that  the  fibre  is  not  available  for  the  market  until 
the  second  season  after  it  is  grown,  which  would  be  a  heavy 
trade  to  any  farmer  who  is  not  wealthy.  The  great  care 
which  the  Belgians  have  bestowed  upon  the  cultivation  of  Flax 
has  raised  them  from  a  state  of  poverty  to  affluence,  and  this  shows 
the  vast  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  cultivation  of  so  valu- 
able a  plant. 

In  some  parts  of  Ireland  Flax  is  also  steeped  in  a  river  or 
stream,  and  it  is  a  strange  fact  that  fermentation  should  proceed 
successfully  in  a  running  stream  of  fresh  water.  It  would  thus 
appear  that  the  process  of  fermentation  must  go  on  in  the 
glutinous  matter  which  connects  the  woody  stem  with  the  pure 
fibre  of  the  plant,  and  that  its  elements  are  loosened  from  their 
former  conditions  of  combination,  gradually  dissolved,  and 
carried  off  by  the  stream,  as  the  water  has  no  time  to  become 
decomposed  in  passing  through  the  bundles  of  Flax.  To  put 
fresh  slaked  lime  into  the  water  in  which  Flax  is  steeped  would 


FLAX  CULTURE.  Jj 

absorb  the  carbonic  acid,  and  remove  the  offensive  smell,  but  it 
would  retard  fermentation,  and  perhaps  spoil  the  Flax.  Pure 
soft  water,  free  from  lime  and  other  minerals,  is  therefore  the  best 
for  steeping  Flax,  as  it  allows  the  fermentation  to  go  on  freely, 
and  thus  loosens  the  adherence  by  dissolving  some  parts,  and 
setting  the  others  free. 

The  most  common  mode  of  steeping  Flax  is  in  holes  cut  near 
a  river,  from  six  to  twelve  feet  wide,  three  or  four  feet  deep,  and 
of  the  length  required.  The  water  ought  to  be,  and  is  generally, 
put  in  a  few  days  before  the  Flax  is  to  be  immersed.  The 
sheaves  of  Flax  should  be  carefully  placed  in  the  water  in  layers, 
and  covered  at  top  with  straw  or  wicker-work,  on  which  stones 
are  placed  to  keep  all  firmly  under  water.  The  pools  ought  to 
be  very  clean,  and  this  is  a  point  the  Belgians  are  very  particu- 
lar about,  and  great  care  is  taken  in  putting  in  the  Flax,  so  as 
to  preserve  the  colour,  fibre,  <fec. 

In  some  states  of  the  weather  ten  days  may  be  sufficient  time 
for  steeping  the  Flax,  and  at  other  times  fourteen  days  may  be 
required,  but  nothing  save  practical  experience  will  prevent 
mistakes  in  this  operation.  Generally  the  Flax  should  be  taken 
out  when,  on  breaking  the  stem  of  the  plant,  the  fibre  separates 
freely  from  the  woody  part,  because  then  the  fermentation 
appears  to  have  performed  its  part.  The  Flax  ought  then  to  be 
taken  out  of  the  water  by  men  standing  in  it,  and  after  the 
bundles  have  been  allowed  to  drain  on  the  bank  for  a  short 
time,  it  should  be  removed  to  the  field  and  spread  out  upon  the 
grass.  The  steep  water  is  an  excellent  liquid  manure,  and 
ought  to  be  lifted  out  and  applied  to  the  neighbouring  grass 
fields.  This  water  contains  much  of  the  nitrogen  and  other 
inorganic  matter  which  the  plant  drew  from  the  soil,  conse- 
quently it  is  the  most  speedy  restorative  for  exhausted  Flax 
ground  that  could  be  applied,  and  is  therefore  well  worth  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  the  application. 

By  allowing  the  water  to  run  off  before  the  removal  of  the 
Flax  from  the  hole,  the  scum  and  dirt  are  left  among  the  plants, 
the  bundles  are  pressed  on  the  sides  of  the  pit  and  dirtied,  the 
valuable  liquid  manure  is  lost,  and  the  noxious  fluid,  passing 
into  the  river  in  the  drought  of  summer,  renders  it  unfit  for 
domestic  use,  and  poisons  the  fish  therein.  These  are  formid- 


26 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


able  objections  to  such  a  mode,  and  there  is  not  a  single  reason 
which  can  be  adduced  in  its  favour.  Pools  cut  in  stiff  clay 
answer  best  for  the  purpose  of  steeping  or  retting,  and  it  is  an 
objection  to  have  them  shaded  by  trees,  as  they  are  most  suit- 
able when  exposed  to  the  sun  and  to  the  atmosphere. 

For  spreading  the  Flax  upon,  nice  meadow  or  grass  land, 
mown  close,  should  always  be  chosen,  but  not  clover,  as  it 
grows  so  fast  that  it  might  rot  the  Flax.  The  situation  should 
be  sheltered  from  storms,  and  yet  get  the  benefit  of  both  sun 
and  air.  If  spread  too  thick  it  requires  turning  after  having 
undergone  a  few  days'  exposure,  in  order  that  both  sides  may  be 
bleached  alike,  but  turning  is  not  necessary  when  it  is  spread  thin. 
The  time  required  on  the  grass  depends  much  on  the  state  of  the 
weather,  but  generally,  if  thin  spread,  from  three  to  four  nights 
will  be  sufficient.  Under  watered  Flax  will  require  a  little  extra 
grassing  to  correct  the  deficiency  in  the  former  process,  but  even 
then  six  nights  is  quite  enough,  as  any  longer  time  will  waste 
the  Flax  and  make  it  towy. 

When  the  Flax  appears  dry  and  brittle  in  the  woody  part  of  the 
stem,  it  should  be  lifted  carefully,  and  the  fibres  kept  as  straight 
as  possible.  It  should  then  be  tied  up  in  bundles  and  removed 
to  the  scutch  mill,  or  stacked  like  grain,  in  a  dry  open  position. 
The  only  safe  system  of  drying  is  in  the  open  air,  as  artificial 
means  is  apt  to  damage  the  Flax. 

Dew  retting,  that  is  grassing  the  Flax  when  pulled,  instead  of 
steeping  it  first,  is  still  resorted  to  in  the  Archangel  districts  of 
Kussia,  in  some  parts  of  Germany,  and  in  the  United  States 
of  America.  Though  an  effectual,  it  is  always  an  uncertain 
and  very  tedious  process,  requiring  from  three  weeks  to  a 
month  for  its  completion.  Flax  so  prepared  is  very  apt  to  heat 
when  exposed  to  moisture,  and  when  kept  in  a  close  place  with 
little  fresh  air.  The  fibre,  however,  is  soft  and  silky,  and  well 
adapted  for  spinning  into  small  sizes  of  yarn,  and  it  requires  a 
shorter  time  for  bleaching,  and  therefore  it  is  largely  used.  It 
is  very  doubtful  if  the  quality  be  so  good  as  it  would  have  been 
if  it  had  undergone  the  usual  process  of  steeping  in  water,  in- 
stead of  exposure  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  the  sun,  and 
the  nightly  dews  and  rains. 

Other  modes  of  retting  Flax  have  been  proposed,  and  perhaps 


FLAX  CULTURE.  27 

the  best  of  these  is  the  improvement  on  the  common  retting 
process,  patented  by  Shenck.  The  principle  of  his  plan  is  simple 
and  easily  understood.  It  consists  in  substituting  water,  heated 
to  a  given  temperature  under  cover,  so  as  to  hasten  the  fermen- 
tation necessary  to  separata  the  pure  fibre  from  the  woody  and 
gummy  portions,  for  the  uncertain  and  irregular  action  of  the 
common  steeping  ponds.  This  plan  was  at  one  time  in  high 
favour,  but  it  was  found  to  be  too  costly,  and  therefore  it  has 
IKVII  nearly  ^ivni  C.YIT.  This  i>  iml  a  n«-w  ptfOCW,  as  it  has 
long  been  practiced  in  Sumatra,  and  in  the  district  of  Rungpore, 
where  the  natives  not  only  use  warm  water,  but  sometimes 
chemical  substances,  to  assist  in  separating  the  fibre  of  various 
plants. 

By  Watt's  process,  boiling  and  crushing  are  substituted  for 
fermentation,  by  which  means  the  unpleasant  smell  arising  from 
tho  Flax  while  in  process  of  retting  is  avoided.  It  is  not  yet 
proved  whether  the  process  of  fermentation  be  absolutely  essen- 
tial  to  the  separation  of  the  fibre,  or  whether  an  equally  good 
fibre  cannot  be  got  without  it.  Watt  said  it  could,  and  that  by 
subjecting  the  straw  to  the  action  of  steam,  and  afterwards 
putting  it  through  heavy  metal  rollers,  more  fibre,  and  that  of 
finer  quality,  is  obtained  than  by  the  usual  method  of  steeping. 
Watt  died  a  few  years  ago,  and  perhaps  since  then  his  system 
has  not  been  fairly  tested,  but  some  of  the  experiments  made 
during  his  lifetime  seemed  to  produce  favourable  results.  Pro- 
fessor Wilson  said  that  it  possessed  the  following  advantages : — 
Saving  of  time  ;  economy  of  fibre  ;  avoidance  of  nuisance ;  and 
beneficial  application  of  waste  products.  All  very  important, 
if  really  attainable. 

Buchanan's  process  is  said  to  be  an  improvement  on  Watt's. 
In  it  the  solvent  power  is  due  to  the  hot  water  occasioned  by  the 
condensation  of  steam,  the  steeping  being  effected  by  repeated 
immersions  in  a  tank  of  heated  water,  kept  at  a  temperature 
between  150°  and  180*.  The  process  is  described  as  quite 
automatic,  requiring  only  four  hours  for  the  operation,  and 
saving  much  labour. 

Pownall,  in  his  experiments  on  Flax  straw,  discovered  that  if 
the  straw  be  taken  out  of  the  steep  water  after  fermentation,  and 
instantly,  before  drying,  subjected  to  severe  pressure  and  a 


28 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


stream  of  cold  water,  the  pressure  pressed  out  almost  all  the 
gluten  not  removed  b7  the  fermentation,  and  the  water  washed 
it  away.  This  removes  the  difficulty  of  hitting  the  happy  mean 
between  over  and  under  fermenting  the  straw.  Some  of  these 
may  be  valuable  improvements,  but  practical  experience  for  a 
length  of  time  alone  can  test  them,  and  until  this  be  done  it 
would  be  wrong  to  laud  any  of  them. 

In  retting  Flax,  the  water,  by  rotting  the  straw,  makes  it 
separate  easily  from  the  fibre,  but  it  does  not  separate  the  fibres 
of  the  Flax  from  each  other.  The  grassing  accomplishes  this, 
and  by  opening  or  breaking  up  the  fibre,  adapts  it  the  better 
for  being  spun  into  the  finer  sizes  of  yarn.  Steeping  and 
grassing  are  therefore  both  highly  essential  to  the  production  of 
a  fine  fibre,  and  any  system  that  dispenses  with  either  process  is 
liable  to  grave  objections.  No  doubt  neither  nor  both  of  these 
processes  will  convert  naturally  coarse  Flax  into  a  fine  fibre, 
but  they  do  improve  the  spinning  properties  of  even  coarse  Flax, 
and  therefore  both  are  best,  and  both  should  be  practised  where 
it  is  possible  to  do  so. 

Sometimes  the  finer  sorts  of  Flax  in  Germany  are  steeped  four 
or  five  days  in  a  warm  mixture  of  milk  and  water,  and  in  this 
way  the  desired  degree  of  fermentation  in  the  stems  is  produced. 
Sometimes  lea  of  wood  ashes,  and  other  chemical  agents  have 
been  tried  to  facilitate  the  separation  of  the  fibres ;  but  indeed 
the  action  of  water  and  the  production  of  fermentation  in  the 
ordinary  way,  may  truly  be  considered  chemical  operations,  and 
if  rightly  conducted,  this  is  perhaps  the  best  and  safest  mode  for 
accomplishing  the  desired  object. 

The  practice  of  steeping  green  is  carried  on  to  a  large  extent 
in  the  Waes  district  in  Belgium,  and  elsewhere,  and  it  is  by 
many  considered  the  best,  as  it  certainly  is  the  quickest  mode  of 
obtaining  the  fibre.  The  other  and  usual  mode  is  to  dry  the 
straw,  and  stack  it  in  the  field  or  stack  yard.  In  winter  the  seed 
is  carefully  taken  off  and  preserved,  the  straw  again  stacked  till 
spring,  when  it  is  retted,  grassed,  and  scutched  in  the  usual  way. 

Steeping  Flax  is  no  doubt  liable  to  various  objections.  The 
stems  in  a  field  do  not  all  come  to  maturity  at  the  same  time, 
nor  have  they  all  the  same  volume  or  power  of  resistance,  and 
yet  in  the  retting  pit  they  are  all  treated  alike.  As  a  natural 


FLAX  CULTURE.  29 

consequence  some  stems  are  imperfectly  retted,  and  yield  harsh 
and  brittle  fibres,  while  others,  offering  little  resistance,  yield 
soft  and  enervated  fibres.  Even  supposing  it  were  possible  to 
steep  and  ret  only  similar  stems  together,  the  different  positions  in 
which  they  are  placed  in  the  pit  would  lead  to  modifications  in  the 
putrefaction,  and  produce  like  results.  In  order  to  separate  the 
filaments  properly,  the  retting  must  be  fully  carried  out,  and  this 
is  apt  to  cause  the  fibre  to  lose  part  of  its  tenacity  and 
cohesion,  and  thus  injure  it.  To  obviate  these  objections  various 
modes  have  been  tried  of  scutching  the  Flax  direct  from  the 
field  on  which  it  is  grown,  and  many  machines  have  been 
patented  with  this  object,  some  of  which  have  been  mentioned 
above ;  but  hitherto,  it  is  believed,  no  scheme  has  been  discovered 
which,  practically,  will  preserve  the  fibre  in  all  its  perfection, 
while  superseding  retting. 

It  is  now  well  known  that  the  fibre  of  all  unsteeped  Flax 
is  white,  or  only  tinged  with  a  yellow  colour,  immediately 
soluble  in  water.  The  colouring  matter  in  unsteeped  Flax  is 
easily  discharged,  whether  it  be  in  the  state  of  Flax,  yarn,  or  cloth, 
and  Lee's  mode  accomplished  this ;  but  the  expense  was  too 
great  to  be  of  practical  use.  Perhaps  some  method  may  yet  be 
discovered  for  preparing  Flax  without  retting,  and  at  the  same 
time  preserve  the  fibre  and  all  its  requisite  spinning  qualities 
intact.  The  discoverer  of  such  a  system  will  confer  a  boon  on 
both  the  growers  and  manufacturers  of  the  fibre,  and  be  a  bene- 
factor to  his  country. 

The  next  stage  of  the  process  is  scutching  or  cleaning  the 
Flax,  that  is,  separating  the  fibre  from  the  woody  portion  of  the 
stalk,  and  a  most  important  one  in  the  preparation  and  preser- 
vation of  the  fibre  it  certainly  is.  Many  schemes  have  from 
time  to  time  been  brought  forward  for  transforming  the  straw 
into  Flax  expeditiously,  cheaply,  and  beneficially,  both  as  to  the 
quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  fibre.  Some  of  them  have  been 
talked  of,  and  forgotten  without  even  a  trial.  Others  havo  been 
tested  and  found  unsuitable  from  various  causes,  and  quickly 
thrown  aside.  While  others  again  have  had  lengthened  trials, 
with  every  advantage  which  money  could  procure,  and  every 
encouragement  which  high  patronage  could  offer,  but  in  the  end 
were  found  to  be  practically  worthless.  Sometimes  valuable  re- 


30  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

suits  have  been  produced  without  lengthened  investigation,  and, 
as  it  were,  by  chance,  but  generally  really  beneficial  improve- 
ments have  to  be  worked  out,  and  are  discovered  gradually. 
A  wonderful  theory,  however  attractive  on  paper,  must  stand  the 
unromantic  test  of  much  practical  experience  before  it  can  be 
trusted  and  adopted  with  safety,  or  it  may  in  the  end  turn 
out  a  "  dazzling  but  illusory  experiment/'  The  truth  of  this 
has  been  well  exemplified  in  the  many  futile  attempts  which 
have  been  made  to  improve  the  scutching  machines  in  general 
use. 

The  primitive  mode  of  scutching  Flax  is  to  twist  a  bundle  of 
stalks  or  stems  in  the  hand,  so  as  to  break  the  woody  part, 
taking  care  not  to  ravel  or  entangle  the  fibre.  The  fragments 
of  the  stalks  are  then  shaken  or  beaten  off  by  a  wooden  knife 
several  inches  broad,  and  the  fibre  thus  cleared  is  the  un- 
dressed Flax  of  commerce.  Various  other  modes  of  scutching 
by  hand  with  the  aid  of  simple  instruments  have  also  been  in 
use,  but  these  have  now,  and  for  a  long  period,  given  way  to  a 
great  extent  to  mill  scutching.  The  fibre  is  better  cleaned  by 
the  scutch  mills  than  can  possibly  be  done  by  hand,  and  it  com- 
mands a  higher  market  value  in  consequence.  Any  hand 
scutching  process  must  naturally  be  slow  and  tedious,  and  now 
it  is  only  practised  where  labour  is  cheap  or  where  prejudice 
is  strong. 

The  cost  of  scutching  Flax  in  Ireland  is  about  a  penny  a 
pound,  including  cartage  to  and  from  the  scutch  mill.  This  is 
considered  a  high  charge,  and  were  the  scutch  mills  to  have 
employment  during  the  whole  year,  instead  of  working  only  the 
winter  six  months,  it  might  be  done  at  perhaps  three  farthings 
a  pound  and  yet  pay  the  scutcher  well.  The  produce  of  a  ton 
of  good  average  quality  of  dry  Flax  straw,  fairly  scutched,  is 
about  four  hundredweight  of  Flax  fit  for  market,  and  per- 
haps one  hundredweight  of  codilla.  Both  the  quantity  of  Flax 
and  of  Codilla  will  vary  with  the  quality  of  the  straw,  and  with  the 
description  of  mill,  and  the  care  bestowed  upon  the  Flax  during 
the  operation  of  scutching. 

The  system  now  generally  adopted  in  the  best  and  most 
approved  scutch  mills  is,  to  pass  the  Flax,  well  dried,  between 
a  set  of  rollers,  which  bruise  it  so  thoroughly  as  to  make  the 


FLAX  CULTURE.  31 

after  separation  of  the  straw  an  easy  process,  and  the  better 
it  is  bruised  the  greater  will  be  the  yield  of  fibre  at  the  mill. 
The  Flax  is  then  suspended  from  an  opening  in  the  top  of  a 
machine  in  which  a  horizontal  shall,  with  wooden  blades  about 
twelve  inches  in  length  attached  thereto,  revolves  and  acts 
on  the  Flax  vertically,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  shaft  travel  at  the  rate  of  250  revolutions  a  minute.  By  a 
recent  improvement  spring  stocks  have  been  introduced,  which 
give  a  little  in  the  operation  of  scutching.  This  prevents  the 
Flax  from  being  injured  by  too  severe  action  from  the  blades, 
and  the  Flax  so  scutched  is  increased  in  value,  because  the  fibre 
is  left  in  a  better  and  sounder  state. 

Generally  speaking,  the  less  scutching  Flax  undergoes  the 
better,  and  if  the  straw  be  thoroughly  dry  and  then  well  broken, 
little  scutching  will  be  required,  as  the  straw  will  separate  very 
easily  from  the  fibre.  Flax  is  the  proper  product  of  the  plant, 
and  the  tow  taken  off  it  is  produced  by  the  injury  the  fibre 
receives  in  the  process  of  separation  from  the  woody  matter  of 
the  stem.  The  less  the  fibre  is  broken  the  greater  will  be  the 
yield  of  Flax,  and  the  less  codilla  will  be  produced.  It  is 
therefore  of  the  highest  importance  to  preserve  the  fibre  entire, 
and  the  scutcher  who  best  accomplishes  this  is  the  first  man  in 
his  trade  and  worthy  of  all  encouragement. 

The  cost  of  the  machinery  of  a  small  scutching  mill,  with 
four  stands,  is  about  £60,  and  of  a  large  one,  with  twelve 
stands,  about  £150.  A  new  scutching  machine,  recently 
patented,  and  which  is  said  to  answer  admirably,  can  be  got  for 
about  £24.  With  such  a  machine,  which  is  portable,  a  farmer 
could  scutch  his  own  Flax.  This  is  an  object  of  first-rate  im- 
portance in  encouraging  the  growth  of  Flax  in  any  district,  as 
the  want  of  scutch  mills  has  hitherto  kept  many  farmers  from 
trying  it. 

The  operation  of  scutching  Flax  brings  it  into  a  marketable 
state,  the  long  fibres  being  known  in  commerce  as  Flax,  and 
the  tow,  which  is  taken  off  hi  the  process  of  scutching,  is 
called  scutching  tow  or  codilla. 

The  following  directions  for  the  proper  management  of  the 
Flax  crop,  issued  by  the  North-Eastern  Agricultural  Associa- 
tion of  Ireland,  may  fitly  conclude  the  chapter  on  Flax  culture, 


32 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


as  they  have  been  prepared  with  great  care,  and  to  the  Flax 
grower  are  truly  invaluable  : — 

Soil  and  Rotation. 

By  attention  and  careful  cultivation,  good  Flax  may  be1 
grown  on  various  soils ;  but  some  are  much  better  adapted  for 
it  than  others.  The  best  is  a  sound,  dry,  deep  loam.  It  is 
almost  essential  that  the  land  should  be  properly  drained  and 
subsoiled  ;  as,  when  it  is  long  saturated  with  either  underground 
or  surface  water,  a  good  crop  need  not  be  expected.  The  sub- 
soiling  should  be  executed  the  year  of  the  green  crop,  so  as  to  be 
completed  at  least  two  years  before  the  Flax  is  grown. 

The  best  rotation  is  to  grow  after  wheat,  on  average  soils  ; 
but  in  poor  soils,  where  wheat  does  not  succeed,  it  is  often 
better  to  grow  after  potatoes.  Flax  should  on  no  account  be 
grown  oftener  than  once  in  five  years,  and  once  in  seven,  or  even 
ten,  is  considered  safer. 

Any  departure  from  this  system  or  rotation  is  likely  to  cause 
loss  and  disappointment. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. 

One  of  the  points  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  culture  of 
Flax  is  by  thorough  draining,  and  by  careful  and  repeated 
cleansing  of  the  land  from  weeds,  to  place  it  in  the  finest, 
deepest,  and  cleanest  state.  This  will  make  room  for  the  roots 
to  penetrate,  which  they  will  often  do  to  the  depth  equal  to  one- 
half  the  length  of  the  stem  above  ground. 

After  wheat,  one  ploughing  may  be  sufficient  on  light,  friable 
loam,  but  two  ploughings  are  better  ;  and  on  stiff  soils  three  are 
advisable — one  immediately  after  harvest,  across  the  ridges,  and 
two  in  spring,  so  as  to  be  ready  for  sowing  in  the  first  or  second 
week  of  April.  Much  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  and  the  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  farmer. 
The  land  should  be  so  well  drained  and  subsoiled  that  it  can  be 
sown  in  flats,  which  will  give  more  even  and  much  better  crops. 
But,  until  the  system  of  thorough  draining  be  general,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  plough  early  in  autumn  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight 
inches.  Throw  the  land  into  ridges,  that  it  may  receive  the 
frost  and  air ;  and  make  surface  drains  to  carry  off  the  rains  of 


FLAX  Ct'LirRK. 

winter.  Plough  again  in  spring,  three  or  four  inches  deep,  so 
as  to  preserve  the  winter  surface  for  the  roots  of  the  Flax.  The 
spring  ploughing  should  be  given  some  time  before  sowing,  to 
allow  jiny  seeds  of  the  weeds  in  the  land  to  vegetate,  and  the 
harrowing  in  of  the  Flax-seed  will  likely  kill  them,  and  save  B 
pvut  deal  of  after  weeding.  Following  the  last  harrowing,  it 
is  necessary  to  roll,  to  give  an  even  surface  and  consolidate  the 
land,  breaking  up  this  again  with  a  short-toothed  or  seed-harrow 
before  sowing,  which  should  be  up  and  down,  not  across  the 
ridges,  or  anglewise.  These  operations  can  be  varied  by  any 
skilful  fanner,  to  suit  peculiar  soils  or  extraordinary  seasons. 
The  object  is  to  have  clean,  fine  soil,  as  like  as  possible  to  what 
a  garden  soil  should  be. 

The  rotation  we  recommend  is : — 


RICH  SOILS. 

nm. 
2.  Oats. 

a  Flax. 

4.  Potatoes  or  Turnips. 

:..  Wheat. 

6.  Clover  Hny. 


AVERAGE  SOILS. 

1.  Grass. 

2.  Oats. 

3.  Potatoes  or  Turnips. 

4.  Wheat. 

5.  Flax  (on  half  only*) 

6.  Clover. 


POOR  SOILS. 

1.  Grass. 

2.  Oats. 

3.  Potatoes. 

4.  Flax  (on  half  only*) 

5.  Hay. 


7.  Pasture. 

*  Omit  FLix.  in  this  rotation  on  lhl»  Juzlf. 

Solving. 

The  seed  best  adapted  for  the  generality  of  soils  is  Riga, 
although  Dutch  has  been  used  in  many  districts  of  the  country 
for  a  series  of  years  with  perfect  success,  and  generally  produces 
a  finer  fibre,  but  not  so  heavy  a  crop  as  Riga.  In  buying  seed, 
select  it  plump,  shining,  and  heavy,  and  of  the  best  brands, 
from  a  respectable  merchant.  Sift  it  clear  of  all  the  Feeds  of 
weeds,  which  will  save  a  great  deal  of  after  trouble,  when  the 
crop  is  growing.  This  may  be  done  by  farmers,  and  through  a 
wire  sieve,  twelve  bars  to  the  inch.  These  sieves  can  be  had  in 
Belfast.  Home-saved  soed  has  produced  excellent  crops,  yet  it 
will  be  best,  in  most  cases,  to  use  the  seed  which  is  saved  at 
home  for  feeding,  or  to  sell  it  for  the  oil  mills.  The  proportion 
of  seed  may  be  stated  at  one  Riga  barrel,  or  three  and-a-half 
imperial  bushels,  to  the  Irish  or  plantation  acre ;  and  so  on,  in 
proportion  to  the  Scotch  or  Cunningham,  and  the  English  or 
statute  acre,  viz. : — about  two  and  a  half  bushels  for  the  Scotch 
acre,  and  about  two  for  the  statute  acre.  It  is  better  to  sow  rather 

(I 


34  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

too  thick  than  too  thin  ;  as  with  thick  sowing  the  stem  grows  tall 
and  straight,  with  only  one  or  two  seed  capsules  at  the  top  ;  and 
the  fibre  is  found  greatly  superior,  in  fineness  and  length,  to 
that  produced  to  thin  sown  Flax,  which  grows  coarse  and 
branches  out,  producing  much  seed,  but  a  very  inferior  quality 
of  fibre.  The  ground  being  pulverised  and  well  cleaned,  roll, 
harrow,  and  sow.  If  it  has  been  laid  off  without  ridges,  it  should 
be  marked  off  in  divisions,  eight  to  ten  feet  broad,  in  order  to 
give  an  equable  supply  of  seed.  After  sowing,  which  should  be 
done  by  a  very  skilful  person,  as  the  seed  is  exceedingly  slippery, 
and  apt  to  glide  unevenly  from  the  hand,  cover  with  a  seed  har- 
row, going  twice  over  it — once  up  and  down,  and  once  across  or 
anglewise,  as  this  makes  it  more  equally  spread,  and  avoids  the 
small  drills  made  by  the  teeth  of  the  harrow.  Finish  with  the 
roller,  which  will  leave  the  seed  covered  about  an  inch — the 
proper  depth.  The  ridges  should  be  very  little  raised  in  the 
centre,  when  the  ground  is  ready  for  the  seed,  otherwise  the 
crop  will  not  ripen  evenly ;  and  when  land  is  properly  drained 
there  should  be  no  ridges.  Kolling  the  ground  after  sowing  is 
very  advisable,  care  being  taken  not  to  roll  when  the  ground  is 
so  wet  that  the  earth  adheres  to  the  roller. 

Weeding. 

If  care  has  been  paid  to  cleaning  the  seed  and  the  soil,  few 
weeds  will  appear  ;  but  if  there  be  any,  they  must  be  carefully 
pulled  ;  or  cut  with  a  knife,  when  the  weeds  happen  to  be  large 
or  when  potato  stalks  appear.  It  is  done  in  Belgium  by  women 
and  children,  who,  with  coarse  cloth  round  their  knees,  creep 
along  on  all-fours.  This  injures  the  young  plant  less  than 
walking  over  it  (which,  if  done,  should  be  by  persons  whose 
shoes  are  not  filled  with  nails).  They  should  work,  also,  facing 
the  wind,  so  that  the  plants  laid  flat  by  the  pressure  may  be 
blown  up  again,  or  thus  be  assisted  to  regain  their  upright 
position.  The  tender  plant,  pressed  one  way,  soon  recovers ; 
but,  if  twisted  or  flattened  by  careless  weeders,  it  seldom  rises 
again.  The  weeding  should  be  done  before  the  Flax  exceeds 
six  inches  in  height. 

Putting. 

The  time  when  Flax  should  be  pulled  is  a  point  of  much 


FLAX   CULTURE.  35 

nicety  to  determine.  The  fibre  is  in  the  best  state  before  the 
seed  is  quite  ripe.  If  pulled  too  soon,  although  the  fibre  is  fine, 
the  great  waste  in  scutching  and  hackling  renders  it  unprofit- 
able ;  and  if  pulled  too  late,  the  additional  weight  does  not 
compensate  for  the  coarseness  of  the  fibre.  It  may  be  stated 
that  the  best  time  for  pulling  is  when  the  seeds  are  beginning  to 
change  from  a  green  to  a  pale  brown  colour,  and  the  stalk  to 
become  yellow  for  about  two-thirds  of  its  height  from  the  ground. 
When  any  of  the  crop  is  lying  and  suffering  from  wet,  it  should 
be  pulled  as  soon  as  possible,  and  kept  by  itself.  So  long  as  the 
ground  is  undrained,  and  imperfectly  levelled  before  sowing,  the 
Flax  will  be  found  of  different  lengths.  In  such  cases,  pull 
each  length  separately,  and,  if  possible,  keep  it  separate  in  the 
pool.  Where  there  is  much  second  growth,  the  Flax  should  be 
caught  by  the  puller  just  underneath  the  bolls,  which  will  leave 
the  short  stalks  behind.  If  the  latter  be  few,  it  is  best  not  to 
pull  them  at  all,  as  the  loss  from  mixture  and  discoloration 
by  weeds  would  counterbalance  the  profit.  If  the  ground  has 
been  thorough  drained,  and  laid  out  evenly,  the  Flax  will 
likely  be  all  of  the  same  length.  It  is  most  essential  to  take 
time  and  care  to  keep  the  Flax  even,  like  a  brush,  at  the  root 
ends.  This  increases  the  value  to  the  spinner,  and,  of  course,  to 
the  grower,  who  will  be  amply  repaid  by  an  additional  price  for 
his  extra  trouble.  Let  the  handfuls  of  pulled  Flax  be  laid 
across  each  other  diagonally,  to  be  ready  for  the 

Rippling, 

Which  should  be  carried  on  at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same 
field  with  the  pulling.  If  the  only  advantage  to  be  derived  from 
rippling  was  the  comparative  ease  with  which  rippled  Flax  is 
handled,  the  practice  ought  to  be  adopted  ;  but,  besides  this,  the 
seed  is  a  very  valuable  part  of  the  crop,  either  for  the  oil  mill  or 
for  feeding  purposes  at  home.  The  apparatus  is  very  simple. 
The  ripple  consists  of  a  row  of  iron  teeth  screwed  into  a  block 
of  wood.  This  can  be  procured  in  Belfast,  or  made  by  any 
handy  blacksmith.*  It  is  to  be  taken  to  the  field,  where  the 

•  The  best  ripples  are  made  of  half-inch  square  rod*  of  iron,  placed  with  the 
angles  of  iron  next  the  ripplers,  3-lGths  of  an  inch  asunder  at  the  bottom,  half  an 
inch  at  the  top,  and  18  inch**  Ion?,  to  allow  a  sufficient  spring,  and  save  much 
Breaking  of  flax.  The  point*  should  begin  10  Uper  3  inches  from  the  top. 

r  2 


3C  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

Flax  is  being  pulled,  and  screwed  down  to  the  centre  of  a  nine- 
feet  plank,  resting  on  two  stools.  The  ripplers  may  either  stand 
or  sit  astride  at  opposite  ends.  They  should  be  at  such  a  dis- 
tance from  the  comb  as  to  permit  of  their  striking  it  properly 
and  alternately.  A  winnowing  sheet  must  be  placed  under 
them,  to  receive  the  bolls  as  they  are  rippled  off ;  and  then  the 
ripplers  are  ready  to  receive  the  Flax  just  pulled,  the  handfuls 
being  placed  diagonally,  and  bound  up  in  a  sheaf.  The  sheaf 
is  laid  down  at  the  right  hand  of  the  rippler  and  untied.  He 
takes  a  handful  with  one  hand,  about  six  inches  from  the  root, 
and  a  little  nearer  the  top  with  the  other.  He  spreads  the  top 
of  the  handful  like  a  fan,  draws  the  one  half  of  it  through  the 
comb,  and  the  other  half  past  the  side ;  and,  by  a  half-turn  of 
the  wrist,  the  same  operation  is  repeated  with  the  rest  of  the 
bunch.  Some,  however,  prefer  rippling  without  turning  the 
hand,  giving  the  Flax  one  or  two  pulls  through,  according  to 
the  quantity  of  bolls.  The  Flax  can  often  be  rippled  with- 
out being  passed  more  than  once  through  the  comb.  He  then 
lays  the  handfuls  down  at  his  left  side,  each  handful  crossing 
the  other,  when  the  sheaf  should  be  carefully  tied  up  and 
removed.  The  object  of  crossing  the  handfuls  so  carefully,  after 
rippling,  when  tying  up  the  beets  for  the  steep,  is  that  they  will 
part  freely  from  each  other  when  they  are  taken  to  spread  out 
on  the  grass,  and  not  interlock  and  be  put  out  of  their  even 
order,  as  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  If  the  weather  be  fine 
the  bolls  should  be  kept  in  the  field,  spread  on  winnow-cloths, 
or  other  contrivances  for  drying ;  and  if  turned  from  time  to 
time,  they  will  soon  dry.  Passing  the  bolls  first  through  a 
coarse  riddle,  and  afterwards  through  fanners,  to  remove  straws 
and  leaves,  will  facilitate  the  drying.  If  the  weather  be  moist, 
they  should  be  taken  in-doors,and  spread  out  thinly  and  evenly  on 
a  barn  floor,  or  on  a  loft,  leaving  windows  and  doors  open  to 
allow  a  thorough  current  of  air,  and  turned  twice  a-day.  When 
nearly  dry,  they  may  be  taken  to  a  corn  kiln  (taking  care  not 
to  raise  it  above  summer  heat),  and  carefully  turned  until  no 
moisture  remains.  By  the  above  plan  of  slow  drying,  the  seed 
has  time  to  imbibe  all  the  juices  that  remain  in  the  husk,  and 
to  become  perfectly  ripe.  If  it  be  taken  at  once  from  the  field, 
and  dried  hurriedly  on  the  kiln,  these  juices  will  be  burned  up, 


FLAX  CULTURE.  37 

and  the  seed  will  become  shrivelled  and  parched,  little  nutritious 
matter  remaining.  In  fine  seasons,  the  bolls  should  always  be 
drir.l  in  the  open  air,  the  seed  threshed  out,  and  the  heaviest 
and  plumpest  used  for  sowing  or  crushing.  The  light  seeds  and 
chaff  form  most  wholesome  and  nutritious  feeding  for  cattle. 
Flax  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  field,  if  possible, 
i  the  second  day  ;  it  should  be  rippled  as  soon  as  pulled,  and 
carried  to  the  water  as  soon  as  possible,  that  it  may  not  harden. 

Watering. 

This  process  requires  the  greatest  care  and  attention.  River 
water  is  the  best.  If  spring  water  must  be  used,  let  the  pond 
be  filled  some  weeks  before  the  Flax  is  put  in,  that  the  sun  and 
air  may  soften  the  water.  That  containing  iron  or  other 
mineral  substances  should  never  be  used.  If  river  water  can  be 
had,  it  need  not  be  let  into  the  pond  sooner  than  the  day  before 
tin-  Flax  is  to  be  steeped.  The  best  size  of  a  steep  pool  is  12  to 
18  feet  broad,  and  3J  to  4  feet  deep.  Place  the  Flax  loosely  in 
the  pool,  in  one  layer,  somewhat  sloped,  and  in  regular  rows, 
with  the  root  end  underneath ;  the  tie  of  each  row  of  sheaves  to 
reach  the  root  of  the  previous  one ;  cover  with  moss 
sods,  or  tough  old  lea  sods,  cut  thin,  laid  perfectly  close,  the 
sheer  of  each  fitted  to  the  other.  Before  putting  on  the  sods,  a 
layer  of  rushes  or  ragweeds  is  recommended  to  be  placed  on 
the  Flax,  especially  in  new  ponds.  As  sods  are  not  always  at 
hand,  a  light  covering  of  straw  may  do,  with  stones  laid  on  it, 
so  as  to  keep  the  Flax  just  under  the  water  ;  and  as  the  fermen- 
tation proceeds,  additional  weight  should  be  laid  on — to  bo 
removed  as  soon  as  the  fermentation  ceases,  so  as  not  to  sink 
the  Flax  too  much  in  the  pool.  Thus  covered,  it  never  sinks 
to  the  bottom,  nor  is  affected  by  air  or  light,  A  small  stream 
of  water,  allowed  to  run  through  a  pool,  has  been  found  to  im- 
prove its  colour.  It  will  be  sufficiently  steeped,  in  an  average 
time,  from  eight  to  fourteen  days,  according  to  the  heat  of  the 
weather  and  the  nature  of  the  water.  Every  grower  should 
learn  to  know  when  the  Flax  has  had  enough  of  the  water,  as  a 
few  hours  too  much  may  injure  it.  It  is,  however,  much  more 
frequently  wnc/er- watered  than  over-watered.  The  best  test  is 
the  following : — Try  some  stalks,  of  average  thickness,  by  break- 


38  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

ing  the  shove,  or  woody  part,  in  two  places,  about  six  or  eight 
inches  apart,  at  the  middle  of  the  stalk  ;  catch  the  broken  bit  of 
wood,  and  if  it  will  pull  freely  out,  downwards,  for  that  length, 
icithout  breaking  or  tearing  the  fibre,  and  with  none  of  the  fibre 
adhering  to  it,  it  is  ready  to  take  out.  Make  this  trial  every 
six  hours  after  fermentation  subsides,  for  sometimes  the  change 
is  rapid.  Never  lift  the  Flax  roughly  from  the  pool,  with  forks 
or  grapes,  but  have  it  carefully  handed  out  of  the  Flax  drain  by 
men  standing  in  the  water.  It  is  advantageous  to  let  the  Flax 
drain  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  after  being  taken  from  the 
pool,  by  placing  the  bundles  on  their  root  ends,  close  together, 
or  on  the  flat,  with  the  slope  ;  but  the  heaps  should  not  be  too 
large,  otherwise  the  Flax  will  be  injured  by  heating. 

The  Flax  water  can  be  either  used  as  liquid  manure  for 
meadows,  or  kept  in  the  pool  till  the  first  flood — it  should  not 
be  run  off  into  the  river  when  the  water  is  very  low,  as  the 
odour  is  very  unpleasant,  and  the  water  thus  impregnated  is 
poisonous  to  fish,  and  contrary  to  law — see  Fisheries  Act,  5  and 
6  Vic.,  c.  106. 

Spreading. 

Select,  when  possible,  clean,  short,  thick  pasture  ground  for 
this  operation  ;  and  mow  down  and  remove  any  weeds  that  rise 
above  the  surface  of  the  sward.  Lay  the  Flax  evenly  on  the 
grass,  and  spread  thin  and  very  equally.  If  the  directions  under 
the  head  of  rippling  have  been  attended  to,  the  handfuls  will 
come  readily  asunder  without  entangling.  Some  people  re- 
commend turning  it  on  the  grass  with  a  long  rod,  which  is  not, 
however,  generally  done  in  Ireland. 

Lifting. 

Six  to  eight  days,  if  the  weather  be  showery  or  ten  to  twelve 
if  it  be  dry,  should  be  sufficient  on  the  grass.  Ten  days  may 
be  taken  as  a  fair  average  in  ordinary  weather.  A  good  test  of 
its  being  ready  to  lift  is  to  rub  a  few  stalks  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom  ;  and  when  the  wood  breaks  easily,  and  separates  from 
the  fibre,  leaving  it  sound,  it  has  had  enough  of  the  grass.  Also 
when  a  large  proportion  of  the  stalk  are  perceived  to  form  a 
and  .of ring,  from  the  fibre  contracting  and  separating  from 


FLAX  CULTURE.  39 

the  woody  stalk.  But  the  most  certain  way  is  to  prove  a  small 
quantity  with  the  hand-break,  or  in  a  Flax  mill.  In  lifting, 
keep  the  lengths  straight  and  the  ends  even,  otherwise  great  loss 
will  occur  in  the  rolling  and  scutching.  If  heavy  dews  or  damp 
weather  prevail,  don't  lift  after  three  o'clock  p.m.  Let  it  be  set 
up  to  dry  for  a  few  hours,  and  afterwards  tie  it  up  in  small 
bundles ;  and  if  not  taken  soon  to  be  scutched,  it  will  be  much 
improved  by  being  put  in  small  stacks,  loosely  built,  with  stones 
or  brambles  in  the  bottom  to  keep  it  dry,  and  allow  a  free  cir- 
culation of  air.  Stacks  built  on  pillars  would  be  the  best. 

Drying 

By  fire  is  always  most  pernicious.  If  properly  steeped  and 
grassed  no  such  drying  is  necessary  ;  but  to  make  it  ready  for 
breaking  and  scutching,  exposure  to  the  sun  is  sufficient.  In 
some  districts  it  is  put  to  dry  on  kilns  in  a  damp  state,  and  is 
absolutely  burned  before  it  is  dry,  and  the  rich  oily  appearance 
of  the  Flax  is  always  greatly  impaired 

Breaking  and  Scutching, 

If  done  by  hand,  try  the  Belgian  system,  which  is  considered 
superior  to  that  practiced  in  Ireland.  If  by  milling,  the  farmer 
will  do  well  to  select  those  mills  in  which  good  machinery  has 
been  introduced  ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that,  ere  long,  by  further 
improvements,  increased  economy  in  these  establishments  will 
be  attained. 

The  Courtrai  System. 

This  mode  of  preparation  requires  to  be  very  carefully 
executed,  as  inattention  will  reduce  the  value  of  the  straw  and 
yield  inferior  fibre.  When  made  up  for  drying  in  large 
sheaves,  the  straw  is  much  injured,  the  outside  stalks  being 
much  discoloured  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  before  the  inside  of  the 
sheaf  is  dry.  The  Flax  stems  should  be  put  together  in 
bunches,  about  one-half  larger  than  a  man  can  grasp  in  one 
hand,  spread  a  little,  and  laid  on  the  ground  in  rows  after  each 
puller  ;  the  bunches  laid  with  tops  and  roots  alternately,  which 
prevents  the  seed-bolls  from  sticking  to  each  other  in  lifting. 
It  should  be  stooked  as  soon  after  pulling  as  possible,  and  never 


40 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


allowed  to  remain  overnight  unstooked,  except  in  settled  weather. 
The  stocking  should  go  on  at  the  same  time  as  the  pulling,  as, 
if  Flax  is  allowed  to  get  rain  while  on  the  ground,  its  colour  is 
injured.  A  well-trained  stooker  will  put  up  the  produce  of  a 
statute  acre  or  more  in  good  order  in  a  day,  with  two  boys  or 
girls  to  hand  him  the  bunches.  The  Flax  should  be  handed 
with  the  tops  to  the  stooker.  The  handfuls,  as  pulled,  are  set 
up,  resting  against  each  other — the  root  ends  spread  well  out, 
and  the  tops  joining  like  the  letter  A.  The  stooks  are  made 
eight  to  ten  feet  long,  and  a  short  strap  keeps  the  ends  firm. 
The  stooks  should  be  very  narrow  on  the  top,  and  thinly  put  up, 
so  that  they  may  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  weather.  In  six  or 
eight  days  at  most,  after  being  pulled,  the  Flax  should  be  ready 
for  tying  up  in  sheaves  of  the  size  of  corn  sheaves.  It  is  then 
ricked  and  allowed  to  stand  in  the  field  until  the  seed  is  dry 
enough  for  stacking.  To  build  the  rick,  lay  two  poles  parallel 
on  the  ground,  about  a  foot  asunder,  with  a  strong  upright  pole 
at  each  end.  The  Flax  is  then  built  the  length  of  a  sheaf  in 
thickness  or  breadth.  The  bottom  poles  should  be  laid  north 
and  south,  so  that  the  sun  shall  get  at  both  sides  of  the  rick 
during  the  day.  In  building,  the  sheaves  should  be  laid  tops 
and  roots  alternately,  built  seven  to  eight  feet  high,  and  on  the  top 
a  single  row  of  sheaves  lengthwise,  or  across  the  others,  and 
then  another  row  as  before,  but  with  the  tops  all  the  same  way, 
which  gives  a  slope  to  throw  off  rain ;  finish  by  putting  on 
the  top  a  little  straw  tied  with  a  rope.  In  this  way,  if  properly 
built,  it  will  stand  secure  for  months,  or  it  can  be  put  in  a  barn, 
if  preferred ;  in  either  case,  the  seed  is  to  be  taken  off  during 
the  winter,  and  the  flax  steeped  in  the  following  May. 


I1LMP   CULTURE.  11 


CHAPTER  II. 

HEMP    CULTURE. 

VARIOUS  fibres  are  known  in  commerce  under  the  common 
name  of  Hemp,  but  the  true  Hemp  plant  lias  characteristics 
peculiarly  its  own. 

Hemp,  (Ger.,  Hauf  ;  Dan.,  Kanip  or  Kinnep  ;  Swe.,  Hampa  ; 
Du.,  Hennip  ;  Fr.,  Chanvre  ;  It.,  Canape;  Rus.,  Konopel ; 
Pol.,  Konope ;  Erse.,  Canail ;  Anglo-Saxon,  Haenep ;  the 
Cannabis  saliva  of  botanists),  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  India 
or  some  other  Eastern  country,  but  it  has  long  since  been  natu- 
ralized in  Europe.  It  is  an  annual,  rising  to  the  height  of  from  3 
or  4  to  10  or  12  feet,  according  to  soil  and  climate  ;  the  root  is 
white  and  furnished  with  fibres.  If  the  plants  are  grown  apart  they 
are  branched,  even  from  the  bottom,  but  when  crowded  they  are 
erect  and  simple,  and  covered  with  fine  but  rough  pubescence. 
The  stem  is  hollow  or  filled  with  a  soft  pith,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  tender  brittle  substance,  called  the  reed  or  shive. 
Over  this  is  the  thin  bark,  composed  of  fibres,  extending  in  a 
parallel  direction  along  the  whole  stalk.  The  English  word 
Canvas  has  the  same  origin  as  Hemp,  and  hence  also  comes 
camp,  canopy,  &c.,  meaning  cloth  made  of  Hemp. 

Hemp  is  one  of  the  few  plants  cultivated  in  Europe  which 
has  the  male  and  female  flowers  in  different  plants.  Those 
bearing  flowers  only  are  called  male  Hemp,  and  those  bearing 
the  fruit  or  seed  the  female.  The  leaves  are  opposite  or  alter- 
nate, on  long  petioles,  composed  of  from  five  to  seven  narrow, 
lanceolate,  sharply  serrated  leaflets,  of  which  the  lower  are  the 
smallest,  all  tapering  at  the  apex  into  an  entire  point.  The 
fruit  grows  in  great  abundance  on  the  stem  of  the  female  Hemp. 
It  is  not  preceded  by  any  corolla,  but  by  a  membranacious  hairy 
calyx,  terminating  in  long  points,  enclosing  the  pistil,  the  base  of 
which  becomes  the  seed.  The  male  is  quicker  in  growth  than 
the  female,  and  generally  rise*  half  a  foot  higher,  by  which  pro- 


42  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

vision  of  nature,  the  farina  or  pollen  from  the  stamina,  or  the 
fecundating  dust  which  conveys  fertility  to  the  seed,  is  readily 
shed  on  the  lower  plant. 

Hemp  has  been  cultivated  in  Bengal  from  the  remotest 
antiquity,  but  not,  as  in  Europe,  for  its  fibre.  It  secretes  a 
resinous  principle  in  its  leaves,  as  well  as  in  the  churrus  col- 
lected from  off  the  young  tops  of  the  stem  and  flowers,  which 
is  highly  esteemed  in  all  eastern  countries,  on  account  of 
its  exhilarating  and  intoxicating  properties.  In  the  Hindoo 
economy  this  serves  as  a  substitute  for  malt,  the  favourite  in- 
toxicating liquor  called  banga  or  bhang,  being  produced  from 
it.  On  this  account  chiefly  it  is  cultivated  in  India,  Egypt, 
Arabia,  &c.,  and  in  these  lands  it  is  grown  very  extensively. 
The  Arabs  call  it  the  "  increaser  of  pleasure,"  the  "  cementer  of 
friendship,"  and  similar  names ;  and  it  is  called  Hasheesh  in 
Syria  and  the  adjoining  countries. 

When  cultivated  for  this  purpose  in  India,  Hemp  is  sown 
thinly  by  the  natives,  who  afterwards  transplant  the  young 
plants,  and  place  them  at  distances  of  nine  or  ten  feet  from 
each  other.  In  this  way  they  are  exposed  more  freely  to 
light,  heat  and  air,  which  enables  the  plant  to  produce  its 
secretions  in  a  more  complete  manner.  The  more  perfect 
these  secretions  are,  the  stronger  and  more  intoxicating  is 
the  bhang  or  hasheesh  extracted  from  this  famous  plant. 

The  use  of  Hemp  among  the  ancients  was  very  limited.  It 
is  never  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  not  often  by  the  heathen 
writers  of  antiquity,  and  Theophrastus  takes  no  notice  of  it. 

According  to  Herodotus,  garments  were  made  of  Hemp  by 
the  Thracians.  He  says  "  they  were  so  like  linen  that  none  but 
a  very  experienced  person  could  tell  whether  they  were  of  Hemp 
or  Flax ;  one  who  had  never  seen  Hemp  would  certainly  sup- 
pose them  to  be  Linen."  The  coarser  kinds  of  Linen  would,  it 
is  certain,  be  difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  finer  kinds  of 
Hempen  cloth.  To  the  present  day  Hemp  is  produced  abund- 
antly in  the  vicinity  of  the  countries  occupied  by  the  ancient 
Thracians.  The  men  who  drive  the  horses  which  drag  the 
boats  upon  the  Danube  between  Pesth  and  Vienna  now  wear 
coarse  tunics  of  Hemp. 

The  next  writer  who  mentions  Hemp  is  Moschion,  rather 


HEMP   CULTURE.  43 

more  than  200  years  B.C.  He  states  that  the  magnificent  ships 
of  Syracusia,  built  by  command  of  Hiero  II.,  were  provided  with 
Hemp  from  the  Rhone  for  making  ropes.  1  ho  common 
materials  for  such  purposes  were  the  Egyptian  Papyrus,  the 
bark  of  the  Lime  tree,  of  the  Hemp-leaved  Mallow,  and  of  the 
Spanish  Brown,  and  probably  also  the  Stipa  Tenactosina  of 
Linnaeus. 

Hemp  as  well  as  Flax  was  grown  abundantly  in  Colchis.  It 
was  brought  to  the  ports  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  by  the  Ionian  mer- 
chants, who  were  intimately  connected  with  the  northern  and 
eastern  coasts  of  the  Euxine  through  the  medium  of  their 
Milesian  colonies. 

It  is  probable  that  Hemp  was  not  the  natural  growth  of 
either  Italy,  Greece,  or  Asia  Minor,  but  that  it  was  confined  in 
a  great  degree  to  countries  lying  to  the  north  of  these  regions. 
The  intimate  connection  of  the  Romans  with  the  Greek  colony 
of  Marseilles  may  have  brought  it  among  the  Sabines,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  trade  between  the  Euxine  and  Miletus 
may  have  introduced  it  into  Caria. 

Pliny  says  that  towards  the  end  of  the  first  century  Hemp 
was  in  common  use  among  the  Romans  for  sails,  ropes,  &c., 
but  probably  during  the  dark  ages  which  succeeded  the  down- 
fall of  Rome  it  had  been  little  cultivated  or  used. 

In  many  countries  of  Europe,  particularly  Russia,  Italy,  and 
France,  Hemp  is  now  cultivated  most  extensively,  and  forms  an 
article  of  primary  commercial  importance.  It  is  also  grown  in 
other  European  countries  to  a  small  extent,  in  some  counties 
of  England,  and  more  extensively  in  some  of  the  States  in 
North  America. 

When  Hemp  is  grown  for  its  fibre  it  is  sown  thick,  and  shade 
and  moisture  are  advantageous  for  promoting  this  object.  If 
for  cordage,  the  Hemp  should  be  sown  in  drills,  as  a  strong  and 
coarse  fibre  is  required,  and  it  is  best  produced  in  that  way. 
When  it  is  wanted  for  weaving  purposes,  it  ought  to  be  sown 
broad- cast,  as  the  stems  rise  more  slender  and  finer  in  propor- 
tion to  their  proximity,  provided  they  are  not  so  near  each  other 
as  to  choke  and  impede  the  growth.  For  whatever  purpose 
Hemp  is  grown  there  should  never  be  a  smaller  interval  than  a 
foot  between  each  plant. 


44  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

When  sown  broad-cast  three  bushels  of  seed  is  the  ordinary 
allowance  for  an  acre.  If  in  drills,  from  one  and  a  half  to  two 
bushels  are  sufficient,  but  if  the  soil  be  very  rich,  a  little  less 
should  be  sown  whether  it  be  broadcast  or  in  drills.  After 
the  sowing  great  vigilance  should  be  used  to  keep  off  the  birds, 
or  they  will  play  sad  havoc  with  the  seed,  and  leave  little  to 
germinate  and  produce  a  crop.  The  ground  requires  very 
little  after  care  or  labour  till  the  Hemp  is  fit  for  pulling,  as  the 
plant  is  never  overrun  with  weeds,  but,  on  the  contrary,  has  the 
remarkable  property  of  destroying  their  vegetation.  Agricul- 
turists sometimes  take  advantage  of  this  well  known  fact,  and  by 
sowing  a  crop  or  two  of  Hemp  on  the  rankest  soils,  they  subdue 
all  noxious  weeds,  and  entirely  cleanse  the  ground  from  these 
troublesome  intruders. 

Seed  from  Holland  is  most  esteemed,  because  it  ripens  soon, 
and  yields  abundant  crops  of  Hemp  of  a  fine  quality.  Well  grown 
English  seed  also  produces  a  good  quality  of  fibre,  and  is  very 
suitable  for  sowing.  Although  Indian  seed  looks  well,  it  is  not 
so  much  liked  for  sowing,  as  it  does  not  yield  so  good  a 
crop  of  fibre  in  the  first  year.  The  seed  should  be  of  a  bright 
gray  colour  and  plump.  If  it  has  undergone  heating  in  any 
way  the  germinating  principle  will  be  lost,  but  this  can  be  known 
by  the  taste,  which,  if  fit  for  sowing,  should  when  bitten  be 
sweet,  but  if  unfit  it  will  be  bitter  or  acrid. 

Hemp,  like  its  sister  Flax,  will  grow  in  almost  any  country, 
but  it  seems  to  thrive  best  in  temperate  regions.  The  Italians 
have  a  saying  that  Hemp  may  be  grown  everywhere,  but  it 
cannot  be  produced  fit  for  use,  either  in  heaven  or  earth,  with- 
out manure.  Eich  moist  earth  is  considered  most  favourable 
to  its  growth,  with  a  fair  portion  of  sand  to  keep  the  soil  open 
and  light  to  allow  the  roots  to  spread.  It  seldom  thrives  on  a 
stiff  cold  clay  soil,  and  poor  land  will  yield  but  a  scanty  crop, 
although  of  fine  quality.  If  the  soil  be  over  rich  the  plant 
grows  too  luxuriantly,  and  produces  a  strong  coarse  fibre. 
Poor  soils  may  be  made  to  produce  a  good  crop  by  a  plentiful 
supply  of  manure,  and  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of  manure  be 
applied  Hemp  may  be  grown  year  after  year  on  the  same  spot. 

In  Lincolnshire,  where  strong  and  heavy  Hemp  is  grown,  the 
hemp  gardens  are  small  and  near  the  houses  of  the  growers. 


HEMP  CULTURE.  45 

These  gardens  absorb  vast  quantities  of  manure,  and  produce 
1 1  up  every  year,  without  any  alternation  of  the  crops.  Some- 
times when  the  Hemp  is  pulled  early  a  few  turnips  are  sown  for 
a  stubble  crop.  In  Italy,  Hemp  is  sown  in  their  best  lands, 
Uhich  are  rich  and  strong  loan  is,  and  are  made  fine  and  friable. 
In  Komagna,  where  the  best  Hemp  is  produced,  it  may  be 
grown  anywhere  with  inanniv.  When  a  fine  quality  of  fibre 
is  wanted,  the  most  suitable  soil  is  selected,  cultivators  being 
regulated  in  their  choice  of  soil  by  the  description  of  Hemp 
they  wish  to  raise.  In  England  the  generality  of  soil  will 
require  a  dressing  of  ten  tons  of  well  rotted  farmyard  dung  per 
acre,  ploughed  and  harrowed  in  early  in  April. 

The  tost  time  for  sowing  in  England  is  from  the  beginning 
to  the  middle  of  May,  but  it  may  be  done  up  to  the  first  week 
in  June,  although  late  sown  plants  are  apt  to  grow  thin  and  weak. 
In  Russia  it  is  sown  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  end  of 
June,  and  some  farmers  think  the  latter  the  better  time,  as  the 
frosts  injure  the  early  sowings.  There  the  season  of  reaping  is 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  September ;  it  is  therefore 
between  thirteen  and  fourteen  weeks  in  a  state  of  vegetation. 
The  male  plants,  or  white  Hemp,  come  to  maturity  about  three 
or  four  weeks  before  the  female.  They  are  known  to  be  ripe  by  the 
flowers  fading,  the  farina  falling,  and  the  stems  turning  partially 
yellow.  The  Eussian  summer  though  short  is  regular  while  it  lasts, 
and  the  temperature  is  sufficiently  high  to  bring  the  Hemp  to  full 
perfection.  There  the  male  plants  are  pulled  before  the  female.  In 
Lincolnshire,  in  Italy,  and  in  other  parts,  the  male  plant  is 
gathered  a  month  earlier  than  the  female,  and  small  paths  are 
made  at  intervals  through  the  fields,  to  enable  the  persons  em- 
ployed to  pull  the  plants  which  are  ripe  without  trampling 
down  those  which  are  to  remain. 

The  ripeness  of  the  female  Hemp  is  known  by  the  same  indi- 
cations as  those  of  the  male,  and  also  by  the  calyx  partially 
opening,  and  its  seed  beginning  to  change  colour.  In  Suffolk, 
both  the  male  and  female  plants  are  gathered  at  the  same  time, 
nnd  where  seed  is  not  wanted  this  may  be  done,  without  seriously 
injuring  the  fibre.  They  are  both  less  injured  by  being  pulled 
too  soon  than  too  late,  but  if  too  young  the  fibres  though  fine, 
are  not  so  lasting  as  when  the  plants  are  gathered  in  a  more 


46  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

matured  state.  If  allowed  to  stand  until  they  are  quite  ripe, 
the  fibres  adhere  so  tenaciously  to  the  reed  as  not  to  be  readily 
separated,  and  they  become  so  coarse  that  no  subsequent  pro- 
cess can  reduce  them  to  a  proper  degree  of  fineness.  Some 
plants  are,  therefore,  preserved  for  seed,  and  these  require  no 
particular  cultivation  ;  but  some  male  Hemp  should  also  be  left 
to  attain  maturity,  and  shed  its  farina  or  pollen  upon  the  seed- 
bearing  plant.  Forty  plants  raised  in  the  common  way,  yielded 
only  a  pound  and  a-half  of  seed,  whereas,  from  a  single  plant 
which  grew  by  itself,  seven  pounds  and  a-half  were  obtained. 

During  its  season  of  rapid  growth,  the  plant  necessarily 
requires  moisture,  and  irrigation  is  sometimes  practised.  The 
climate  of  Italy  being  remarkable  for  its  clearness,  regularity, 
dryness  and  warmth,  irrigation  is  essentially  necessary  for  much 
of  its  agriculture,  especially  for  Hemp.  The  Italian  Hemp  is 
fine,  soft,  light  coloured  and  strong,  as  well  as  long  in  the  staple, 
which  is  partly  owing  to  its  careful  culture,  and  partly  to  the 
soil,  climate,  &c. 

Each  plant  is  pulled  up  singly  by  the  root,  care  being  taken 
not  to  break  or  cramp  the  stem  in  the  hand.  Before  the  plants 
are  taken  from  the  field  the  leaves  and  flowers,  and  sometimes 
the  roots,  are  taken  off  with  a  wooden  sword,  and  these  are  left 
on  the  ground,  as  they  greatly  contribute  to  enrich  it  for  the 
succeeding  crop.  The  stalks  are  then  arranged  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  equal  lengths,  the  root  ends  being  all  laid  on  the 
same  side  of  each  handful  or  bundle,  which  is  tied  round  with 
one  of  the  stalks.  It  is  then  set  up  in  shock  for  a  week  or  so 
to  dry,  and  if  intended  to  be  kept  till  spring  it  is  tied  in  larger 
bundles,  stacked  and  thatched. 

When  the  female  Hemp  is  gathered,  it  is  allowed  to  stand 
eight  or  ten  days  exposed  to  the  air,  to  allow  the  seed  to  dry 
and  ripen,  the  tops  being  covered  with  undergrowth  to  keep  off 
the  birds,  after  which  the  heads  are  cut  off,  and  the  seed  gently 
thrashed  and  separated  in  the  same  manner  as  linseed.  The 
female  plant  is  generally  stacked  during  the  winter,  and  not 
steeped  till  the  spring.  Some  parties  say  that  instead  of  drying 
the  hemp  in  the  sun  for  a  short  time,  it  should  be  steeped  as 
speedily  as  possible  after  being  pulled.  In  this  state  it  is  said 
to  require  only  four  days,  but  where  it  has  been  dried,  eight  days 


MP   CULTURE.  47 

of  steeping  Others  approve  of  drying  first,  but  the  question 
which  is  best,  has  not  been  definitely  settled,  and,  until  it  has 
been,  use  and  wont  may  be  the  rule. 

The  object  sought  to  be  attained  by  steeping  Hemp,  as  in  the 
case  of  Flax,  is  by  a  slight  degree  of  fermentation  to  enable  the 
epidermis,  or  outer  skin,  to  separate  readily  from  the  bark,  and 
this  from  the  boon  or  reed.  It  is  generally  steeped  in  the  same 
manner  as  Flax,  the  bundles  of  Hemp  being  laid  at  the  bottom 
•  •I'  the  water  in  the  pond  or  ditch,  and  covered  with  straw  and 
stones  to  keep  all  down.  It  is  desirable  to  make  a  small 
stream  of  water  pass  through  the  steeping  place,  as  putrid 
water,  although  it  is  said  to  make  the  fibres  soft,  gives  them  a 
disagreeable  colour. 

The  length  of  time  to  keep  Hemp  in  the  steep  is  readily  ascer- 
tained by  taking  out  one  of  the  steeped  stems,  and,  holding  it  by 
tin-  root  end,  draw  the  thumb  nail  up  the  stem  to  the  top.  If 
the  fibre  split  up  the  stem,  it  has  been  sufficiently  retted. 

When  the  Hemp  is  sufficiently  steeped,  it  is  taken  to  a  field  of 
grass,  hence  called  grassing,  which  is  clean  and  free  from  cattle. 
It  is  there  spread  out  very  evenly,  and  allowed  to  lie  for  three  or 
four  weeks,  in  order  to  bleach  and  to  free  the  fibre  from  the  root. 
During  that  period  it  must  be  carefully  turned  over  with  light 
long  poles  every  three  or  four  days.  When  pink  spots  appear  ou 
the  stem  it  is  sufficiently  bleached,  and  when  dry  it  is  tied  up  in 
bundles  again,  and  carried  to  the  barn  or  stack.  Dew  retting 
is  another  mode  of  preparation,  in  which  the  stems,  after  being 
pulled,  are  allowed  to  stand  in  the  stook  or  shock  for  two  or  three 
days  to  dry,  and  then  spread  out  on  land  where  grass  is  plenti- 
ful. It  may  require  to  lie  for  six  weeks,  being  frequently  turned 
during  that  period.  When  the  pink  spots  appear,  it  must  be 
taken  up  at  once  and  formed  into  bundles  to  dry,  but  the  fibre 
will  not  sustain  any  damage  until  they  appear  Snow  retting 
is  practised  in  Russia  and  Sweden.  After  the  first  fall  they 
spread  the  Hemp,  already  dried,  on  the  snow,  and  leave  it  there 
to  be  covered  with  other  falls  of  snow  until  spring,  when  it  is 
usually  found  to  be  sufficiently  retted.  In  Livonia  the  Hemp 
is  steeped  in  a  series  of  basins,  one  above  the  other,  but  the 
French  have  given  over  this  mode  of  steeping. 

After  being  steeped  or  otherwise  retted,  the  Hemp  is 


48 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


through  between  fluted  rollers  to  break  it,  and  then  scutched 
much  in  the  same  way  as  Flax,  and  it  is  then  in  a  marketable 
state,  and  fit  for  being  heckled  preparatory  to  spinning,  or  for 
being  made  into  cordage.  The  heckles  used  are  somewhat 
coarser  than  those  for  Flax,  the  teeth  of  the  coarsest  being 
usually  about  an  inch  in  circumference  at  bottom,  tapering 
gradually  to  a  sharp  point,  and  they  are  set  about  two  inches 
apart  from  each  other. 

The  produce  of  an  acre  of  land  sown  with  Hemp  usually 
averages  from  four  to  six  hundredweight  of  scutched  Hemp,  and 
from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  bushels  of  seed.  Hemp-seed  affords 
a  very  useful  oil,  similar  in  its  qualities  to  linseed  ;  also  cake 
which  is  largely  imported  into  Great  Britain,  and  sold  to 
farmers  for  feeding  purposes. 

Hemp,  as  already  mentioned,  is  largely  cultivated  in  Russia, 
almost  every  province  of  that  great  country  producing  more  or 
less  of  it  For  a  very  long  period  it  has  been  one  of  the  most 
important  articles  of  export,  St  Petersburg  and  Riga  being  the 
two  great  shipping  ports.  When  it  is  brought  from  the  interior 
to  the  port  of  shipment,  in  the  spring  or  summer,  it  is  selected 
and  made  up  into  bundles  by  sworn  brackers,  who  generally  act 
impartially,  and  assort  it  with  considerable  care.  At  St  Peters- 
burg it  is  assorted  into  clean  or  firsts,  outshot  or  seconds,  and 
half  clean  or  thirds.  At  Riga  the  three  qualities  are  distin- 
guished as  Rhyne,  Outshot,  and  Pass.  In  both  places  the  refuse  is 
called  Codilla.  Tickets  are  attached  to  each  bundle  as  selected,  and 
the  different  qualities  are  well  known  to  the  various  purchasers 
by  these  names.  Particular  care  is  taken  to  ship  Hemp  in  fine 
weather,  as  it  is  apt  to  heat  on  the  voyage  if  it  gets  wet,  and 
so  become  totally  spoiled.  The  quality  of  Russian  Hemp  is 
admirably  adapted  for  cordage,  and  it  has  long  been  largely 
used  for  that  purpose  in  this  and  in  other  countries. 

Hemp  is  grown  both  in  the  plains  and  on  the  high  mountain 
ranges  of  India.  In  Bengal,  where  the  land  is  so  low  as  to  remain 
moist  during  the  dry  season,  it  is  cultivated  and  thrives  luxuri- 
antly during  the  cold  season.  There  it  only  occupies  the 
ground  for  about  eighty  days,  or  from  the  beginning  of  June  to 
the  eud  of  August.  It  thrives  well  in  the  Himalayas  at  an 
elevation  of  from  GOOD  to  7000  feet,  and  it  is  grown  there  both 


JUTE  Ct "1 .11  i:i:—  IN    THE   FIELD.  49 

ii»r  its  intoxicating  properties  and  for  its  fibre.  It  also  grows 
in  th<>  nmtliorn  districts  of  Nepaul,  and  in  the  southern  and 
\v» -<t « m  i IK »\  inces  of  India.  The  quality,  for  want  of  knowledge 
and  CM iv  in  the  culture,  is  not  ]>;irtu  uhnly  fine,  but  it  is  strong 
Mii«  I  suitable  for  many  purposes.  It  might  be  produced  in 
almost  unlimited  extent,  and  at  less  cost  than  Russian  Hemp  ; 
and  {xjrhaps  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  it  may  supersede 
other  Hemps  in  this  country. 

In  former  times  Hemp  was  largely  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  Linens,  but  very  little  of  it  is  now  consumed  in  that  way. 
The  fibre  is  too  strong  and  harsh  for  the  finer  class  of  goods,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  spin  it  into  small  sizes  of  yarn  ;  indeed  it  must 
undergo  some  process  to  soften  it  before  it  can  be  properly  spun 
«'\.-r  machinery  at  all.  For  twines,  cordage,  and  similar 
articles,  it  has  long  been  deservedly  popular,  and,  from  its 
strength  and  peculiar  adaptation  for  ropes,  these  seem  to  be 
the  purposes  to  which  it  ought  to  be  applied.  When  Flax  is 
<l«'.tr  and  Hemp  cheap,  which  occasionally  happens,  Riga  Hemp, 
being  softer  and  finer  fibred  than  St  Petersburg,  is  often  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  sail-cloth,  but  for  this  purpose  it  is  not 
so  pliable  as  flax -cloth,  and  not  so  well  liked  by  practical  sea- 
men. It  was  also  largely  manufactured  into  bagging,  sacking, 
&c.,  and  it  is  still  used  to  some  extent  in  this  way,  but  these 
goods  have  been  nearly  superseded  by  its  cheap  rival  Jute. 


CHAPTER  III. 

JUTE     CULTURE. 

1.— The  Culture  of  Jute  in  the  Field. 

INDIA  abounds  with  fibre-yielding  plants,  some  of  which  have 
been  long  known  to,  and  manufactured  into  cloth,  twines,  &c. 
l>y  the  natives  of  that  country.  Until  a  comparatively  recent 

D 


50 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


period  very  little  was  known  in  this  country  of  almost  any  of 
these  fibres,  and  scarcely  any  of  them  were  employed  by  us  in 
the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics.  So  long  ago  as  1792  the 
Directors  of  the  East  India  Company  directed  enquiry  to  be  made 
by  the  collectors  of  districts  in  Bengal  regarding  substitutes  for 
Hemp,  and  a  good  deal  of  useful  information  was  then  got 
respecting  the  culture  of  Sunn  Hemp  in  India.  In  the  years 
1796  to  1798  great  losses  were  sustained  by  the  Company  in 
their  endeavours  to  introduce  some  of  the  fibres  of  India  into 
this  country,  as  their  expenditure  upon  that  object  exceeded  the 
amount  of  the  sales  by  more  than  £45,000.  The  accounts  of 
the  exports  of  these  fibres  from  India  are  imperfect,  but  by  the 
reports  on  the  affairs  of  India,  given  in  to  the -Committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1831,  it  appears  that  in  the  official  year 
1796-7,  only  591  maunds  (not  quite  22  tons)  of  Flax,  Hemp,  and 
twine  were  exported  from  Calcutta  to  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
2883  to  the  United  States  of  America.  At  the  same  period  521 
maunds  of  Jute  were  exported  to  the  United  Kingdom,  159  to 
America,  and  1100  to  Hamburg,  being  about  65  tons  in  all 
Besides  these  fibres,  34,000  gunny  bags,  made  of  Jute,  were 
exported  from  Calcutta  to  America  in  the  year  1796,  and 
considerable  quantities  to  Penang,  China,  JSTew  South  Wales,  &c. 

The  East  India  Company,  finding  the  trade  so  unprofitable, 
discontinued  the  importation  of  fibres  into  Great  Britain  until 
1800,  when  differences  occurred  between  this  country  and  the 
Northern  Powers  of  Europe,  which  induced  the  Government  to 
look  elsewhere  than  to  Eussia  for  Hemp.  In  that  year  the  Direc- 
tors sent  out  a  person  to  India  to  establish  the  cultivation  of 
Hemp,  and  the  experiment  was  continued  for  some  time,  it  is 
said,  in  -an  expensive  manner. 

In  a  letter,  dated  4th  February  1803,  from  the  Lords  of  the 
Privy  Council  for.  Trade  and  Plantations,  to  the  Court  of  Direc- 
tors of  the  East  India  Company,  they  were  recommended  to 
encourage  as  much  as  possible  the  growth  of  strong  Hemp  in 
such  parts  of  their  dependencies  as  were  best  suited  for  the  pro- 
duction of  that  article.  The  Court,  on  23d  of  same  month, 
replied  that  they  would  take  the  needful  measures  for  accom- 
plishing the  object  of  their  Lordships'  wishes. 

Farms  were  accordingly  taken  for  the  cultivation  of  Hemp 


JUTE  CULTURE— IN  THE  FIELD.  .">  1 

and  of  substitutes  for  it,  and  a  scientific  gentleman  was  appointed 
t "  hike  charge  of  one  of  them.  Ho  cultivated  a  great  variety  of 
the  fibrous  plants  of  India,  made  experiments  with  the  fibres, 
and  sent  specimens  of  them  to  this  country.  Among  the  fibres 
suhjec ted  to  experiment  were  the  Brown  Hemp  of  Bombay,  the 
Sunn  of  Bengal,  and  different  species  of  Jute.  Considerable 
quantities  of  the  differed  kinds  of  Sunn  and  Jute  were  fmm 
time  to  time  imported  into  this  country  by  the  East  India 
Company.  The  < -\j.<  liments  were  finally  discontinued  in  18J1, 
but  much  valuable  information  was  obtained  ing  those 

and  other  tibrous  plants  during  the  time  they  were  carried  on. 

After  this  period,  the  Company,  still  desirous  to  introduce  some 
of  these  fibres  into  the  manufactures  of  Britain,  now  and  ayain 
imported  them.  Sometimes  they  discontinued  the  importation 
fora  time,  and  a^aiu  resumed  it,  and  had  the  fibres  tried  by 
ropemakers  and  others  in  London,  but  with  little  practical 
result.  In  the  case  of  Jute,  ignorance  and  prejudice,  and 
the  want  of  having  it  thoroughly  tested  by  properly  qualfiei 
1  'arties,  long  kept  its  valuable  properties  from  being  known.  As 
these  were  gradually  discovered,  prejudice  gave  way  to  reason, 
and  the  despised  and  calumniated  article  rose  into  favour,  and 
soon  took  high  rank  among  fibrous  substances. 

Jute  is  the  fibre  of  plants  of  the  Corchorus  family,  and  is 
said  to  be  derived  from  two  species  of  it,  viz. : — Corchorus  oli- 
-  and  Corchorus  capsularis.  Both  plants  are  common  in 
almost  every  part  of  India,  and,  from  the  following  description 
of  them,  they  seem  to  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  i 
oth.r,  both  in  appearance  while  growing  and  in  their  several 
products. 

Corchorus  olitorius,  Pot  Herb,  or  Jew's  Mallow,  is  an  herba- 
ceous  annual,  which   in   India  grows   to   the  height  of  from 
o ten, or,  under  favourable  circumstances,  twelve  or  fourteen 
The  stem  is  erect,  smooth,  cylindrical,  and  more  or  le»s 
branched  toward  the  top.     The  leaves  arc  smooth,  and  of  a 
liv.lv  mven  colour,  alternate  on  foot  stalks.  ,.\al  or  ovo-lanceo- 
late  in  shape,  with  the  margin  dentate,  and  with  the  two  lower 
dentiluies  terminated  by  a  slender  filament.       The  stipules  are 
simple,  awl-shaj.ed,  and  of  reddish  colour  at  the  base  ;  and  the 
peduncles  or  flower-stalks  are  one  or  two  flowered.     The  flowers 


52 


THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 


are  small,  having  the  calyx  consisting  of  five  pieces  or  sepals, 
the  corolla. of  five  yellow  petals,  and  the  stamens  numerous. 
Torus  or  nectary  cup-shaped,  with  glands  at  the  base  of  the 
petals.  Ovary  solitary,  ripening  into  a  long,  nearly  cylindrical 
capsule,  ten-ribbed,  six  to  eight  times  longer  than  it  is  broad, 
five-celled,  and  formed  of  five  valves,  with  five  terminal  points. 
Seeds  numerous,  with  nearly  perfect  transverse  partitions  be- 
tween them. 

Corcliorus  capsularis,  or  Capsular  Corchorus,  is  also  an 
herbaceous  annual,  with  a  straight,  smooth,  and  cylindrical, 
afterwards  branched  stem,  of  from  four  or  five,  to  eight,  ten, 
or  twelve  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  have  long  footstalks,  and 
are  oval,  acuminate,  thin,  of  a  light  green,  and  serrated  at  their 
margins,  with  the  two  lower  serratures  terminating  in  narrow 
filaments.  The  flowers  are  small,  yellow,  and  like  those  of  the 
other  species  in  the  number  of  their  parts.  The  capsules  are 
short  and  globose,  wrinkled,  and  muricated,  with  five  cells,  and 
composed  of  five  valves  ;  seeds  few  in  each  cell,  and  without 
transverse  partitions.  Both  plants  flower  in  the  rainy  season, 
and  the  fruit  is  ripe  in  September  and  October. 

The  two  plants  are  easily  distinguished  by  the  capsules  or  seed- 
vessels,  the  one  being  elongated  and  cylindrical,  and  the  other 
short  and  globular.  The  name  Corchorus  is  from  the  KorJchorus 
of  the  Greeks,  which  was  a  pot-herb,  and  is"  by  many  supposed 
to  have  been  the  first  described  of  these  plants.  It  is  still  cul- 
tivated in  the  neighbourhood  of  Aleppo,  and  is  said  to  be  eaten 
as  a  pot-herb  in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  as  well  as  in  Palestine. 
Kanwolf  saw  the  Jews  about  Aleppo  using  the  leaves  as  a  pot- 
herb, hence  the  name  of  Olus  Judaicum  in  old  authors,  which, 
by  the  French,  is  translated  Mauve  de  Juif,  and  in  English 
Jew's  Mallow.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  a  couple  of  feet  in  the 
dry  soil  of  Syria,  and  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  plant  alluded  to 
in  Job  xxx,  and  4. 

Dr  Buchanan  says  he  was  informed  that  it  was  the  latter 
species  the  young  leaves  of  which  were  eaten  by  the  natives  as 
a  sort  of  spinach.  It  would  appear,  however,  from  the  best 
information  which  has  been  obtained  on  the  subject,  that  in 
India  the  leaves  of  both  are  used  as  pot-herbs,  and  that 
the  stems  of  both  yield  the  fibre  known  in  commerce  by 


JUTE  CULTURE — IN   THE   FIELD.  53 

the  naniu  of  Jute ;  and  farther,  that  the  plants  are  there  cul- 
t  i  vatod  on  both  of  these  accounts.  The  young  leaves  of  the  plants, 
tin  nigh  eaten  and  apparently  relished  by  the  natives,  Hin- 
doos and  Mu-sulraans,  as  a  pot-herb,  have  a  coarse,  weedy 
flavour,  little  suited  to  European  palates. 

In  Sanscrit  the  plants  are  called  Putta  ;  in  Bengalee  the 
first  is  called  Pat  or  Paut,  the  second  Ghi-nalita  Pat,  and 
(ho  fibre  of  both  Jute.  Cloth  made  of  the  fibre  is  called  Tat, 
Afegila,  and  Chotee  or  Choti,  whence  probably  the  name  Jute 
has  been  derived.  The  plant  or  plants  is  by  far  the  most  exten- 
bively  cultivated  of  all  the  fibrous  family  throughout  the  delta 
of  Bengal.  Its  easy  culture,  rapid  growth,  and  comparatively 
large  produce,  present  advantages  not  to  be  overlooked  by  that 
eminently  practical  and  economical  people,  the  natives  of 
Bengal. 

It  is  generally  grown,  during  the  rainy  season,  on  high  land, 
or  land  not  subject  to  submersion  like  rice  land.  The  seeds 
are  sown  in  April  or  May,  when  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
rain  to  moisten  the  ground,  on  land  which  has  been  well 
ploughed  and  smoothed,  and  the  seeds,  which  are  sown  broad- 
cast, are  then  harrowed  in  the  same  manner  as  paddy  or  rice 
land.  If  sown  very  thick,  the  fibre  is  soft  and  silky,  but  the 
plants  do  not  attain  a  great  height,  and  the  jield  is  thus  les- 
sened. When  sown  very  thin,  the  plants  are  long  and  strong, 
and  the  fibre  harsh.  A  medium  between  too  thick  and  too 
thin  sowing  would  thus  appear  best,  as  it  yields  both  quantity 
and  quality  of  fibre.  No  plant  is  more  grateful  for  good 
cultivation  than  Jute,  and  it  thrives  best  in  a  good  loamy  soil, 
well  manured,  or  which  has  been  well  manured  under  a  former 
crop.  A  hot  and  moderately  rainy  season  suits  it  best,  but 
excessive  rains  or  bad  drainage  injure  or  deteriorate  it.  In 
this  respect  it  is  a  precarious  and  delicate  crop,  but  otherwise 
it  presents  the  advantage  of  affording  a  more  valuable  return 
from  land  at  that  season  than  any  other  crop  the  cultiva- 
tor can  grow.  It  requires  to  be  carefully  weeded  when  young, 
thr  lit-st  time  IK -ing  when  the  plants  are  about  a  foot  and  a  half 
high,  after  which  it  acquires  strength  enough  to  keep  down  all 
intruders.  A  poor  crop,  or  one  which  has  suffered  from  exces- 
sive rains,  will  only  attain  a  height  of  from  three  to  six  feet,  but 


54  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

/ 

with  heat  and  a  due  quantity  of  rain,  in  a  good  well  manured 
soil,  it  attains  a  height  of  from,  ten  to  twelve  or  even  fourteen 
feet.  The  stems  vary  from  one  to  two  inches  in  circumference, 
and  some  of  them,  under  very  favourable  circumstances,  even 
exceed  this  thickness. 

Heat  and  moisture  are  the  great  provocatives  to  a  luxuriant 
crop,  and  in  many  districts  appliances  are  adopted  by  the 
natives  to  increase  both.  The  lands  in  which  Jute  is  grown  are 
generally  nearly  level,  and  in  order  to  conserve  the  rain  it  is 
divided  into  small  plots  by  miniature  mud  dykes,  from  six  to 
nine  or  twelve  inches  in  height.  After  the  crop  has  risen  about 
three  or  four  feet  above  the  ground,  and  after  the  weeding  is 
finished,  the  gaps  in  the  dykes  are  filled  up,  and  the  rain  is 
retained  and  allowed  to  run  over  the  top  of  the  embankments. 
The  heat  of  the  sun  raises  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  these 
artificial  reservoirs  to  perhaps  100  degrees  or  more,  the  while 
retaining  considerable  heat  in  the  soil  below.  This  forces  on 
the  growth  of  the  plant  with  great  rapidity,  and  makes  it  at- 
tain a  height  which,  under  less  favourable  circumstances,  it 
never  could  have  reached.  Before  the  plant  is  cut  the  water  is 
run  off  and  the  land  allowed  to  dry. 

Where  the  soil  is  naturally  damp  and  cold  this  irrigation  is 
not  needful ;  indeed  it  would  be  injurious  to  the  Jute,  and  re- 
tard rather  than  encourage  its  growth.  Should  the  rains  be 
excessively  heavy,  the  water  flows  over  the  banks  so  quickly 
that  it  has  no  time  to  become  heated,  and  it  sours  the  ground, 
and  seriously  inj  ures  the  plant.  Even  when  more  than  usually 
heavy,  although  not  excessively  so,  there  is  not  enough  heat 
produced  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the  crops  sufficiently,  and 
little  benefit  accrues.  When  the  season  is  very  dry,  the  little 
reservoirs  do  not  retain  depth  of  water  to  keep  the  temperature 
of  both  the  water  and  the  ground  below  it  uniform  night  and 
day,  and  the  full  advantage  of  the  system  is  not  realized. 
Moderate  rains  and  a  warm  summer  suit  Jute  best,  and  are 
highly  favourable  to  this  mode  of  culture,  and  fortunately  they 
are  the  rule  and  the  extremes  the  exception, 

The  practice  of  forcing  on  the  growth  of  Jute  in  this  manner 
has  its  defects  as  well  as  its  advantages.  Much  of  the  Jute 
imported  into  this  country  has  a  root  end,  in  many  cases  both 


JUTE  CULTURE  — IN    Tit!-:   FIELD.  55 

and  hardi,  which  N  not  easily  Softened  and  broken  down, 
and  without  this  it  is  difficult  to  spin  it  into  ih,  lighter  sizes  of 
i.  Some  para-Is  have  also  what  are  called  r»/oi<  rt,  that  is, 
hard  stems,  the  fibres  of  which  are  not  easily  scpar.it. •<!.  and 
therefore  much  di-liked  l»y  the  spinner.  The  little  pools  or 
rvoirs  arc  the  cause  of  both.  The  lower  part  of  the  stem  of 
the  plant  which  has  been  under  the  water,  or  in  close  pm\i 
mity  to  it,  imbibes  a  mucilaginous  matter  from  the  water,  which 
hardens  the  natural  Chiton  of  the  plant  and  cements  the  fibres 
together.  This  docs  not  come  off  in  any  of  the  Buh>cquent 
processes,  and  it  remains  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  and  is  what 
is  called  the  rout,  although  it  is  not  really  the  root  of  the  plant, 
having  been  grown  above  the  ground,  but  under  the  water. 
\\honanyoftheplantsgetbent  by  wind  or  other  cause  and 
fall  down  in  the  water  (and  sometimes  quantities  of  it  may  be 
wholly  bent  or  broken  down  and  lodged  in  the  water),  the 
portions  which  are  so  immersed  become  saturated  with  the 
mucus  in  the  water,  which  fastens  the  gum  in  the  plant,  glues 
the  fibres  together,  and  forms  runners.  This  cause  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  sometimes  only  a  single  runner  or  two  are  found 
in  a  bale,  and  at  other  times  whole  strikes  of  them  are  met 
with.  Sometimes  they  extend  down  only  a  portion  of  the  fibre, 
and  at  other  times  throughout  its  whole  length.  When  the 
stalk  is  bent  the  juices  cannot  ascend  properly  to  perfect  the 
plant,  and  the  fibres  do  not  attain  maturity.  Such  stems  are 
not  so  good  as  others,  even  although  there  was  no  mucilage 
upon  them  ;  but  were  some  simple  means  adopted  to  remove  the 
glutinous  matter,  it  would  probably  improve  their  quality. 

The  crop  being  ripe  for  cutting,  the  plants  are  cut  down 
close  to  the  roots,  their  tops  clipped  off,  and  they  are  tied  up  in 
1 » u  n dies  of  from  fifty  to  a  hundred .  Ten ,  fifteen ,  or  more  of  these 
bundles  arc  then  laid  in  a  shallow  tank  or  reservoir  of  water,  or  in 
some  neighbouring  ditch,  over  them  a  quantity  of  turf  or  clods  are 
placed  to  make  them  sink  in  the  water,  and  to  keep  themcov. 
until  they  are  sufficiently  retted.  They  are  generally  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  water  for  eight  or  ten  days,  and  sometimes  longer, 
according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  during  which  time  they  are 
visited  daily  by  the  cultivator,  who  tries  the  bark  with  his  nails, 
until  he  finds  that  decomposition  has  arrived  at  the  proper  point. 


56 


THE    RAW  MATERIAL. 


In  preparing  Jute  intended  for  export,  the  water  retting  process 
is  pushed  to  its  utmost  limits,  short  of  actually  destroying  the 
fibre  by  excessive  putrefaction.  This  is  done  in  order  to  obtain 
that  thoroughly  detached  silky  character  of  fibre,  which  is  so 
much  valued  in  this  country.  When  the  bark  separates  easily, 
and  the  stalk  and  fibres  become  soft,  it  is  ready  for  being  re- 
moved from  the  water.  If  steeped  too  long  the  Jute  always 
suffers  more  or  less  in  strength,  and  an  extra  day  or  two  would 
totally  destroy  it.  Jute  prepared  for  native  consumption  is 
darker  coloured  and  not  so  clean,  but  it  is  more  durable  than 
that  which  is  grown  specially  for  shipment.  It  is,  however, 
cheaper,  as  the  yield  per  acre  is  said  to  be  much  larger. 

The  proper  time  for  removing  the  Jute  from  the  steep  having 
arrived,  the  weight  upon  the  stalks  is  removed  and  the 
bundles  untied.  The  native  operator,  frequently  a  boy  or  a 
young  man,  takes  as  many  of  the  stems  or  plants  in  his  hand 
as  he  can  grasp,  and  removing  a  small  portion  of  the  bark  from 
the  ends  next  the  roots,  and  grasping  them  together,  he  strikes 
them  gently  against  a  board  placed  before  him  in  a  slanting 
position,  and  with  a  little  management  he  strips  off  the  whole 
from  end  to  end,  without  breaking  either  stem  or  fibre.  Having 
thus  got  a  certain  quantity  into  this  half  prepared  state,  he  next 
proceeds  to  wash  off.  This  is  done  by  taking  a  large  handful,  and, 
swinging  it  round  his  head,  the  while,  standing  up  to  the  middle 
in  water,  he  dashes  it  repeatedly  against  the  surface  of  the 
water,  drawing  it  through  towards  him,  to  wash  off  the  im- 
purities ;  then  with  a  dexterous  throw  he  fans  it  out  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  carefully  picks  off  all  remaining  black 
spots  or  other  extraneous  matter.  It  is  now  wrung  out  so  as  to 
remove  as  much  water  as  possible,  and  then  hung  up  on  lines 
prepared  on  the  spot,  or  over  bamboos,  to  dry  in  the  sun. 
The  Jute  is  afterwards  cleaned,  and  made  up  in  bundles  of 
from  one  to  two  maunds  for  the  market,  and  that  it  is  well 
cleaned  is  generally  acknowledged,  very  little  of  the  husk  or 
stalk  being  ever  left  upon  the  Jute. 

The  produce  per  acre  is  variously  stated  at  from  400  to  700 
lb.,  but  it  is  very  probable  that  the  latter  quantity  is  nearest  the 
truth,  if  not  short  of  it.  Were  the  land  sufficiently  enriched 
with  manure  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  plant,  and  properly  pre- 


JUTE  CULTURE— IN  THE  FIELD.  57 

t;.i  thu  seed  bed,  the  best  seed  selected  and  sown,  and  the 
cultivation  in  every  respect  intelligently  attended  to,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  rich  soil  of  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  Burhampoo- 
ter,  and  other  rivers  where  the  plant  is  chiefly  grown,  might  be 
made  to  yield  a  greater  rot  urn.  So  in  like  manner,  by  the  same 
means,  the  staple  might  be  improved  greatly  in  colour,  strength, 
and  fineness  of  fibre,  and  the  root  ends  better  freed  from  the 
hard  woody  bark  which  is  so  detrimental  to  its  spinning  pro- 
perties. Hitherto  little  has  been  done  to  instruct  the  natives  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  plant,  and  they  still  grow  it  much  in  the 
same  way  as  their  ancestors  did  a  thousand  years  ago.  The 
preference  which  a  strong,  well  cleaned  silky  parcel  gets  in  t  he- 
bazaars,  and  the  relatively  higher  price  which  it  brings,  so  far 
stimulates  the  growers  to  produce  such  Jute ;  but  this  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  obtain  the  desired  end,  although  there  is  no  doubt 
some  improvement  has  taken  place  of  late. 

Some  of  the  Jute  imported  is  found,  on  opening  the  bales,  to  be 
greatly  discoloured,  and  so  much  weakened  as  to  be  scarcely  fit 
for  spinning.  To  a  great  extent  this  is  caused  by  carelessness  in 
the  preparation.  After  the  fibre  has  been  freed  from  the  stem 
and  washed,  it  ought  to  be  immediately  hung  up  to  dry,  and 
never  packed  up  into  bundles  until  thoroughly  dried.  Too  often, 
however,  the  handfuls,  after  being  washed,  are  laid  down  wet  on 
the  damp  ground,  and  allowed  to  lie  there  for  a  day  or  two,  and 
sometimes  longer.  In  this  stage  the  great  warmth  of  the  climate 
speedily  causes  the  wet  fibre  to  heat,  and  this  weakens  and  dis- 
colours it.  It  may  not  be  practicable  in  all  cases  to  have  it  re- 
moved direct  from  the  stream  or  pond  in  which  it  is  washed  to 
the  drying  lines,  but  when  possible  this  should  invariably  be  done 
to  preserve  the  fibre. 

Sometimes  on  opening  the  bales  the  Jute  is  found  to  be  very 
much  soiled  with  clay  or  other  earthy  matter.  This  is  caused 
partly  by  laying  it  down  on  the  wet  soil  after  washing,  and  be- 
fore hanging  it  up  to  dry  ;  but  oftener  by  washing  it  in  muddy 
water.  It  may  not  be  possible  at  all  times  to  get  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  pure  water  in  which  to  wash  the  Jute,  but  every 
i  should  be  made  to  keep  it  clean  in  the  various  processes  it 
undergoes.  Earthy  matter  on  the  fibre  greatly  injures  the 
machinery  in  the  operation  of  spinning,  and  it  is  therefore 


58 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


seriously  objected  to  by  the  spinner,  and  lessens  the  market  value 
of  the  Jute. 

Jute  has  now  become  an  article  of  prime  necessity  in  the 
manufactures  of  this  country,  and  everything  ought  to  be  done 
to  increase  the  production,  and  to  improve  the  quality,  that 
money  and  skill  can  accomplish.  There  are  many  wealthy 
houses  in  Calcutta  who  have  a  deep  interest  in  the  trade,  and 
it  is  their  duty,  and  it  would  be  greatly  for  their  interest,  at 
once  to  take  steps  to  instruct  the  natives  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  plant,  and  the  preparation  of  the  fibre.  The  merchants  who 
are  buying  it  daily  must  know  how  this  could  be  best  done,  but 
done  it  ought  to  be,  and  that  without  delay  What  is  wanted 
from  the  growers  is  a  fine  pearly  white  colour,  uniform  through- 
out the  whole  length  of  the  strike,  a  finer  fibre  combined  with 
greater  strength,  and  an  abundant  supply. 

In  order  to  get  the  best  quality  of  fibre,  the  Jute  must  be 
cut  shortly  after  it  has  flowered,  which  is  from  the  middle  of 
July  to  the  middle  of  September,  It  generally  attains  this 
stage  in  about  100  days  after  being  sown,  but  of  course,  it  is 
to  some  extent  dependent  on  the  weather,  which  is  not  uniform 
in  India  any  more  than  here.  Some  plants  are  allowed  to  stand 
to  ripen  the  seed  for  a  future  crop,  and  then  cut  down  after  they 
have  attained  maturity.  After  the  removal  of  the  Jute  from  the 
ground,  the  fields  are  prepared  for  a  winter  crop,  such  as  tobacco, 
mustard,  or  other  plants,  for  which,  from  their  elevation  and 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  they  may  be  most  suitable. 

Specimen  plants  of  Jute  have  been  grown  in  Dundee  and 
neighbourhood.  About  ten  years  ago,  James  Crichton  of  Lon- 
don sent  a  few  seeds  to  Alexander  Easson,  Dundee,  and  to 
others.  Mr  Easson  raised  some  plants  in  his  green-house,  and 
exhibited  them  in  the  Baltic  or  Exchange  Heading  Eoom  there 
for  some  days.  They  grew  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet, 
were  graceful  plants  and  much  admired  by  all  who  saw  them. 

The  fibre  is  not  the  only  valuable  part  of  the  Jute  plant,  as 
the  stalks  or  stems,  which  are  applied  to  a  multitude  of  uses  by 
the  natives,  are  of  great  importance  to  them.  They  are  somewhat 
like  willow  switches,  beautifully  white,  straight,  and  light, 
though  rather  brittle.  They  are  made  into  charcoal  for  gun- 
powder and  fireworks,  and  they  are  used  for  fences,  especially 


J UTE  CULTURE —  I N   1 1 1 K  FIELD.  ."> '. ' 

for  the  basket- work  enclosures  in  wliich  the  betel-pepper  vine 
is  cultivated,  and  which  is  universally  consumed  by  all,  nabob 
and  peasant  alike.  The  c  stalks  are  also  used  largely  in  supplying 
I'm  1  tin-  burning  the  myriads  of  worms  which  infest  the  bottoms 
and  .-ides  of  the  nati\e  era  ft.  and  which,  if  not  80  destroyed, 
would  speedily  render  thcM-  I'm  nothing  but  riddles. 

Jute,  when  first  prepared,  is  of  a  beautiful  pearly  white,  the 
<ur  which  is  most  pri  ,  but  it  gradually 

changes  to  fawn,  and  then  to  light  brown.  The  causes  of  these 
changes  are  more  or  les-,  inhnvnt  in  tho  fibre  itself,  and  to  this 
is  ascribed  the  difficulty  there  is  in  blraehing  Jute.  If  this 
pr«»i>erty  could  be  changed  it  would  make  the  article  much  more 
valuable  in  Dundee,  but  perhaps  it  could  not  be  altogether 
obviated.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  water-retting  should 
be  dispensed  with,  and  a  process  adopted  of  preparing  the  fibre 
without  steeping.  This  might  accomplish  the  desired  result, 
at  all  events  it  is  well  worth  trying,  as  it  could  be  done  with- 
out risk  to  the  fibre,  and  at  trilling  cost. 

A  very  large  proportion  of  the  Jute  grown  in  Bengal  is  made 
into  cloth  in  the  districts  where  it  is  cultivated,  and  this  indus- 
try forms  the  grand  domestic  manufacture  of  all  the  populous 
eastern  districts  of  Lower  Bengal.  It  pervades  all  classes,  and 
penetrates  into  every  household,  almost  every  one,  man,  woman, 
and  child,  being  in  some  way  engaged  in  it.  Boatmen,  husband- 
men, palankeen  carriers,  domestic  servants,  every  one  in  fact, 
being  Hindoos — for  Mussulmans  spin  cotton  only— pass  their 
leisure  moments,  distaff  in  hand,  spinning  gunny  twist.  It  is 
sjum  by  the  takur  and  dhara,  the  former  being  a  kind  of 
spindle,  wliich  is  turned  upon  the  thigh  or  the  sole  of  the  foot, 
and  the  latter  a  reel,  on  which  the  thread,  when  sufficiently 
t  \\isted,  is  wound  up.  Another  kind  of  spinning  machine, 
called  a  ghurghurea,  is  occasionally  used.  A  bunch  of  the 
raw  material  is  hung  up  in  every  farmer's  house,  or  on  the 
protruding  stick  of  a  thatched  roof,  and,  every  one  who  has 
leisure  forms  with  these  spindles  some  coarse  pack-thread,  of 
which  ropes  are  twisted  for  the  use  of  the  farm.  The  lower 
Hindoo  castes  from  this  pack-thread  spin  a  finer  thread  for 
being  made  into  cloth,  and,  there  being  a  loom  in  nearly  every 
house,  very  much  of  it  is  woven  by  the  women  of  the  lower 


60  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

class  of  people.  It  is  especially  the  employment  of  the  Hindoo 
widow,  as  it  enables  her  to  earn  her  bread  without  being  a 
burden  on  her  family. 

The  cloth  thus  made  is  of  various  qualities,  such  as  clothing 
for  the  family,  especially  the  women,  a  great  proportion  of  whom 
on  all  the  eastern  frontier  wear  almost  nothing  else,  coarse 
fabrics,  bedding,  rice  and  sugar  bags,  sacking,  packsheet,  &c., 
&c.  Much  of  it  is  woven  into  short  lengths,  and  very  narrow 
widths,  two  or  three  of  which  are  sometimes  sewed  into  one  piece 
before  they  are  sold.  That  intended  for  rice  and  sugar  bags 
is  made  about  six  feet  long,  and  from  24  to  27  inches  wide,  and 
doubled.  A  considerable  quantity  of  Jute  yarn  is  dyed  and 
woven  into  cloth  for  various  local  purposes,  and  some  of  it  is  also 
sent  out  of  the  district. 

The  principal  places  where  Chotee,  or  Jute  cloth  for  gunny 
bags  is  made,  are  within  a  radius  of  perhaps  150  to  200  miles 
around  Dacca,  and  there  both  labour  and  land  are  remarkably 
cheap.  The  short  staple,  common  Jute,  is  generally  consumed 
in  the  local  manufacture,  the  finer  and  long  stapled  being 
reserved  for  the  export  trade.  These  causes  enable  gunny  cloth 
and  bags  to  be  sold  almost  as  cheap  as  the  raw  material,  which 
creates  an  immense  demand  for  them  in  nearly  every  market  of 
the  world. 

The  portion  of  the  stem  next  the  root,  which  is  held  in  the 
hand  while  removing  the  fibre  from  the  stalks,  is  more  or  less 
contaminated  with  bark  and  other  impurities.  About  nine 
inches  is  generally  cut  off  on  this  account,  and  these  ends  are 
either  sold  to  the  papermakers,  or  made  into  a  coarse  cloth,  which 
used  to  be  sent  in  large  quantities  to  America,  for  cotton  bagging 
and  similar  purposes.  The  manufacture  of  Jute  whisky  from 
these  ends  was  tried  experimentally,  by  subjecting  them  to  the 
process  of  conversion  into  sugar  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  after- 
wards fermenting.  The  produce  had  much  resemblance  to 
grain  whisky.  Some  of  these  ends  or  roots  are  now  regularly 
imported  into  Britain. 

The  Jute  intended  for  sale  in  Calcutta,  is  taken  from  the 
districts  where  it  is  grown  in  boats  of  various  kinds,  tied  up,  as 
already  mentioned,  in  bundles  of  one  or  two  maunds.  From 
some  of  the  districts  the  voyage  is  long  and  tedious,  but  in  a 


Jl  TE  CULTURE — IN  TilE  FIELD.  1>1 

time  the  transit  will  bo  much  facilitated  by  the  opening 
up  of  railways.  Already  one  is  opened  for  110  miles  to 
Kooshtee,  on  the  Ganges,  which  brings  Dacca  nearer  to  Cal- 
cutta by  five  days,  and  it  is  proposed  to  run  a  steamer  from 
Kooshtee  to  Serajgunge,  which  is  one  of  the  great  Jute  districts. 
On  the  way  to  Calcutta  very  little  care  is  taken  of  the  Jute,  and 
it  frequently  gets  wet  in  the  boats,  which  does  it  material  injury 
by  weakening  the  fibre.  On  its  arrival  there  it  is  removed  from 
the  boats  to  the  bazaars,  and  built  up  in  tiers  ready  for  sale. 

The  business  in  the  bazaars  is  all  done  through  brokers,  very 
much  as  the  sale  of  produce  is  carried  on  by  the  brokers  in 
Mincing  Lane,  London.  A  merchant  cannot  himself  meet  the 
ryots  or  sellers,  but  must  employ  a  broker  to  purchase  what  he 
wants,  but  he  has  no  brokerage  to  pay,  this  being  done  by  the 
seller.  After  the  Jute  is  purchased,  what  is  intended  for  export 
is  removed  from  the  bazaars  to  public  packing  establishments, 
of  which  there  are  numbers  in  Calcutta.  There  it  is  carefully 
selected  by  inspectors  employed  by  the  merchants  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  assorted  into  such  classes  as  may  be  wished.  All 
the  larger  houses  have  distinguishing  marks  of  their  own  for 
each  quality,  and  great  care  is  generally  taken  to  have  each 
mark  as  uniform  throughout  as  possible.  Of  course,  if  the  crop 
has  been  a  bad  one,  or  if  the  Jute  is  generally  inferior,  the  first- 
class,  although  bearing  a  relative  proportion  to  the  other  classes 
of  the  same  season's  Jute,  will  be  much  inferior  to  the  same 
class  in  a  season  when  the  crop  is  superior.  Before  a  buyer 
can  therefore  judge  of  the  quality  by  the  mark,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  know  the  character  of  the  season's  crop ;  but,  this 
known,  a  pretty  correct  judgment  can  then  be  formed  regarding 
the  quality  of  the  standard  marks. 

After  selection,  the  Jute  is  packed  into  bales  of  about  300 
Ibs.  each,  the  strikes  being  carefully  laid  with  both  roots  and 
crops  inside.  The  pressure  is  applied  by  powerful  screws, 
generally  placed  in  a  loft  over  the  press,  and  worked  by  manual 
labour.  When  sufficiently  hard  pressed,  and  the  ropes  put 
round,  the  bales  are  turned  out  to  make  way  for  others.  The 
packer  is  usually  taken  bound  to  compress  the  bales  until  five 
of  them  do  not  exceed  a  ton  of  52  cubic  feet  in  bulk,  and  if  this 
is  not  done  he  is  charged  with  the  extra  freight,  which  the  loose 
packing  involves.  After  being  packed  the  bales  are  sent  direct 


G2  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 

to  the  ship,  or  warehoused  until  they  are  wanted  for  shipment. 
Some  Jute  is  packed  in  the  country  before  being  brought  down 
to  Calcutta,  where  it  can  be  done  cheaper  than  in  that  city,  and 
it  is  known  as  native  packed.  Sometimes  the  quality  of 
this  Jute  turns  out  pretty  well,  but  no  dependence  can  be  placed 
upon  its  uniformity,  it  not  being  so  well  selected  nor  not  so 
carefully  packed  as  what  is  done  in  the  regular  way.  In  conse- 
sequence  of  this  it  is  not  so  well  liked  in  this  market,  and 
it  commands  a  proportionally  lower  price. 

About  1300  of  the  bundles  of  Jute,  as  brought  down  to  Cal- 
cutta, are  required  to  pack  300  of  the  bales  as  exported. 
Although  the  bales  as  packed  only  weigh  about  300  Ib.  each,  it 
requires  about  340  Ib.  of  the  bazaar  or  rough  Jute  to  make  one 
of  them,  the  balance  being  rejections,  refuse,  waste,  &c. 

Hydraulic  presses  would  pack  the  Jute  well,  but  they  have 
not  yet  been  generally  adopted  for  this  purpose,  as  labour  is  so 
cheap  in  India,  and  it  is  difficult  to  get  native  customs  changed. 
There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that  at  no  distant  day  they  will  be 
generally  used,  as  they  would  compress  the  Jute  better,  are  far 
less  cumbrous,  and  much  more  convenient  than  the  hitherto 
almost  universal  screw. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Jute  for  this  country  has  hitherto 
been  shipped  either  to  London  or  Liverpool,  which  are  the  great 
depots  for  the  article.  Sometimes  orders  are  sent  out  to  Calcutta 
by  merchants  or  spinners,  who  get  the  Jute  sent  direct  to  them, 
but  the  great  bulk  of  the  quantity  exported  is  brought  on  ship's 
account,  being  bought  to  fill  up,  or  to  put  the  vessel  into  proper 
sailing  trim.  Entire,  or  almost  entire,  cargoes  are  sometimes 
brought,  but  it  is  too  light  for  a  full  cargo,  and  some  dead  weight 
is  required  to  steady  the  ship,  and  put  her  into  good  sailing  trim. 
Much  of  the  Jute  imported  into  London  and  Liverpool  is  sold 
by  brokers,  who  are  the  medium  between  the  importers  and  the 
purchasers.  In  both  cities  parcels  are  occasionally  sold  to  arrive, 
when  they  are  transferred  direct  from  the  ship  to  the  buyer  if 
the  purchase  money  has  been  settled.  The  bulk  of  the  impor- 
tation is,  however,  warehoused,  the  bales  being  weighed  and 
labelled  by  the  employees  of  the  Dock  Companies  as  landed, 
which  weight  is  taken  in  the  sale  of  the  parcel,  even  although, 
as  is  frequently  the  case  when  it  is  long  in  warehouse,  the 
weight  should  go  in  considerably. 


I'LTURE — IN    TIIK    r  I  I'll'. 

Parcels  are  frequently  M.ld  privately  by  the  brokers,  some 
tiinrs  t«>  s i Mvulators  and  sometimes  to  tin-  trade  direct,  luii  very 
much  of  the  Jute  imp  .1-1  at  tin-  public  sales,  which  | 

place  almost  every  week,  in  London  on  \\Vdnesday,  and  in  Liver- 
pool generally  an  Thursday.  In  London  the  public  sales  are  IK  Id 
in  a  sale  room  in  Mincing  Lane,  and  they  arc  c.uidnetrd  by  the 
respective  brokers  who  have  the  sale  of  the  Jute,  and  who  are 
licensed  auetioneers.  Catalogues  of  the  parcels  to  bo  exposed, 
made  up  in  lots  of  ten  bales,  are  sent  round  aiii-n^  th- 
and  merchants  a  day  or  two  before  the  sale.  The  Jute  is  on 
show  before  the  sale,  and  the  warehouse  in  which  it  is  stored  is 
stated  iu  the  hie  intending  buyers  to  in>peet  it, 

make   up   their   mind  as  to  its  value,  and  come  d  to 

The  i,  rms  are  staled  in  the  catalogue,  and  they  are 
usually  three  months  prompt,  which  means  that  the  Jute  may 
remain  for  that  period  in  warehouse  free  of  expense  to  the  pur- 
chaser; but  it  must  be  paid  for  in  full  before  removal,  ami 
delivery  can  be  got  at  anytime  during  the  currency  of  the 
prompt.  Immediately  after  the  sale  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  pur- 
chase money  must  be  paid  as  a  deposit,  in  security  for  the 
fulfilment  of  the  bargain,  arid  when  the  balance  is  paid  the 
dock  warrants,  which  were  given  to  the  importer  when  the  Jute 
was  warehoused,  are  handed  over  to  the  purchaser,  and  tl 
transfer  the  ownership  of  the  Jute  to  the  holder  of  them. 

The  auction  sales  are  conducted  with  great  regularity  and 
rapidity,  on  c-  iiain  rules  well  understood  between  the  selling 
and  buying  brokers,  the  whole  business  being  done  by  them. 
Any  merchant  may  buy,  but  the  deposit  must  be  then  and  there 
paid  down,  and  as  the  selling  broker  charges  him  a  buying  com- 
mission or  brokerage,   the  merchant   has   no  saving  by  not 
loyinu  a  broker  to  purchase  for  him.      The  whole  business 
is  thei ctore  transacted  by  the  brokers,  and  as  they  are  appointed 
by  the  Corporation  of  the  city,  and  their  number  limited,  the 
a  very  profitable  one  when  they  get  into  a  good  con- 
ion. 

'I' he  buying  and  selling  brokers  each  charge  a  commission  of 
'  .ilt  i  •  i-  cent.,  and  when  the  one  broker,  as  is  frequently  the 
case,  acts  in  both  capacities,  he  gets  both  commissions,  or  one 
per  cent,  on  the  transaction. 


64  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

In  London,  the  Jute  sold  by  auction  is  generally  in  lots  of  ten 
bales,  and  on  this  one  shilling  of  lot  money  is  usually  charged. 
A  draft  of  one  pound  a  bale  is  allowed  on  the  Jute  bought 
there. 

In  Liverpool  the  terms  are  cash,  and  there  is  no  charge  made 
for  brokerage  on  the  Jute  bought,  either  at  auction  or  by  private 
sale.  Five  pounds  a  bale  of  tare,  and  one  pound  a  bale  of  tret, 
are  allowed  on  all  Jute  bought  there ;  the  terms  are  therefore 
more  favourable  to  the  buyer  than  those  of  London. 

Both  in  London  and  Liverpool  there  are  a  number  of  agents 
who,  on  receiving  orders  to  purchase  from  their  constituents  in 
Dundee  and  elsewhere,  examine  the  parcels  on  sale,  and  buy  from 
the  selling  broker  privately,  or  through  the  medium  of  another 
broker  at  the  public  sales.  For  this  they  charge  a  commission 
of  one  per  cent,  with  fourpence  a  bale  in  Liverpool,  and  five 
shillings  a  ton  in  London.  Some  of  them  do  not  confine  them- 
selves to  the  regular  agency  business,  but  become  merchants,  and 
buy  on  their  own  account  when  prices  are  considered  cheap, 
in  the  hope  of  selling  at  a  profit  farther  on.  This  they  are 
enabled  to  do  in  London  without  much  capital,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  system  of  prompts  ;  but  the  practice  is 
disliked  by  the  trade  in  Dundee,  as  it  induces  speculation, 
and  frequently  raises  the  price  unnecessarily  to  the  consumer. 
It  would  therefore  be  more  for  the  interest  of  all  parties 
that  the  agents  were  agents  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name,  as  it 
would  increase  confidence  between  them  and  their  constituents, 
and  keep  the  trade  in  its  proper  channel. 

Many  of  the  leading  Dundee  spinners  now  purchase  their  sup- 
plies direct  from  London  or  Liverpool,  but  others  prefer  to  see  the 
Jute  before  they  buy  it,  because  they  can  thus  get  a  parcel  of 
the  precise  quality  wanted.  This  they  cannot  make  sure  of  other- 
wise, scarcely  any  of  the  marks  being  uniformly  the  same 
throughout  the  entire  season,  although  the  larger  Calcutta  ship- 
ping houses  try  to  have  them  as  nearly  alike  as  possible.  Some 
spinners,  from  necessity  or  other  reasons,  usually  purchase  in 
that  market  from  dealers  or  agents,  who  buy  in  England  on 
Iheir  own  account,  or  who  get  it  sent  for  sale  by  the  merchants 
there.  These  sellers  are  generally  content  with  so  very  small  a 
profit,  that  in  many  cases  consumers  are,  taking  everything  into 


JUTE   CULTURE — IX    THE    FIELD.  f.."i 

account,  better  to  buy  on  the  spot  than  to  send  their  money  to 
the  south  to  purchase  there. 

The  better  way  and  the  most  profitable,  both  for  importers 
and  consumers,  would  be  to  have  the  Jute  brought  direct  from 
Calcutta  to  Dundee,  jis  it  would  save  intermediate  charges, 
amounting  on  the  average  to  about  two  pounds  a  ton. 

About  the  year  1840,  the  "  Selma,"  belonging  to  Dundee 
owners,  arrived  from  Calcutta  with  a  cargo  of  Jute  and  other 
produce,  being  the  first  Jute  which  was  ever  brought  from  Cal- 
cutta to  Dundee  direct.  Since  then,  Allan  Edward,  and  David 
Martin  and  Co.,  merchants,  and  Gilroy,  Brothers,  and  Co.,  spin- 
ners there,  have  imported  various  cargoes  direct,  and  one  cargo 
belonging  to  Messrs  Martin,  and  intended  for  Dundee,  was 
burned  on  the  voyage.  Had  these  merchants  received  sufficient 
encouragement  they  would  have  prosecuted  the  trade,  but  spin- 
ners were  callous  and  indifferent,  and  they  discontinued  it. 
About  twenty  years  ago,  Balfour  and  Meldrum,  merchants, 
Dundee,  ordered  a  considerable  quantity  of  Jute  from  Calcutta, 
and  had  it  brought  into  London.  It  was  sold  there  in  the  usual 
way,  but  the  result  was  not  satisfactory,  and  the  order  was  not 
repeated.  Other  Dundee  parties  have  from  time  to  time  bought 
Jute  in  Calcutta,  and  brought  it  to  Great  Britain,  but  the  total 
quantity  so  imported  has  not  been  great.  Of  late  considerably 
more  business  has  been  done  in  this  way  for  Dundee  account, 
which  has  resulted  well  for  the  importers.  This  season  (1863), 
several  complete  cargoes  of  Jute  from  Calcutta  to  Dundee  have 
already  arrived  there,  and  others  are  on  their  way  to  that  port. 
The  high  price  at  which  the  article  has  ruled  in  Britain 
throughout  the  year  has  made  these  direct  shipments  profitable 
speculations  to  the  importers.  Many  of  the  spinners  in  Dundee 
are  now  large  consumers  of  Jute,  and  several  of  them  are  pos- 
sessed of  sufficient  capital  to  enable  them  to  import  a  great 
part  of  what  they  require  for  their  own  consumption.  The 
profits  made  on  the  direct  importations  this  season  will  probably 
be  a  sufficient  stimulus  to  those  who  have  embarked  in  the 
trade  to  prosecute  it  more  extensively,  and  also  to  induce  others 
to  enter  into  it.  If  so,  the  character  of  the  trade  will  in  a  few 
years  be  completely  changed,  and  the  London  and  Liverpool 
branches  of  it  loose  much  of  their  present  importance. 


66  THE    RAW   MATERIAL. 


2. — The  Culture  of  Jute  in  the  Factory . 

Having  now  given  an  account  of  the  culture  of  Jute, 
and  traced  its  progress  from  the  time  it  is  sown  in  the  rich 
soil  and  sunny  clime  of  India,  until  it  is  deposited  in  the 
works  of  the  consumers,  a  short  sketch  of  its  introduction 
into  Dundee,  and  subsequent  history  in  connection  with  the 
trade  of  the  district, — in  short,  of  its  culture  in  the  Factory,  may 
not  be  uninteresting.  Although  its  introduction  is  of  very 
recent  date,  there  is  some  doubt  about  the  precise  period  when 
the  first  bales  were  received,  but  as  they  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
have  been  spun,  this  is  of  the  less  importance.  The  date  and 
the  mode  of  its  first  incorporation  into  the  staple  trade  of  the 
town  have  been  ascertained  with  more  accuracy,  and  are  believed 
to  be  correct. 

The  East  India  Company,  as  already  mentioned,  imported 
Jute  in  small  quantities  so  long  ago  as  1796-7,  and  they  also 
sent  some  of  it  to  Hamburg  and  to  America  at  the  same  period. 
After  that  date  the  Company  imported  it  now  and  again,  mostly 
in  small  quantities,  but  for  many  years  it  made  no  progress  in 
the  manufactures  of  this  country,  and  remained  comparatively 
unknown.  This  is  the  more  surprising  when  its  adaptation  for 
textile  fabrics  was  so  well  known  in  Bengal  many  ages  ago,  and 
when  gunny  cloth  and  bags  made  of  it  there  were  exported  from 
Calcutta  to  New  South  Wales,  China,  America,  and  other  places, 
nearly  seventy  years  ago.  At  that  period  the  Company,  having 
become  more  alive  than  they  had  previously  been  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  fibres  of  India,  experimented  upon  them  in 
several  places  and  in  various  ways.  If  they  had  then  got 
some  intelligent  manufacturers  of  coarse  linens  in  Dundee  to 
experiment  upon  Jute  in  a  thoroughly  practical  manner,  its  value 
might  have  been  sooner  known,  but  that  was  not  done.  The 
early  importations  of  it  were  mostly  consumed  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  London,  having  been  made  into  door  mats,  ropes,  and 
other  articles,  for  which  it  was  found  to  be  very  suitable. 

Some  of  this  Jute  found  its  way  at  an  early  period  to  Abing- 
don  in  Oxfordshire,  a  town  which  for  centuries  has  been  famous 
for  its  sacking,  twines,  &c.  There  it  was  spun  by  hand,  or  by 


JUTE   CULTURE— IN  THE    FACTCWY.  <-7 

wli.it  is  called  shade-spinning,  and  used  to  a  small  extent  in  tin- 
nianntaetnres  of  the  town.  At  .Munition  woollen  carpel  in;: 
was  also  manufactured.  ;,nd  sccmup  that  Juto  yarn  had  snme 
resemblance  to  wr>ollcn  yarn,  the  manufacturers  there  had  it 
dy.-d,  and  made  int..  carpeting.  So  far  as  known  tin  \  were 
therefore  the  first  in  this  country  to  spin  and  manufacture  Juto 
into  cloth,  and  although  the  date  wh«-n  they  first  began  to 
use  it  has  not  been  ascertained,  it  must  be  about  forty  years  ago, 
and  it  may  have  been  even  a  few  years  earlier. 

In  1823,  or  early  in  1824,  the  late  Thomas  Henry  of  London, 
sent  a  bale  or  two  of  Jute  to  the  late  George  Leighton,  Dundee, 
l»nt  any  experiments  which  may  have  been  made  with  it  pro- 
duced no  practical  result.  About  the  same  period  a  few  bales 
(perhaps  of  same  parcel)  of  Jute  of  fine  quality,  imported  into 
London  by  Gilmore  and  Co.,  was  sent  by  A.  B.  Anderson, 
merchant  there,  to  his  brother  William,  then  one  of  the  most 
extensive  and  intelligent  manufacturers  of  fine  and  coarse  Linens 
in  Dundee.  Mr  Anderson  had  previously  had  experience  of 
East  India  Hemps,  more  especially  Sunn,  which  he  had  manu- 
factured largely  in  contract  with  Maberly  and  Co.,  for  Govern- 
iiu  nt.  His  mother,  like  most  of  the  old  ladies  in  those  days  of 
hand-spinning,  was  fond  of  her  wheel,  and  as  she  was  a  capital 
spinster,  he  got  her  to  test  the  spinning  qualities  of  the  Jute. 
On  being  well  heckled,  she  found  it  capable  of  being  spun  into 
yarn  of  about  a  pound  a  spindle,  or  48  lea,  but  she  was  sadly 
vexed  at  its  want  of  strength.  The  tow  she  was  unable  to  form 
into  a  thread  at  all  satisfactory  to  herself,  the  fibres  being  so 
hard  and  dry  that  they  resisted  all  her  efforts  to  combine  them 
thorouglily.  Indeed,  the  first  tow  could  only  be  twisted  into  yarn 
or  weft  to  the  coarsest  fabrics. 

At  that  period  all  the  Baltic  Hemp  longs  and  tows,  and  much 
of  the  coarser  Flax  tows,  were  spun  entirely  by  hand.  Mr 
Anderson  had  this  Jute  heckled  in  his  Factory,  as  was  then 
usual  with  both  Hemp  and  Flax.  The  better  to  test  it,  he  had  part 
of  the  heckled  Jute  shade-spun  in  a  rope-walk,  and  part  was  given 
to  several  spinners  to  be  spun  on  the  common  hand-wheel.  The 
tow  was  spun  from  the  waist,  as  was  then  customary  with  Hemp 
tow  and  other  coarse  fibres,  and  not  from  a  distaff.  The  longs 
or  line  yarn  he  used  for  weft  to  low  priced  padding  canvas,  and 
E  '2 


68  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 

the  tow  yarn  for  weft  to  nail  bagging  and  other  heavy  fabrics. 
Mr  Anderson  did  not  lose  sight  of  the  fibre.  On  the  contrary,  his 
nephew,  James  Crichton,  of  London  and  Dundee,  states  that  he 
occasionally  had  small  quantities  of  it  spun  by  hand,  and  made 
into  sacking  and  such  fabrics.  Considerable  difficulty  was  then 
experienced  in  the  sale  of  goods  suspected  to  have  Jute  in 
them,  without  a  warranty  that  they  were  entirely  free  from  it. 
Part  of  this  dislike  arose  from  the  mistaken  notion  that  cloth 
made  of  the  fibre  will  not  stand  water,  an  idea  not  yet  wholly 
extinct  among  certain  parties,  although  it  is  a  well  ascertained 
fact  that  Jute  goods  resist  wet  longer  than  almost  any  other 
textile  fabric. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  even  at  this  late  period,  Flax 
spinning  by  power  was  comparatively  in  its  infancy,  and  that 
efforts  were  then  making  to  perfect  it.  The  new  fibre,  Jute, 
wanted  strength  to  render  it  suitable  for  being  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  either  Flax  or  Hemp.  Sunn,  it  was  known,  lost 
much  of  its  strength  when  wet,  and  it  was  supposed  that  Jute, 
being  also  an  East  India  fibre,  would  be  of  a  like  nature,  and 
have  the  same  tendency.  It  only  appeared  in  limited  quantity, 
and  as  the  bad  reputation  of  Sunn  was  reflected  on  Jute,  it  was 
not  thought  worthy  of  much  attention,  and,  so  far  as  can  be  as- 
certained, it  was  not  tried  by  any  mill-spinner  on  flax  spinning 
machinery  until  a  later  period,  some  account  of  which  will  now 
be  given. 

Thomas  Neish,  now  one  of  the  oldest  merchants  in  Dundee, 
received  a  small  consignment  of  Jute  from  London,  he  thinks 
about  the  year  1822.  He  endeavoured  to  induce  some  of  the 
spinners  to  try  it  over  their  machinery,  but  could  not  get  them 
to  make  the  attempt.  It  lay  in  his  warehouse  for  a  long  time 
without  buyers  at  any  price,  until  at  length  he  got  Bell  and 
Balfour,  flax-spinners,  to  consent  to  take  it  at  £tl  a  ton.  They 
experimented  upon  it  to  a  small  extent,  perhaps  in  1825  or  1826, 
but  were  unable  to  spin  it  into  yarn,  and  the  bulk  was  ultimately 
disposed  of  for  the  purpose  of  being  made  into  door  mats  and 
such  articles.  The  nature  of  Jute  was  unknown,  and  the 
spinning  machinery  then  in  use  was  ill  adapted  for  such  a 
fibre.  Had  an  intelligent  mind  been  perseveringly  applied 
to  it,  the  difficulties  which  the  imperfect  machinery  of  the 


JUTK  CULTURE— IN  THE  FACTORY.  69 

day  presented  might  have  been  gradually  overcome.  Jute 
did  not  yet  possess  much  importance,  the  trials  made  of  it  were 
superficial,  and,  as  might  have  been  expected,  they  ended  in 
la il are.  Some  years  elapsed  before  any  farther  attempts  were 
made  to  spin  Jute  by  machinery,  and  again  the  same  parties 
were  to  some  extent  the  pioneers  of  the  manufacture. 

About  the  beginning  of  1832,  Mr  Neish  got  another  con- 
signment of  Jute  from  James  Scott  of  London,  and  this 
IMI  col  may  be  called  the  foundation  of  the  Jute  manufacture 
in  Dundee.  He  offered  the  Jute  to  many  of  the  spinners  in  that 
town,  but  so  prejudiced  were  they  in  favour  of  existing  materials, 
and  so  averse  to  introduce  a  new  and  comparatively  unknown 
fibre,  that  he  could  not  prevail  upon  them  to  try  it.  At  length, 
after  repeated  efforts,  he  succeeded  in  getting  Balfour  and  Mel- 
tlruni,  successors  to  Bell  and  Balfour,  who  had  tried  the  fibre 
before,  to  take  a  little  of  it,  and  they  experimented  upon  it 
in  Chapelshade  Works.  These  experiments  were  not  made  on 
an  extensive  scale,  but  they  were  this  time  persevered  in  assidu- 
ously, and  ultimately  proved  successful.  From  about  the 
end  of  that  year  the  firm  span  a  little  Jute  regularly,  and  the 
progress  they  made  with  it  will  be  subsequently  referred  to. 

The  great  instrument,  however,  in  the  introduction  of  Jute 
into  the  trade  was  James  Watt,  jun.,  merchant.  Mr  Neish 
got  him  to  make  trial  of  ten  bales,  and  it  was  invoiced 
to  him  on  24th  July  1832,  at  £19  a  ton,  less  2J  per  cent, 
discount  for  cash.  In  1833  Mr  Neish  received  other  parcels 
of  Jute  for  sale,  and  from  that  period  he  has  continued 
in  the  trade,  often  dealing  largely  in  the  article.  He  was  thus 
the  first  merchant  who  had  Jute  for  sale  in  Dundee,  and  it 
was  through  his  persevering  efforts  to  get  parties  to  make  trial 
of  the  fibre  that  it  was  introduced  into  the  trade  of  the  town. 
The  bantling  of  1832-3  has  in  thirty  years  attained  a  goodly 
stature,  and  Mr  Neish  and  Mr  Watt  have  good  reason  to  look 
with  pride  on  the  now  prodigious  extent  of  a  trade  which  they 
were  so  instrumental  in  establishing. 

Mr  Watt  was  a  large  buyer  of  linens,  and  he  endeavoured  to 
get  some  of  the  spinners  and  manufacturers  to  try  the  Jute,  but 
the  great  length  of  the  fibre  was  thought  to  be  an  insuperable 
barrier  in  the  way  of  its  being  spun  over  Flax  spinning  inachi- 


70  THE   RAW    MATERIAL. 

nery,  and  none  would  so  much  as  attempt  it.  Mr  Watt  was 
a  sagacious,  intelligent  man,  and  from  a  careful  examination  of 
the  fibre,  he  was  convinced  of  its  being  suitable  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  bagging,  then  an  important  article  in  the  trade 
of  the  town,  and  for  similar  fabrics.  He  therefore  got  a  person 
to  erect  an  old  breaker  card  at  Liff,  where  he  sent  the  Jute 
in  bales,  and  had  it  torn  down  and  returned  teased,  or  formed 
into  tow,  for  which  process  he  paid  at  first  about  £5  a  ton.  Mr 
Watt  gave  out  portions  of  this  teased  Jute  to  several  spinners, 
most  of  whom  reported  unfavourably  of  it . 

These  repeated  rebuffs  and  disappointments  did  not,  however, 
discourage  Mr  Watt.  Indeed  he  was  not  the  man  to  be  baffled 
where  his  judgment  told  him  he  was  right,  and  the  experiments 
he  had  made  only  convinced  him  the  more  of  the  admirable 
adaptability  of  Jute  for  some  of  the  manufactures  of  the  district. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  giving  it  up  in  despair,  as  many  might 
have  done,  he  went  into  it  with  spirit,  showing  that  he  had 
strong  confidence  in  its  ultimate  success.  How  fortunate  for 
the  trade  of  Dundee  that  such  a  man  as  Mr  Watt  took  Jute  by 
the  hand,  and  carried  it  through  the  shoals  and  quicksands  of 
its  early  days  !  But  for  his  shrewdness,  his  energy,  and  his 
indomitable  perseverance,  the  obstacles  which  ignorance,  pre- 
judice, and  indifference,  threw  in  the  way  of  the  introduction 
of  this  invaluable  fibre  might  have  triumphed,  and  Dundee 
still  have  been  without  its  Jute.  Had  this  been  the  case 
the  town  would  have  made  comparatively  slow  progress,  as 
sufficient  Flax  material  could  not  have  been  got  to  employ  any- 
thing like  the  extent  of  machinery  which  is  now  at  work.  Provi- 
dence had  determined  otherwise,  and  there  is  never  an  instru- 
ment wanting  to  work  out  its  decrees. 

In  the  autumn  of  1832,  Mr  Watt  bought  from  Kobert 
Baxter  of  London,  53  bales  of  Jute,  which  he  brought  to 
Dundee.  It  was  teased  in  the  same  way  as  the  ten  bales  had 
been,  and  with  better  results  in  the  spinning.  He  then 
bought  from  Trueman  and  Cook  of  London,  1351  bales,  half 
of  which  was  invoiced  at  £15  10s,  and  half  at  £16  a  ton.  It 
was  landed  at  Dundee  in  October  and  November  of  that  year. 

By  this  time  Mr  Watt  had  got  several  of  the  spinners  to  try 
his  teased  Jute,  and  it  would  appear  that  the  late  William 


JUTE  Cl  in  Ki: — IN   THE  FACTORY.  7l 

Boyack,  then  the  most  extensive  spinner  in  Dundee,  must  Ii;m 
thought  well  of  the  article,  as  he  bought  502  bales  from  Mi- 
Watt  on  17th  Nov.  1832,  at  £19  10s  a  ton.  He  was  therefore 
the  first  spinner  who  went  heartily  into  the  trade,  and  who  span 
Jute  on  an  extensive  scale.  On  28th  Nov.  the  late  John 
Hal  Icy  bought  200  bales,  and  on  7th  Dec.  John  Haddon 
bought  25  bales,  at  £20  a  ton.  Several  olln-r  spinners  in  Dun- 
dee, and  James  Aytoun  of  Kirkaldy,  shortly  afterwards  took 
small  parcels  of  it  at  same  price,  and  within  a  short  time  Mr 
Watt  appears  to  have  disposed  of  the  whole  quantity. 

Mr  Watt  went  into  the  market  again  in  the  beghunilg  of 
1833,  having  bought  from  David  Campbell  of  Liverpool, 
1639  bales  of  Jute,  526  of  which  were  invoiced  at  £14  10s,  and 
1113  at  £14  15s  a  ton.  It  was  brought  to  Dundee,  and  landed 
in  March  1833.  On  24th  April  Mr  Boyack  bought  300  bales 
of  this  parcel  at  £17  5s,  and  same  day  Mr  Halley  bought  102 
bales  at  £18  a  ton.  On  31st  August  Andrew  Low  and  Son 
bought  140  bales  at  £16  10s  a  ton,  and  subsequently  the 
late  Daniel  Duff  and  others  bought  part  of  it.  Mr  Watt 
the  while  continued  to  have  part  of  his  Jute  teased  as  before, 
and  this  he  had  spun  and  manufactured  into  bagging  and  other 
fabrics.  This  parcel  did  not,  however,  go  off  well,  and  part  of 
it  remained  on  hand  for  a  considerable  time. 

On  13th  January  1835,  a  large  warehouse  in  Dock  Street. 
Dundee,  belonging  to  Mr  Watt,  took  fire,  and  was  burned  down. 
He  had  about  300  tons  of  material,  chiefly  Jute,  stored  in  the 
warehouse.  Unfortunately  he  was  not  insured,  and  his  loss  by 
i\\\*  calamity  was  very  heavy.  The  debris  of  the  fire  turned 
out  about  130  tons  of  Jute. 

Mr  Boyack,  Mr  Halley,  and  others,  who  first  bought  Jute  from 
Mr  Watt,  had  it  teased,  and  span  it,  mixed  with  Flax  codilla, 
into  the  heavier  sizes  of  yarn  for  weft  to  bagging  and  sacking. 
The  late  James  Grimond  of  Oakbank,  Blairgowrie,  made  trial 
of  Jute  early.  He  tore  it  down  on  the  heckle  and  succeed..] 
in  spinning  it  mixed  with  tow  into  6  or  7  Ib.  yarn  for  well 
to  Osnaburgs,  Hessian  Sheetings,  <fec.,  and  long  continued  to 
use  a  little  of  it  in  this  manner.  The  yarn  spun  from  Hi. 
mixture  was  not  liked,  and  did  not  find  a  ready  market. 
>!<»(.  pn.pl.-  shook  their  lirad  at  it,  declared  the  process  a 


72  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 

fraud  and  declined  to  use  the  mixed  yarn.  The  presence  of 
Jute  in  yarn  was  considered  objectionable,  and  manufacturers 
unanimously  disapproved  of  it.  Some  of  the  parties  who  first 
span  the  Jute  used  it  sparingly  and  by  stealth,  and  a  consi- 
derable quantity  of  mixed  yarn  was  in  this  way  used  unwit- 
tingly. In  every  instance  where  the  yarn  was  known  to  have 
any  of  this  fibre  in  it,  it  was  disliked,  if  not  altogether  de- 
clined. It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  introduction  of  Jute  was 
uphill  work  to  all  who  tried  it,  and  for  a  time,  from  the  bad 
odour  of  the  mixed  yarn,  it  was  generally  unprofitable  to  those 
who  first  began  to  spin  it. 

In  the  beginning  of  1833  the  late  Alexander  Kowan  of 
Dundee,  brought  from  London  some  specimens  of  Abingdon 
hand-spun  Jute  line  yarn,  and  of  cloth  made  therefrom,  and  he 
got  the  late  James  Taws  to  spin  Jute  yarn  in  imitation  of 
these  samples,  which  was  sent  in  small  quantities  to  London. 
Mr  Taws  began  to  spin  pure  Jute  in  the  summer  of  1833,  and 
perhaps  he  was  the  first  spinner  who  did  so.  After  commencing 
to  spin  it  he  continued  afterwards  to  do  so  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  In  the  early  days  of  his  Jute  spinning  he  bought  Jute 
at  about  £12  a  ton,  and  span  it  into  24  Ib.  yarn,  for  which  he 
got  4d  a  pound — a  very  handsome  return  for  his  capital  and 
labour. 

Mr  Kowan  had  strong  faith  in  Jute,  and  he  was  in  no  small 
degree  instrumental  in  getting  it  introduced  into  Dundee. 
Towards  the  autumn  of  1833  he  got  Balfour  and  Meldrum  to 
spin  Jute  line  yarn,  and  to  make  it  into  twofold  and  threefold 
twist  for  him.  These  gentlemen,  as  already  mentioned,  had 
commenced  to  experiment  upon  it  the  previous  year;  but, 
although  they  persevered,  they  did  not  prosecute  the  subject  on 
a  large  scale.  Ultimately  they  succeeded  in  spinning  from  4  to 
6  Ib.  Jute  line  yarn  ;  and  they  were  the  first  to  do  so  and  to 
make  Jute  twist  in  Dundee.  Perhaps  to  this  circumstance  may 
be  attributed  the  introduction  of  the  manufacture  of  Jute  car- 
peting into  the  town. 

Some  of  the  yarn  spun  in  Abingdon,  of  which  Mr  Kowan 
brought  samples  to  Dundee,  was  dyed,  and  among  the  specimens  of 
cloth  were  carpeting  made  of  the  dyed  Jute  yarn.  The  Abingdon 
manufacturers  appear  therefore  to  have  been  not  only  the  first 


JUTE  CULTL'UE — IN    THE    FACTORY.  73 

i! inkers  of  plain  Jute  cloth  in  this  country,   but  also  of  Jut' 
carpeting. 

1  mm  a  very  remote  period  some  of  the  Jute  yam  spun  in 
India  has  been  dyed,  and  it  is  probable  that  some  of  the  yarn  or 
cloth  dyed  in  India  may  have  found  its  way  to  London  and  been 
seen  by  the  Abingdon  people.  In  this  way  the  conception  of  Jute 
carpeting  may  have  been  suggested  to  them ;  but,  however  got, 
t  lu  -y  were  not  slow  to  follow  up  the  idea  and  turn  it  to  practical 
account. 

Jute  is  one  ot  the  most  easily  dyed  fibres  known,  and  the 
colours  it  takes  on  are  bright  and  beautiful.  The  common  dyes 
are  quickly  applied,  but  they  are  very  fugitive,  and  when  ex- 
posed to  the  sun's  rays  soon  become  faint  and  dull.  By  the 
common  process  the  colouring  matter  strikes  little  more  than  the 
outside  of  the  fibre,  and,  as  it  were,  paints  it,  and  this  mode  of 
dyeing  requires  little  material,  and  is  done  at  small  cost.  The 
fibres  of  Jute  do  not  subdivide  BO  minutely  as  Flax,  and  they 
are  of  a  hard  dry  nature,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  impervious 
to  moisture.  It  therefore  requires  a  more  complex  process  to 
make  the  colouring  materials  thoroughly  penetrate  the  fibre,  so  as 
to  make  the  dye  lasting.  This  can,  however,  be  accomplished, 
and  the  better  class  of  goods  made  of  dyed  Jute  undergo  this 
process,  which  makes  the  colours  both  brighter  and  faster.  It 
is  hardly  possible  to  make  every  colour  perfectly  fast,  although 
some  of  them  are  as  durable  as  those  upon  other  materials. 

Jute  is  very  readily  brought  to  a  rich  cream  colour  either  in 
the  fibre,  in  yarn,  or  in  cloth.  It  is,  however,  very  difficult  to 
I 'ring  it  to  a  full  white  without  injuring  the  strength  of  the  fibre. 
Many  experiments  have  from  time  to  time  been  made  to  bleach 
Jute,  but  at  best  they  have  been  only  partially  successful,  and 
it  may  be  said  that  a  perfect  white  has  never  yet  been  attained 
without  impairing  strength.  Fresh  sound  Jute  of  fine  quality 
can,  without  danger,  be  brought  to  a  moderate  degree  of  white- 
ness ;  but,  as  the  fibre  gets  older,  exposure  to  the  atmosphere 
changes  it  to  a  browner  tinge,  and  it  then  becomes  more  difficult 
to  bleach.  To  describe  the  materials  employed,  or  the  mode  of 
dyeing  or  bleaching  Jute  yarn,  is  unnecessary.  The  latter  does  not 
differ  much  from  the  bleaching  of  linen  yarn  elsewhere  detailed, 
and  it  is  dyed  into  so  many  colours  that  a  description  of  the 


74  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 

process  of  each  would  take  up  too  much  space.  Nearly  every 
dyer  employs  a  method  of  his  own,  and  therefore  a  general  de- 
scription would  be  unprofitable. 

Towards  the  end  of  1833  the  samples  of  the  Abingdon  manu- 
facture, and  the  progress  which  had  then  been  made  in  spinning 
the  fibre  here,  caused  James  Neish  of  "  The  Laws,"  then  a 
manufacturer  in  Dundee,  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  manu- 
facture of  Jute  carpeting.  A  consignment,  composed  of  some 
of  his  earliest  productions,  was  sent  to  New  York  ;  but  his 
agents  neglected  it  for  about  a  year,  and  then  sent  it  to  an 
auction  sale.  At  the  sale,  cloth  18  inches  in  width  brought 
the  very  handsome  price  of  60  cents  a  yard,  which  would  return 
him  a  profit  of  from  four  to  five  hundred  per  cent.  Notwith- 
standing the  profitable  return  from  the  first  American  consign- 
ment of  Jute  carpeting,  the  progress  of  the  manufacture  was 
slow  and  uncertain.  No  one  in  Dundee  understood  the  dyeing  of 
the  yarns  for  fine  colours,  and  they  were  sent  to  Glasgow  to  be 
dyed  and  then  taken  back  to  Dundee  to  be  woven,  which  greatly 
increased  the  cost  of  the  carpeting.  The  demand  came  in  fits 
and  starts,  being  at  one  time  active  and  at  another  and  for 
long  periods  quite  stagnant.  The  manufacture  was  thus  at 
times  flattering,  and  at  others  very  discouraging,  but  Mr  Neish 
persevered  and  was  ultimately  rewarded  with  a  splendid 
success. 

The  author  began  the  manufacture  of  Jute  carpeting  in  May 
1835.  On  20th  April  he  bought  19  bales  of  Jute  from  the  late 
Hugh  Samson,  at  £14  15s  a  ton,  and  on  18th  May  a  farther 
quantity  of  42  bales  at  £14  5s.  He  had  it  heckled,  and  sold  the 
produce  to  the  late  David  Lindsay,  flaxspinner,  the  dressed 
longs  at  £23  6s  8d,  and  the  tow  at  £17  a  ton,  taking  back  the 
yarn  at  4s  9d  a  spindle  for  11  Ib.  line,  and  5d  a  pound  for  8  Ib. 
line  twisted  two-fold.  The  Jute  weft  for  the  carpeting  then  cost 
from  3Jd  to  4d  a  pound,  depending  on  the  size  and  quality. 

Shortly  after  the  introduction  of  Jute,  attempts  were  made  to 
heckle  it,  with  the  view  of  mixing  the  longs  with  Flax,  or  of  spin- 
ning it  into  yarn  by  itself.  The  great  length  of  the  Jute  made 
heckling  difficult,  and  when  the  fibre  came  to  the  frames  it  was 
found  that  it  did  not  amalgamate  readily  with  the  Flax,  and  that 
they  did  not  spin  well  together.  It  was  also  found  equally  difficult 


JUTE  CULTURE— IN  THE  FACTORY.  75 

to  spin  it  alone,  ami  thus  very  little  success  attended  th.  first 
efforts  to  make  line  yarn  either  wholly  of  Jute  or  of  a  mixture  of 
Flax  and  Jute.  The  yarn  into  which  it  was  attempted  to  be  spun 
was  about  3  Ib.  a  spindle,  or  16  lea,  a  size  used  in  many  of  tin* 
fa! »rics  then,  and  still  made  there.  When  the  mixed  yarn  came 
into  the  loom  it  would  not  work,  and  it  was  found  to  be  quit* • 
unsuitable  for  warp,  and  many  chains  made  of  it  had  to  be  cut 
out  of  the  looms.  These  difficulties,  added  to  the  previous  bad 
repute  of  Jute,  and  tended  to  retard  its  progress  in  the  trad.-. 

For  the  first  year  or  two  very  little  pure  Jute  yarn  was  spun, 
excepting  Jute  line  for  twist,  and  some  heavy  sixes  for  weft  to 
sacking  or  carpeting ;  but  by  the  beginning  of  1835  various  sorts 
of  yarn  spun  of  entire  Jute  were  regularly  sold  in  the  marbi 
On  1st  April  183/5, 11  Ib.  pure  Jute  yarn  cost  4£d  a  pound.  It 
was  used  for  weft  to  25  inch  cloth,  then  being  made  for  Charles 
Norrie,  merchant,  Dundee.  The  cloth  was  charged  at  3d  a  ya  n 1 . 
while  the  same  fabric  wefted  with  tow  yarn  was  charged 
3Jd.  On  and  after  that  year  the  price  of  Jute  and  of  7  Ib.  Jute 
yarn  will  be  found  in  the  prices  current  given  hereafter.  It  was  not 
until  llth  Nov.  1836,  that  the  price  of  Jute  is  quoted  in  the 
Advertiser;  and  it  was  then  £22  to  £23  a  ton  ;  and  7  Ib.  Jute 
yarn  appears  there  for  the  first  time  on  19th  July  1844,  at 
Is  lid  to  2s  per  spindle.  In  Aug.  1835,  and  again  in  Nov.  of 
that  year,  8  Ib.  to  16  Ib.  Jute  yarn  cost  4d  a  pound ;  22  Ib.  yarn 
ami  also  rove,  3£d  ;  and  14  Ib.  Jute  line  twist  5Jd  a  pound. 

For  years  after  its  first  introduction  the  principal  spinners 
iv fused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  Jute,  and  cloth  made 
•  fit  long  retained  a  tainted  reputation.  Indeed  it  was  not  until 
Mr  Rowan  got  the  Dutch  Government,  about  1838,  to  substitute 
Jute  yam  for  those  made  from  Flax  tow  in  the  manufacture  of 
1  he  coffee  bagging  for  their  East  Indian  possessions,  that  the 
Jute  trade  in  Dundee  got  a  proper  start.  That  fortunate  cir- 
cumstance gave  an  impulse  to  the  spinning  of  the  fibre  which  it 
never  after  lost,  and  since  that  period  its  progress  has  been  trulv 
astonishing. 

No  account  of  the  importation  ot  Jute  into  Dundee  was  kept 
until  1838,  and  the  quantity  for  that  and  succeeding  years  will  be 
:i  suliMMjiiontlv    in  tin-  table  of  imports  into  that  town.    Pre- 
vious to  that  date  Jute  was  included  under  the    head   <>f  Hemp 


76 


THE   KAW   MATERIAL. 


imported  coastwise,  the  total  of  which  from  1832  onwards  was 
as  follows : — 


1832. 
Tons  182 


1833. 
300 


1834. 

828 


1835. 
1222 


1836. 
16 


1837. 
171 


For  some  years  following  1837,  when  the  Jute  imported  was 
given  separately,  there  was  no  Hemp  imported  coastwise,  so 
that  it  may  not  be  far  wrong  to  suppose  that  the  whole,  or 
nearly  the  whole,  of  the  above  noted  quantities  were  Jute.  Prior 
to  1823  the  importation  of  Jute  was  trifling,  and  the  quantity 
iu  that  year  seems  to  have  been  only  what  belonged  to  Mr 
Watt.  In  1833  his  importation  comprised  three-fourths  of  the 
total  quantity.  The  importations  for  1834  and  1835  appear  to 
have  been  in  excess  of  the  requirements  of  the  trade,  and  little 
more  was  needed  for  the  following  two  years. 

Since  1837  the  increase  has  been  steady,  and  so  rapid  that 
last  year  the  importation  was  more  than  220  times  greater  than 
it  was  that  year,  or  within  a  quarter  of  a  century.  For  the  period 
which  has  gone  of  1863,  the  increase  is  even  in  a  greater  ratio. 

To  show  the  bad  odour  of  Jute  in  Dundee  in  January  1835, 
it  is  mentioned  in  the  Advertiser  of  that  date  that  it  was  then 
difficult  to  get  good  Flax  yarn,  bona-fide  Flax,  unmixed  with 
Jute  or  Hemp.  In  a  comparison  of  the  price  of  material,  yarn, 
and  linens,  for  1833  and  1834,  given  in  that  paper  of  6th  Feb. 
1835,  it  is  said  that  "  in  consequence  of  the  great  rise  in  Flax, 
from  the  failure  of  the  Flax  crop,  substitutes  had  begun  to  be 
used.  But  the  mischief  is  that  were  Linens  to  advance  as 
much  as  Flax  had  done,  cotton  would  come  into  competition, 
and  thus  the  manufacturer  was  precluded,  unless  at  a  great  sacri- 
fice, from  pursuing  his  trade  honestly,  and  obliged  to  use  sub- 
stitutes. Of  these  the  most  common  was  Jute  Hemp,  an 
Eastern  production,  which,  from  being  a  drug  in  the  London  and 
Liverpool  markets,  was  then  worth  about  £17  a  ton,  an  advance 
within  a  few  months  of  from  40  to  50  per  cent.  This  article, 
is  weak,  of  a  reddish  brown  colour,  very  soft  and  silky,  but 
totally  destitute  of  moisture.  The  use  of  this  and  other  sub- 
stitutes would  tend  to  lower  the  character  of  our  manu- 
factures very  much,  though  it  is  to  be  hoped  the  necessity 
for  using  them  will  not  continue  long  enough  to  ruin  it 
altogether."  The  same  article  was  repeated  in  the  Advertise? 


JUTE  CULTURE — IV  THE  FACTORY.  77 

the  following  week,  the  reason  assigned  being,  because  it  had 
given  so  much  satisfaction  the  week  before. 

As  already  mentioned,  great  ditlu  ulty  was  experienced  in 
getting  Jute  at  first  introduced  into  the  manufactures  of  the 
town,  and  this  arose  from  various  causes.  Bi»inn«T.  inainifae- 
turer,  and  consumer,  were  alike  prejudiced  against  it,  and  all 
eschewed  the  disreputable  fibre— the  two  former  classes,  be- 
cause they  did  not  know  the  nature  of  the  material,  nor  how 
to  use  it,  and  the  latter  because  it  had  got  a  bad  name  from 
people  who  were  ignorant  of  its  merits.  The  spinner,  perhaps 
had  some  cause  to  be  cautious,  because,  having  been  tri» •<!.  it 
was  found  that  the  machinery  then  in  use  was  not  well  adapted 
for  spinning  it.  Many  of  them  were  disinclined  to  alter  their 
machinery,  it  being  doubtful  whether,  after  all,  Jute  might  in 
the  end  be  found  suitable.  The  probable  future  supply  and 
price  were  unknown,  and  any  movement  in  it  was,  as  it  were, 
taking  a  step  in  the  dark  as  to  future  consequences,  but  per- 
fectly clear  as  to  present  cost.  Those  who  did  go  into  the  trade 
with  spirit  and  persevered,  soon  discovered  its  advantages,  and 
ultimately  they  were  rewarded  for  all  their  labour  and  anxiety 
with  a  brilliant  success. 

The  long  strikes  of  Jute  intended  for  line  yarn  were  cut  of  a 
proper  length  for  heckling,  and  the  teaser  was  erected  to  tear 
down  and  make  into  tow  what  was  designed  to  be  so  spun. 
The  cards  were  altered  to  suit  the  new  fibre,  and  the  preparing 
and  spinning  machinery  strengthened  and  enlarged,  the  better  to 
turn  it  into  yarn.  The  application  of  oil  softened  the  material, 
made  it  more  pliable,  and  gave  it  better  spinning  properties. 
These  were  still  more  improved  by  spreading  out  the  strikes, 
saturating  them  thorouglily  with  oil  and  water,  and  allowing  the 
Jute  to  remain  in  the  batch  for  several  days  before  being  spun. 
This  operation  was  first  performed  in  a  thorough  manner  by 
AYilliam  Taylor  at  Ruthven  Mill,  and  it  has  added  greatly  to 
the  spinning  qualities  of  the  material,  improved  the  appearance 
of  the  yarn,  and  materially  lessened  the  waste  and  consequent 
cost  of  spinning.  Alter  the  preparing  and  spinning  machinery 
was  properly  adapted  for  Jute,  and  after  the  appliances  of  oil 
and  water  had  been  judiciously  laid  on,  the  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  spinning  the  fibre  were  removed.  The  bad  odour  wlu'ch 


78  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 

it  had  at  first  was  then  forgotten,  and  profitable  returns  made 
it  smell  fragrantly  to  the  spinner. 

When  first  tried,  Jute  had  no  name  or  standing  in  the 
place,  and  little  note  was  then  taken  of  the  time  or  the  manner 
in  which  the  calumniated  and  untried  stranger  was  intro- 
duced. The  first  spinners  of  the  fibre  have  almost  all  passed 
away,  and  as  most  of  them  were,  from  its  evil  reputation,  ashamed 
to  own  their  bantling,  and  in  a  great  measure  compelled  to  use 
it  stealthily,  little  public  notice  was  for  a  time  taken  of  it.  Some, 
even  among  those  who  first  used  Jute,  are  unable  to  tell  the 
date  when  they  did  so,  because  the  quantity  was  so  small  and 
unimportant  that  little  note  of  it  was  kept.  So  in  like  manner 
with  the  changes  which,  in  its  younger  days,  were  constantly 
making  in  the  manipulation  of  the  fibre,  and  in  the  machinery 
for  converting  it  into  yarn.  These  were  effected  gradually  year 
by  year,  and  so  quietly  that  the  dates  when  many  improvements 
were  originated  were  unnoted  and  remain  unknown.  The  in- 
formation regarding  its  first  introduction  detailed  above  is, 
however,  substantially  correct.  The  greater  part  of  it  has 
been  taken  from  the  books  of  the  parties  themselves,  sup- 
plemented by  oral  statements  from  such  of  them  as  remain,  or 
by  their  contemporaries,  and  little  better  or  more  reliable  infor- 
mation on  the  subject  can  now  be  got. 

As  already  stated,  the  only  attempts  to  spin  Jute  longs  into 
small  sizes  of  yarn,  either  in  combination  with  Flax  or  by  itself, 
of  a  quality  suitable  for  warp  purposes,  entirely  failed.  It  was 
not  then  possible  to  get  off  a  fair  spin  of  either  entire  Jute  or  of 
mixed  yarn,  and  neither  when  spun  would  work  as  warp.  The 
long  dry  fibres  of  the  Jute,  instead  of  having  a  tendency  to  twist 
and  combine  with  each  other  as  some  other  fibres  do,  stand  out 
from  the  body  of  the  thread  ready  to  catch  or  to  be  caught  by 
anything  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  The  friction  caused 
by  the  rubbing  of  the  threads  upon  each  other,  and  upon  the 
camb,  reed,  &c.,  in  the  process  of  weaving,  drew  out  these  loose 
fibres,  and  broke  the  yarn.  This  rendered  the  weaving  tedious, 
and  the  cloth,  if  cloth  was  formed,  unmerchantable.  The  Jute 
yarn,  both  line  and  tow,  was  therefore  only  used  as  weft,  with 
the  exception  of  such  of  it  as  was  twisted  two-fold,  and  it  was 
chiefly  made  into  carpeting.  The  warp  of  sacking  and  other 


.M  Ti:    <  rr.TURE  —  IN    THE    FACTORY.  ,  '.' 


laln-irs  formed  d  BDgb  Jute  yarn  Wiis  therefore  all  sized  or 
starched  before  being  weaved.  :in«l  ihi^  >l..\v  and  tedious  process 
greatly  retarded  tlio  production  of  this  class  of  good-. 

In  September  1848,  Peter  Smith,  raamifacturcr,  Dundee. 
in-ti  acted  James  Aytoun,  of  Kirkaldy,  to  make  some  sack 
chains  of  very  fine  Jute,  with  the  yarn  well  twisted.  On  trying 
these  chains  ho  found  they  wrought  admirably  without  starch. 
(iilroy,  Brothers,  and  Co.,  hearing  of  this  Biiw>st'ul  experiment, 
improved  the  quality  of  the  material  of  their  chains,  twisted 
harder,  and  wrought  them  green.  Other  spinners  shortly  t'-.l 
lowed  their  example,  and  starching  sacking  chains  made  of 
Jute  was  immediately  discontinued.  As  long  as  Jute  chains 
required  starching,  the  production  of  the  cloth  was  much  re- 
stricted, the  process  being  slow,  and  the  starching  accommoda- 
tion  limited.  This  discovery  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  manu- 
facture of  such  fabrics,  and  largely  increased  the  consumption 
of  Jute. 

The  sightly  nature  of  Jute,  the  regular  and  even  thread  which, 
by  the  improved  machinery,  is  formed  of  it,  and  the  smooth,  tidy, 
and  clean  appearance  of  Jute  cloth,  are  all  pleasing  to  the  eye, 
and  therefore  attractive.  These  qualities  combined  with  its 
cheapness,  have  served  to  recommend  it  to  consumers,  and  bring 
it  into  general  use.  Now,  instead  of  being  used  stealthily  by 
spinners  as  of  old,  it  is  the  only  material  spun  by  several  of  the 
leading  firms  in  Dundee.  The  collossal  proportions  of  some  of 
the  works  devoted  solely  to  spinning  and  weaving  Jute  may  be 
imagined,  when  it  is  stated  that  the  consumption  in  several  of 
them  exceeds  500  bales  each  a  week,  and  one  or  two  of  them 
each  cut  up  about  1000  bales  weekly. 

The  various  descriptions  of  Jute  goods  now  manufactured  are 
'ii  —  sackings,  baggings,  hessians,  sheetings,  hop  pocketing, 
Osnaburgs,  ducks,  carpeting,  &c.,  &c.,  &c.  The  major  portion 
of  the  Jute  cloth  is  made  of  yarn  in  the  green  or  natural  state. 
but  in  many  sorts  the  yarn  is  milled  and  improved,  creamed,  or 
dyed,  and  in  some  it  is  bleached.  In  addition  to  the  fabrics 
composed  wholly  of  Jute,  many  sorts  of  Unions  are  made. 
Flax  and  tow  yarns,  and  cotton  and  woollen  yarns,  are  incor- 
porated with  Jute  in  many  ways,  and  in  this  manner  an  endless 
variety  of  fabrics  are  formed.  Every  effort  is  made  to  suit  the 


80 


THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 


taste  and  the  requirements  of  the  people  in  all  lands,  and  the 
present  extent  of  the  Jute  trade  testifies  to  the  success  of  these 
efforts.  What  it  may  become  hereafter  it  is  impossible  to 
foretell,  but  judging  from  the  progress  made  since  its  introduc- 
tion, little  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  it  is  not  too  much  to 
suppose  that  it  will  have  a  glorious  future. 

For  a  long  period  nearly  all  the  Jute  consumed  in  the 
kingdom  was  in  Dundee  and  neighbourhood,  but  the  manu- 
facture is  now  extending  in  various  places.  In  London  and 
the  district  around,  it  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for 
various  purposes.  A  small  quantity  of  fine  Jute  is  cut  up  in 
Yorkshire,  and  used  in  the  formation  of  woollen  fabrics.  In 
Lancashire  several  works  have  of  late  years  been  started  for 
spinning  and  weaving  the  fibre. 

Establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  Jute  have  been  erected 
in  Glasgow,  and  in  Greenock,  and  the  consumption  at  botli 
places  is  on  the  increase.  Jute  was  early  spun  in  Fifeshire,  but 
it  has  not  made  much  progress  there.  In  Arbroath  and  in 
Blairgowrie  Jute  has  been  spun  for  years,  and  the  consumption 
of  the  article  in  both  towns  is  on  the  increase,  although  in 
neither  has  it  yet  attained  to  great  proportions. 

On  the  Continent  of  Europe,  Jute  spinning  has  been  carried 
on  in  some  countries  for  years,  but  it  has  not  hitherto  made 
much  way  in  any  of  them.  In  the  statement  of  the  export  of 
fibres  from  the  United  Kingdom,  a  detailed  account  is  given  of 
the  countries  to  which  Jute  was  sent  in  the  years  named,  and 
the  quantity  and  value  to  each.  That  statement  shews  the  pro- 
gress of  the  trade  in  these  States,  as  they  draw  their  supplies 
chiefly  from  this  country,  and  import  very  little  from  Calcutta 
direct.  France  imports  from  the  United  Kingdom,  and  also  direct 
from  Calcutta.  The  total  importation  into  that  country  for  the 
years  1861  and  1862,  taken  from  the  monthly  circular  of  G.  and 
J.  A.  Noble  of  London,  for  February  1863,  is  therefore  given. 


JUTE   IN   FRANCE. 


Where  from. 


Import. 
1861.      1862. 

England,     .        Tons    5,155      4,417 
Belgium,     .  23 

East  Indies,  „        4,499      1,744 

Other  Countries,  „  302  4 


TOUB    9,958      6,168 


Consumption. 

1861.  1862. 

5,366  4,420 

2  3 

4,654  1,751 

302  2 

10,324  6,176 


Stock  31st  Dec. 

1861      1862. 

369       89 


JUTE   CULTUKi: — IN    THE    FAlTOKY. 


I  he  Jute  imported  into  France  fmm  l>t  January  to  31st  May 
was :  — 

1861.    Tons  3795  1862.    Ton.  2700  1863.    Tout  1G70 

On  31st  May  1863,  the  Stock  of  Jute  in  France  was  in 
riificant. 

It  would  appear  from  these  statistics  that  the  Jute  trade  in 
1  -Vance  is  not  in  a  prosperous  state,  as  the  consumption  has 
decreased  materially  during  these  years,  and  it  seems  to  be 
still  on  the  decrease.  This  supposition  is  strengthened  by  th«.- 
fact  that  large  quantities  of  Jute  yarns  were,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1863,  sent  from  France  to  Dundee  for  sale,  which  would 
not  have-  hccn  the  case  had  the  trade  there  been  in  a  healthy 
o'ntliti.»n.  This  anomaly  no  doubt  arises  from  exceptional 
*cs,  Imt  il  is  curious. 

For  a  long  period  the  United  States  of  America  has  been  an 
importer  of  Jute  direct  from  Calcutta,  and  a  little  has  occasion- 
ally been  sent  from  this  country.  The  consumption  there 
has  been  progressive,  but  it  has  not  yet  attained  to  great  magni- 
tude, and  a  considerable  part  of  the  Jute  imported  from  India 
has  been  re-exported  to  the  United  Kingdom. 

Two  factories  for  Jute  spinning  and  weaving  have  been  in 
;utive  operation  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Calcutta  for  seve- 
ral years  past.  A  third  is  shortly  to  be  started,  and  the 
Borneo  Company  are  now  making  a  very  large  addition  to  tln-ir 
establishment,  which,  when  completed,  will  vie  with  some  of 
the  larger  works  in  Dundee.  The  steam  power  of  the  work 
will  be  about  270  horses,  driving  fully  3500  spindles,  and  350 
looms,  with  all  the  necessary  preparing  and  finishing  machinery. 
Thomas  Duff,  the  managing  partner  of  the  Company,  who  is  a 
native  of  Dundee,  employed  the  machine  makers  there  to  make 
the  engines  and  machinery  required  for  the  extension  of  their 
works,  and  the  machinery  for  the  new  spinning  mill  is  also  being 
made  in  Dun<l- . 

The  establishment  of  these  works  at  Calcutta  has  not  hitherto 
had  an  injurious  effect  upon  the  trade  in  Dundee.  The  goods 
they  manufacture  have  come  more  into  competition  with  the 
productions  of  the  native  looms,  as  they  have  been  chiefly  used 
for  bags  lor  rice  and  other  produce  of  the  country,  which  was 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

formerly  shipped  in  gunny  cloth.  The  consumption  of  cloth  for 
this  purpose  is  immense,  and  constantly  on  the  increase,  and  it 
will  be  some  time  before  the  production  can  exceed  the  demand. 
The  manufacturing  establishments  at  Calcutta  are  reported  to 
have  yielded  a  handsome  return  to  the  proprietors,  and  the 
knowledge  of  this  will  probably  stimulate  the  erection  of  other 
works  of  a  similar  kind  there.  Should  this  be  done  they  may 
in  time  supply  the  Australian  market  with  corn  sacks  and  wool 
packs,  and  thus  interfere  with  the  manufactures  of  Dundee  ;  but 
this  day  may  yet  be  far  distant. 

Last  year  a  proposal  was  made  to  cottonize  Jute,  or  to  bleach, 
soften,  and  break  it  down,  so  as  to  adapt  it  for  being  spun  over 
cotton  machinery.  For  a  short  time  the  idea  was  eagerly  seized 
upon  by  holders  of  Jute  in  England,  and  speculation  speedily 
ran  it  up  to  the  fabulous  price  of  about  £40  a  ton  for  the  finest 
qualities,  and  £30  for  common.  Those  who  were  practically 
acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  fibre  had  no  faith  in  Jute 
cotton,  well  knowing  that  it  would  be  about  as  easy  to  make 
the  leopard  change  his  spots  as  to  impart  to  Jute  the  spinning 
qualities  of  cotton. 

After  some  fruitless  attempts  to  accomplish  the  object  sought 
to  be  attained,  the  project  died  a  natural  death.  The  dazzling 
promises  proved  illusory,  and  the  poor  speculators  got  out  of 
their  Jute  as  they  best  could,  poorer  if  not  wiser  men. 

It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  Jute,  as  now  imported  into 
Great  Britain,  will  ever  by  any  process  be  rendered  suitable  as 
a  substitute  for,  or  even  for  being  spun  with  cotton.  It  may  be 
possible,  by  some  means  not  yet  discovered,  so  to  improve  the 
cultivation  and  preparation  of  Jute  as  to  produce  a  stronger 
and  yet  finer  and  softer  fibre ;  but  until  radical  changes  are 
made  in  these  respects  it  is  vain  to  expect  Jute-cotton.  A 
machine  has  recently  been  introduced  by  Sandford  and  Mallory) 
an  American  firm,  for  softening  and  increasing  the  spinning 
qualities  of  Jute,  but  the  most  that  can  be  expected  from  any 
such  machine  is  to  render  the  fibre  more  suitable  for  the  pur- 
poses to  which  it  has  hitherto  been  applied,  an  1  nothing  farther 
need  be  looked  for. 

Jute  from  its  appearance  more  resembles  wool  than  cotton, 
and  there  appears  to  be  nothing  so  Quixotic  in  the  idea  of  Jute- 


JUTE  CULTURE — IN    Till     FACTORY.  83 

\\ .,<>!.       Indeed  i«»!  a  while  pa>t  fabrics  of  Jute  and  wool  have 
been  mode  in  soinr  districts  of  England,  but  n<>i  hitherto  to  a 
ui.  .it  extent.     This  trade  may  increase,  but  not  to  such  a 
as  to  deprive  Dundee  of  its  Jut.'. 

According  t.»  l)r  J.  Forbes  Wateou,  the  growth  of  .Tut.  in 
India  is  at  least  300,000  tons  annually.  Of  tins  th.-ix-  i»  now 
rled  in  tho  r.iw  state  tn.iu  50,000  to  60,000  tons,  and  per- 
hap>  tmm  80,000  to  100,000  tons  are  used  as  gunny  bags  and 
bagging,  the  balance  being  required  for  local  consumption.  It 
11 1 -pears  from  the  same  authority,  that  the  better  qualities  are 
in.-stly  retained  tm  h.mie  use,  and  that  the  production  admits  of 
unlimited  extension.  It  is  natural  therefore  to  expect  that  the 
l.i :«•  active  demand  and  hi^h  prices  will  stimulate  in  a  great 
degree  the  cultivation  of  Jute,  and  that  the  supplies  will  keep 
pace  with  the  ever  increasing  consumption  in  this  country. 

In  M'Culloch's  Commercial  Dictionary,  it  is  said  that  Jute 
consists  of  the  fibre  of  two  plants,  Choricle  and  Isbund  (C.O.  and 
(AC.),  extensively  cultivated  in  Bengal,  and  forming  the  material 
of  which  guimy  cloth  is  made.  It  comes  into  competition  with 
Flax,  Tow,  and  Codilla  in  the  manufacture  of  stair  and  other 
carpets,  bagging  for  cotton  and  other  goods,  and  such-like 
tahrics,  and  is  extensively  used  for  those  purposes  in  Dundee; 
but  it  is  most  unsuitable  for  cordage  from  its  snapping  when 
twisted,  and  rotting  in  water.  When  first  introduced  into  this 
country  in  1815,  the  price  varied  from  £35  to  £40  per  ton.  It 
was  then,  however,  very  little  used,  and  did  not  begin  to  come 
into  general  use  as  bagging  till  1827  or  1828. 

That  description  is  incorrect  in  various  particulars.  Jute  has 
in-viT  come  into  competition  with  Flax,  Tow,  or  Codilla,  in  the 
manufacture  of  stair  and  other  carpets.  Carpeting  was  made 
of  wool,  and  not  of  any  of  these  fibres,  and  the  Jute  car 
pets  were  made  in  imitation  of  woollen  carpets.  Jute  yarn 
spun  with  an  ordinary  twist  docs  not  snap  readily,  and  it  is  not 
more  weakened  thereby  in  proportion  to  its  original  strength  than 
other  fibres.  It  stands  water  better  than  Flax  mate  rial.  In 
various  instances  cloth  of  Flax,  or  Flax  tow  warp  and  Jute  weft, 
has  been  immersed  in  water,  both  salt  and  fresh,  for  days  and 
weeks,  and,  on  being  taken  out,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
Jute  weft  came  through  the  ordeal  less  weakened  than  the  Flax 

F2 


84 


THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 


warp.  The  fibre  referred  to  as  introduced  into  this  country  in 
1815  can  scarcely  be  Jute,  it  having  been  first  introduced 
nearly  twenty  years  before  that  period.  Bagging  was  made  of 
Sunn  Hemp  in  Dundee  long  before  1827  or  1828  ;  but,  as 
already  mentioned,  Jute  was  little  used  in  Dundee  for  several 
years  after  that  date. 

Erroneous  ideas  regarding  the  nature  and  properties  of  Jute 
have  been  long  held,  but  as  it  becomes  better  known  these  dis- 
appear one  by  one,  and  its  merits  are  appreciated  and  acknow- 
ledged. It  may  be  steeped  or  washed  in  water  at  an  ordinary 
temperature  without  injury,  and  it  may  be  boiled  without  being 
weakened.  It  is  of  a  kindly  nature,  clean,  and  inviting  in  ap- 
pearance, and,  though  not  particularly  strong  and  enduring,  it  is 
most  suitable  for  many  purposes. 

The  following  tables  refer  to  the  Jute  trade  : — 

QUANTITY  AND  VALUE  OP  JUTE  AND  JUTE  ROPE  EXPORTED  FROM  CALCUTTA. 


Total. 

£191,069      Tons,  29,120  £196,936 

168,974               26,763  180,976 

101,380               17,492  112,578 

117,982               25,475  161,769 

184,588                34,978  229,241 

285,499                44,094  328,798 

201,121                33,689  275,057 

251,275               39,441  303,292 

451,588                65,894  525,099 

260,544                38,060  290,018 

346,364               53,716  409,371 

lu  1855-66,  41  tons,  value  £278,  were  sent  to  Great  Britain  from  Bombay,  in  addition 

to  the  above. 


To  Great  Britain. 
1850-51  Tons  28,247 
24,976 
15,749 
18,526 
28,287 
36,282 
20,162 
33,511 
56,048 
34,115 
46,182 


1851-52 
1852-53 
1853-54 
1854-55 
1855-56 
1856-57 
1857-58 
1858-59 
1859-60 
1860-61 


NUMBER  or  GUNNY  BAGS  AND  PIFCES  OF  GUNNY  CLOTH,  AND  VALUE  OP 
THE  SAME,  EXPORTED  FROM  INDIA. 


Bags. 

Pieces. 

Value, 

1850-51 

27,700 

4,355,238 

£158,421 

1851-52 

41,550 

9,730,071 

279,720 

1852-53 

17,870 

5,422,296 

201,667 

1853-54 

34,950 

7,891,898 

174,926 

1854-55 

126,790 

11,229,663 

215,346 

1855-56 

17,374 

10,860,416 

302,340 

1856-57 

2,663 

9,381,282 

376,253 

1857-58 

10,855 

5,892,079 

217,092 

1858-59 

7,822,365 

392,424 

1859-60 



6,459,001 

333,977 

1860-61 



4,711,982 

359,043 

A  very  large  proportion  of  the  Pieces  of  Gunny  Cloth  goes  to  North  America. 

These  statements  are  extracted  from  the  Catalogue  of  the  Indian  Products  showu 

at  the  International  Exhibition  1862. 


JUTE   CULTURE — IN    THE   FACTOltY. 


85 


STATEMENT  or  THK  AKKIV.VLM,  DKLIVKKIE.H,  STUCK*,  AND  Pmcta  or  JUTJC  IN 
LONDON  IN  THK  YEARS  NAMED. 


1840 

1841 

Arm  i^    1  '.   M  <  i  n  • 

stocki 

I'nr.  i 

ii.  •  .    .  . 

-t.  '  • 

Bales.     lialM. 

Bale* 

Per  Ton. 

Bataa. 

BtiM 

Bale*. 

Per  Ton. 

Jan. 

3,512 

20,700 

10/3  ft  11/3 

789 

1,450 

8,590 

18/9  <•>  M»; 

Feb. 

1  ..;;•.. 

1,419 

L0,0    .,  11  o 

m 

1,800 

8,000 

13/6  ..146 

Mar. 

l,s-lo 

1,860 

6,95013/6    „  M  :\ 

Apr. 

1  -1  o 

1,774 

11/9   ,,12/6 

2,406 

1,758 

7,60012/6   ,,13/6 

Mav 

883 

1,480 

18,50011/6   ,,12/3 

171'.' 

7.330  L3/3   ,.14/3 

June. 

1,880 

11/6   ,,12/0 

888 

1,888 

6,150 

14/6   ,,15/0 

July. 
Aug. 

1,600 
2A7 

2,090 

r,ooe 

16,70012/0   ,,12# 
16,00012/6    . 

800 

[,060 
898 

RJ60 
4,960 

15/6   „  16/6 

.  17/0 

S    i.'. 

2,600 

13,60014/6   ,,16/0 

965 

1,311 

4,600 

16/6   ,,17/fl 

Oct. 

1.1KK) 

11,60014/6   ,,15'6 

543 

8^00 

18/6   „  19/0 

Nov. 

703 

1,003 

11,30014,0    ..15/0 

711 

1,600 

•J.  UNI 

19/6   ,,200 

DM, 

[,960 

9^980 

14/0   ,,15/0 

457 

1,100 

1,000 

20/0   ,. 

6,894 

21,848 

10,091 

17,521 

1842 

1843 

Jan. 

580 

1,07520/0  @20/6 

3,033 

2,073 

7,96016/0  @18/6 

Feb. 

1.038 

913 

1,20019/0    ,,19/6 

LM  L'5 

1  ;:s.~» 

«,  700  M-0    „  180 

Mar.       i;325 
Apr.      2,168 

1,025 

1,50018/0    ..18/6 
1,80018/6    ,,19/6 

9,688 

1,700 
2,660 

10,850  13/0   „  18/0 
10,850  13/0   „  17/0 

May.       1,708 

2,450 

1.05016/0    „  17/0 

6,160 

3,100 

13,900;i2/0   „  10/0 

June. 
Julv. 

2,866 

1,106 
2,663 

2,80016/0    „  17/0 

750 
400 

3,450 

11,200,11/0   „  15  0 
10,15o!ll/6  , 

Aug. 

745 

1,265 

1,78015/6    ,,16/0 

2,242 

1,652 

10,750  li'o     .  L6/U 

Sept. 

6,634 

1,314 

7,10015/0  ,,   i:,  M 

950 

1,190 

:.;  o     ,  i:,  ii 

Oct. 

1,197 

2,747 

5,55016/0    ,,17/0 

5,226 

1,476 

Nov. 
Deo 

4,961 

850 

1,600 
2,800 

8,960 

7,000 

1676    .,18/6 
17/3    ,,19/0 

6,850 

950 

L2BO 
868 

19,850  14/0 
19,82513/9   „  100 

26,206 

20,221 

35,207 

2i»,33C 

1844 

1846 

Jan. 

752 

1,200 

7,161 

2,150 

25,5<X) 

11/0  @14/0 

F.b. 

1,498 

..  16/0 

3,728 

8,639 

26,800 

11/9     ,15/0 

Mir. 
Apr. 

May. 

3,973 
500 

2,087 

19,90012/0   ,    15/6 
20,95011/6    .    140 
Ll/3    .    11  >i 

8,868 
6,744 
8,990 

8,944 

88,900 
88,001 
84,000 

11/9    ,  ir>  o 

11/0     ,  l.VO 
11/0     ,  15/0 

June 

LjMO 

17,00011  :;    .    in. 

:>  '.••*> 

:;.«:•_•* 

84,801 

11/3     ,  16/0 

July. 

4,888 

18,70011/9    ,    1!  .: 

38,30 

11/6   ,,15/0 

Aug. 

:'>.."•  i.; 

8,778 

18,450  no  .  i-..; 

80,901 

11/6   ,.  15/0 

•_',:;  u 

18.10 

i-jf,  ,  jc,  o 

L',700 

29,901 

1  1  >i    „  14'0 

2,707 

li),530U6    „    16/0 

2,315 

28,3» 

..  18 

Nov. 

1,516 

1,846 

19.70011/6    „  15/6 

29,601 

!»,,-. 

1,495 

888 

20,600 

,    15/0 

1,521  1  1V."J  I 

28,100 

12/0  „  15/6 

8,324 

•27,248 

87,689 

86 


THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


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JUTE  CULTURE — IN   THK   FACTOUV. 


87 


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THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SUNN      CULTUKE. 

Crotularia  Juncea,  Sana,  or  Sunn  Hemp,  is  a  native  of  India. 
The  fibres  of  the  plant  are  much  used  for  cordage  and  for 
making  sackcloth,  and  are  very  valuable  for  these  purposes. 
There  are  two  varieties  of  the  plant ;  one,  sown  in  May  or  June, 
often  grows  ten  or  twelve  feet  high ;  the  other,  sown  in  October, 
rises  to  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet. 

After  the  earth  is  properly  ploughed,  cleansed  and  pulverized, 
the  seeds  of  these  plants  are  sown  very  thickly.  The  natives 
say  that  they  should  be  sown  so  close  together  that  a  serpent 
cannot  creep  between  them.  This  prevents  the  plant  from 
throwing  branches,  which  it  is  prone  to  do,  but  which  are  highly 
injurious  to  the  fibre.  As  the  growth  of  the  tall  variety  is  extreme- 
ly rapid,  the  crops  suffer  little  from  weeds,  but  if  the  weeds 
should  be  numerous  they  must  be  extirpated  by  the  hand,  when 
the  Sana  is  only  a  few  inches  in  height. 

The  Sana  (Suna,  Sunna,  or  Sun,  the  Bengal  name  for 
Hemp),  begins  to  flower  in  August,  and  when  it  has  done 
flowering,  and  the  seed  vessels  have  already  attained  their  full 
size,  some  time  before  the  seeds  ripen,  it  is  cut  down,  or  pulled 
up  by  the  roots,  and  tied  up  in  small  bundles,  each  containing 
ten  or  a  dozen  plants.  If  a  fine  soft  fibre  is  required  it  is  pulled 
earlier,  and  if  great  strength  it  is  allowed  to  stand  until  the 
seed  is  ripe.  The  bundles  are  then  set  upright  in  water,  about 
a  foot  or  a  foot  and  a  half  of  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk  being 
immersed,  and  they  continue  in  that  condition  one  day.  By 
this  means  the  upper  and  comparatively  tender  part  of  the  stalk 
is  somewhat  dried.  That  produces  a  great  similarity  in  the 
quality  of  the  fibre  throughout  the  whole  stalk. 

After  the  Sana  or  Hemp  has  thus  stood  erect  for  one  day  it  is 
steeped  in  a  pond  or  in  some  other  receptacle  for  water,  to  promote 


BUNN  CULTURE.  91 

t  he  >«-pa  rat  ion  of  the  fibre  from  tin  stalk.  This  process  is  conducted 
as  follows: — A  mimln-r  of  tin-  small  bundles  aU>ve  mentioned 
an  l.-ii-l  one  upon  another,  so  as  to  form  a  heap  five  or  six  feet 
high,  on  each  Mile  of  which  three  or  four  stakes  have  previously 
been  set  to  prevent  it  from  falling  down.  A  quantity  of  cow  dun 
about  two  or  three  inches  in  thickness,  is  then  «pread  over  t lie- 
heap.  Upon  this  a  layer  of  straw  is  placed  about  a  foot  and  a 
half  in  depth,  and  over  the  whole  a  quantity  of  earth  sufficient 
to  sink  the  heap  until  the  upper  part  is  five  or  six  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  water.  In  two  and  a  half  days,  or  three  days 
at  farthest,  the  putrid  fermentation  is  carried  to  a  sufficient 
extent. 

The  Sana  is  then  taken  out,  and  the  fibre  stripped  from  the 
stalk  in  the  following  manner: — A  man,  standing  up  to  his 
s  in  the  water,  takes  a  few  of  the  stalks,  and  having  broken 
t lu  m  about  a  foot  from  the  lower  end,  holds  them  with  the 
lar^v  mils  from  him,  and  strikes  them  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
till  the  stems  arc  broken,  separate,  and  fall  off.  Then  turning 
them,  he  takes  hold  of  the  fibres,  which  are  freed  from  tho 
broken  pieces,  and  beats  the  small  ends  in  the  same  manner  on 
the  water,  till  the  fibre  is  entirely  separated  from  the  stems.  A 
few  strokes  are  sufficient,  and  by  a  few  more  it  is  cleared  from 
any  mucus  or  fragments  of  stalks  which  may  adhere  to  it.  It  is 
then  dried  and  packed  up  for  the  market. 

The  chief  thing  to  be  attended  to  in  this  process  is  the  proper 
regulation  of  the  putrid  fermentation.  If  this  be  not  carried  to 
a  sufficient  extent,  the  fibre  will  not  separate,  and  if  carried  too 
far,  the  quality  is  injured.  The  most  experienced  natives  count 
two  days  and  a  half  a  proper  medium.  The  fermentation  is 
doubtless  .jiiickened  or  retarded  by  the  state  of  the  weather,  but 
the  difference  occasioned  thereby  is  so  small,  that  the  Bengal 
fanners  entirely  disregard  it. 

By  this  simple,  easy,  and  short  process  do  the  natives  of  India 
accomplish,  without  the  aid  of  machinery,  theVcutching  of  the 
Sana  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner. 

The  mode  of  cultivating  and  pi\ -paring  Sunn  is  not  the  same 
in  every  part  of  India,  but  the  ditVerences  are  not  material. 
The  al.ove  is  perhaps  the  plan  most  generally  adopted,  and 
i:>  deecriptioD  will  suffice  on  this  point. 


92  THE   RAW    MATEKIAL. 

The  Sunn  is  probably  the  earliest  of  the  distinctly  named 
fibres  of  India,  as  it  is  stated  in  the  Hindoo  "  Institutes  of 
Menu  "  that  the  sacrificial  thread  of  the  Kajpoot  is  directed  to 
be  made  of  Sana,  cotton  being  reserved  for  the  Brahmins. 
Under  the  name  of  Sana  it  is  mentioned  in  many  Sanscrit 
works,  and  by  that  of  Sunn  it  is  known  in  most  parts  of  India. 
It  is  most  extensively  cultivated  throughout  the  whole  of  India, 
and  is  much  used  by  the  natives,  for  cordage,  sacks,  and  a  great 
variety  of  other  purposes,  as  well  as  exported  largely  to  Eng- 
land and  other  countries. 

Sunn  belongs  to  the  family  of  plants  yielding  the  pulses  of 
India,  and  the  peas  and  beans  of  Europe.  It  is  an  annual,  with 
a  straight  stem  branching  toward  the  top  when  growing  singly, 
but  with  few  branches  when  close,  as  it  is  usually  cultivated. 
The  leaves  are  scattered,  from  two  to  six  inches  long,  with  a 
small  bristle  like  point,  and  covered  on  both  sides  with  soft 
silvery  coloured  hairs.  The  flowers  are  of  a  beautifully  bright 
yellow  colour,  and  the  seeds,  which  are  numerous,  are 
kidney  shaped.  The  seeds,  when  ripe  and  loosened,  rattle 
within  the  pods,  whence  the  genus  has  been  named  from  the 
Greek  word  Jcrotalos. 

In  the  end  of  last  century  small  quantities  of  Sunn  were  im- 
ported into  this  country  from  India,  and  it  was  often  experi- 
mented upon  both  in  India  and  here.  When  properly  prepared 
it  possesses  considerable  strength,  and  is  well  suited  for  some 
sorts  of  cordage.  Early  in  the  century  some  of  it  found  its  way 
to  Dundee. 

In  the  Advertiser  some  notices  of  Sunn  Hemp  appeared  at 
differrent  times.  It  is  mentioned  that  in  March,  1804,  some 
Indian  Hemp,  which  had  been  imported  into  Dundee,  met 
with  general  approbation,  and  that  some  parts  of  the  fibre,  tried 
against  Kussian  Hemp,  proved  beyond  all  demonstration  that 
it  was  an  article  of  the  first  consideration.  This  may  refer  to 
the  Brown  Hemp  of  commerce,  which  comes  from  India,  and  in 
many  respects  resembles  Kussian  Hemp.  It  may,  however, 
refer  to  Sunn  Hemp,  which  was  long  an  article  of  considerable 
importance  in  the  trade  of  the  town.  Sometimes  it  rose 
in  favour,  and  at  others  it  was  declared  unsuitable,  but  this 
may  refer  as  much  to  the  purpose  to  which  it  was  applied 


SUNN   CULTURE. 


as  to  the  tilire  itself.  In  May  1811,  it  is  said,  "The  Sunn 
1 1' -nip  of  India,  after  a  variety  of  experiments,  appears  not 
t<>  have  answered  the  public  expectations,  and  the  persons 
who  had  been  sent  out  to  Bengal  to  cultivate  it  have  been  re- 
call( •«!."  In  October  1806,  a  quantity  of  Sunn  Hemp  lying  in 
Dundee  was  advertised  for  sale  by  Nelson  and  Co.  In  1819  t he- 
art icle  was  again  advertised  for  Bale  in  Dundee.  For  some 
years  about  that  period  India  Hemp  cotton  bagging  appears  in 
the  Dundee  prices  current  in  the  Advertiser,  the  price  being 
generally  IJd  a  yard  below  Hemp  bagging,  and  Jd  a  yard  below 
Tow  warp  bagging.  The  India  Hemp  referred  to  was  Sunn. 

Since  then  it  has  often  been  tried,  but  the  fibre  is  not  well 
adapted  for  being  spun  by  the  machinery  in  use  in  Dundee,  and 
for  a  long  period  very  little  of  it  has  been  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  textile  fabrics  there.  No  doubt  machinery  could  be 
made  to  spin  it,  but  there  has  never  been  sufficient  inducement 
to  do  so,  as  Jute  nearly  answers  all  the  purposes  for  which  Sunn 
can  be  applied,  and  it  can  generally  be  bought  at  a  less  price. 
Another  objection  to  Sunn  Hemp  is,  that  when  wet  it  is  weak 
and  tender,  which  renders  it  unsuitable  for  many  textile  pur- 
poses, whilst  Jute,  on  the  contrary,  is  as  strong  when  wet  as 
when  dry.  This  is  perhaps  the  chief  cause  why  Sunn  has  not 
retained  its  place  among  the  fibres  used  there. 

QUANTITY  AND  VALUE  OP  HEMP  AND  HOPE,  CHIEFLY  SUNN,  SHIPPED 
FROM  INDIA  IN  THE  YEARS'  NAMED. 


Tear. 

Tom. 

£ 

Year. 

Tons. 

£ 

1850.1 

1053 

11,944 

1856-7 

3696 

52,107 

1858-3 

JOT 

90,683 

1858-9 

1989 

:«,181 

L8644 

7036 

77.0-.M) 

IM04 

1372 

94  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 


CHAPTER  V. 


VARIOUS      FIBRES. 


THE  great  staple  of  the  Linen  Trade  is  Flax,  the  cloth  made 
from  this  fibre  being  alone  entitled  to  be  called  Linen.  From 
various  causes  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  has  not  kept  pace 
with  the  demands  of  the  world  for  Linen,  and  substitutes  have 
been  sought  for  to  supply  the  void.  The  oldest  of  these  is 
Hemp,  and  for  many  fabrics  it  is  perhaps  the  best  that  has  yet 
been  tried.  The  culture  and  natui  e  of  this  valuable  fibre  have 
been  already  treated  of  in  a  separate  chapter.  Neither  Flax  nor  its 
twin  sister  Hemp  have  hitherto  been  grown  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity for  the  wants  of  the  trade,  and  prices  of  both  have  conse- 
quently continued  high.  Indeed  so  limited  has  been  the  supply 
of  these  fibres  that  the  Linen  trade,  had  it  been  confined  to 
them,  must  have  been  circumscribed  within  narrower  dimen- 
sions, and  the  Dundee  branch  of  it  could  never  have  attained  its 
present  colossal  proportions. 

In  a  happy  hour  a  cheap  substitute  for  either  Flax  or  Hemp 
was  introduced  into  Dundee,  and  since  then  its  progress  has 
been  most  rapid.  Jute,  a  native  of  the  sunny  climes  of  India, 
although  a  babe  in  years  in  the  Linen  trade,  has  become  a  full 
grown  man  in  importance,  and  already  it  has  supplanted  both 
Flax  and  Hemp  for  many  fabrics  to  which  they  were  long 
supposed  to  hold  a  prescriptive  right.  This  useful  and  beauti- 
ful, although  not  sterling  Linen  fibre,  is  fully  elucidated  in 
previous  chapters.  Its  oriental  sister  Sunn,  although  it  has 
never  yet  risen  to  much  importance  in  this  country  as  a  substi- 
tute for  Flax  or  Hemp  in  the  manufacture  of  Linens,  is  a  valu- 
able plant,  both  in  its  native  country  and  elsewhere.  Its  pro- 


\  MU0M  1 1!  i  95 

pertiei  and  qualiiications  f..r  tin-  fahi ieat ion  of  cloth  have  not 
pei-hap,  he.- 11  sufficiently  tried  iii  the  rnited  Kintrdom.  and 
when  it  becomes  better  known  it  may  be  inoiv  Appreciated. 
Tlif  mode  of  culture  an  1  preparation  of  \\\\<  tibre  luis  alHO  been 

en. 

In  sulilition  to  these  there  are  other  fibrous  plants  and   sub 
stances  which  have  been   use. I    f,.r    1'abrie,  akin  to  Liii'-n.  or  by 
pa  rtie»  engaged  in  (he  Limn  trade,  a-i  1  a  few  of  these  will   HOW 
Be  >hortl\    n  In-red  to. 

The  NI-ITLK  (Urtiawtv)  is  a  very  common  weed  in  this 
and  in  many  other  countries.  It  is  shunned  on  account 
of  its  well  known  sting,  and  also  from  the  forbidding  nature 
of  the  pluees  in  which  it  generally  grows,  yet  it  is  nearly 
allied  to  the  Hemp  family,  and  possesses  some  of  its  propel  I  i.-. 
Thread,  cloth,  and  paper  have  all  been  made  from  the  common 
nettle  of  Km  ope,  and  some  of  the  Indian  species  have  long  been 
noted  for  their  fibre.  In  the  hill  country  of  India  the  large 
nettle  grows  to  the  height  of  14  or  15  feet,  and  produces  a 
very  strong  and  useful  fibre.  The  natives  steep  it  for  three 
days  only,  and  then  strip  off  the  fibre,  which  is  done  by  break- 
ing off  the  top  of  the  plant  and  pulling  the  fibre  down  from  the 
thin  end,  which  is  the  contrary  way  from  Hemp  stripping. 
Other  species  are  prepared  by  different  methods,  but  it  is 
rally  done  by  a  simple  mode.  Some  of  these  plants  could 
probably  be  made  more  available  in  the  manufactures  of  this 
country  than  they  have  hitherto  been,  and  as  they  grow  freely 
and  might  be  produced  in  quantity  they  deserve  to  be  experi- 
mented upon. 

CHINA  GRASS  (  Urtica  nivea)  is  another  species  of  nettle,  and 
perhaps  the  most  famous  of  the  tribe.  Although  the  beautiful 
fabric  called  China  Grass  Cloth  has  long  been  known,  the  plant 
producing  it  was,  until  quite  recently,  altogether  unknown  to 
Knropcanis.  The  subject  has  now  been  satisfactorily  determined, 
and  the  mode  of  cultivation  and  preparation  of  the  plant  is  accu- 
rately known.  The  manner  of  preparing  the  fibre  is  fully  de- 
scribed in  Chinese  works,  and  the  following  precis  will  explain 
it.  A  liuht  sandy  soil  near  a  river  or  well  is  the  best  for  sowing 
the  seeds  in,  and  the  ground  should  be  dug,  made  into  beds  ol 
one  foot  by  four,  again  dug,  pressed  down  and  raked  smooth. 


96  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 

After  a  day  they  must  be  watered,  raked,  and  again  levelled, 
and  they  are  then  ready  for  the  seed.  One  pint  of  seed  should 
be  well  mixed  with  four  pints  and  a-half  of  moist  earth,  and 
this  will  sow  six  or  seven  beds.  The  seeds  should  be  sprinkled 
on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  riot  covered  with  earth,  or  they 
will  not  germinate.  Light  mats  must  be  placed  over  the 
beds,  and  after  the  seed  has  sprung,  when  the  sun's  rays  are  power- 
ful, straw  must  be  laid  over  the  mats,  or  the  young  plants  will  be 
destroyed  by  the  heat.  Before  the  young  leaves  appear  the  beds 
must  not  be  watered,  but  the  mats  should  be  wetted  to  keep  the 
ground  underneath  moist,  and  removed  at  night  that  the  plants 
may  get  the  dew.  If  parasitical  plants  appear  they  must  be  re- 
moved, and  when  the  grass  is  two  inches  high  the  roof  may  be  laid 
aside,  and  the  earth  moistened  when  dry,  either  at  night  or  on 
a  cloudy  day.  The  young  plants  are  then  transferred  into  stiffer 
soil,  placed  four  inches  apart,  a  little  earth  being  retained 
around  the  roots,  which  must  be  excluded  from  air  and  light, 
and  the  ground  well  watered  and  hoed.  Every  two  or  three  days 
the  watering  must  be  repeated.  Shortly  after  being  transplanted 
the  grass  must  be  covered  with  fresh  horse  or  cow  dung.  The 
plant  then  throws  off  new  shoots,  which  may  be  removed  and 
planted  elsewhere,  and  the  species  can  be  propagated  in  this 
way  as  well  as  by  seed.  Young  plants  are  also  raised  from 
layers  which  spring  very  quickly.  In  a  few  years  the  roots 
cross  each  other  and  intertwine,  when  the  stems  must  be  sepa- 
rated and  replanted. 

The  first  year,  when  the  plants  are  a  foot  high,  they  are 
gathered,  and  the  fibres  of  the  cut  straw  are  fit  for  spinning.  The 
Tchou-ma  or  China  grass  may  be  gathered  three  times  a-year, 
and  when  the  stems  are  cut  the  little  shoots  springing  up  from 
the  root  stock  should  be  about  an  inch  high.  After  the  large 
stems  are  cut  the  suckers  spring  up  with  more  vigour,  and  soon 
furnish  a  second  crop.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  February  ; 
within  four  months  the  first  crop  may  be  reaped,  two  months 
thereafter  the  second  is  ready,  and  in  other  two  months  the 
third  and  last  crop  may  be  cut.  The  stems  of  the  second 
crop  grow  faster  than  the  others,  and  yield  the  finest  quality  of 
fibre.  After  reaping  the  crop  the  stocks  must  be  covered  with 
manure,  and  immediately  watered 


VARIOUS   FIBRES.  97 

The  stems  are  split  longitudinally  with  knives,  the  bark 
U-in.LC  iir>t  removed  ;  then  the  lower  layer  is  scraped  off,  and 
tho  under  fibres  are  displayed,  and  removed  by  boiling  in  water. 
The  first  layer  is  coarse  and  hard  and  only  fit  for  common 
materials,  the  second  is  finer  and  more  pliable,  and  the  thirl  i- 
11  M-  best,  and  is  used  for  the  finest  purposes.  After  peeling  th- 
fil'tvs  they  are  tied  up  in  skeins,  steeped  for  a  night  in  a  pan 
of  water,  and  then  dried  They  are  then  again  steeped  in 
water  containing  ashes  of  burnt  mulberry  wood,  then  in  water 
and  chalk,  and  then  boiled  in  water  containing  straw,  which 
makes  them  white  and  supple.  They  are  then  dried  in  the  sun, 
again  boiled  in  pure  water,  washed,  and  once  more  dried  in  the 
sun,  after  which  they  are  joined  end  to  end  and  spun  on  a  wheel, 
and  the  long  threads  thus  formed  make  the  warp  and  woof  of  the 
cloth  to  be  manufactured.  Others  prepare  the  stems  by  boiling 
in  lime  water,  and  washing,  &c. ;  others  by  wetting  with  dew  at 
night,  and  sun-drying  by  day  ;  and  others  by  the  steam  of  boil- 
ing water,  so  that  the  mode  of  softening  and  bleaching  the  fibre 
is  not  uniform. 

The  seeds  are  gathered  in  October,  from  the  main  shoots, 
dried  in  the  sun,  mixed  with  damp  sand,  and  kept  in  a  basket 
carefully  covered  with  straw  to  keep  them  from  frost,  which 
destroys  the  germinating  power.  Before  sowing  the  seeds  are 
put  in  water.  Those  which  sink  are  used,  the  others  being 
useless.  The  best  seeds  are  those  which  are  spotted  black. 
They  should  be  sown  thin  or  the  plants  will  come  up  weak  and 
sickly. 

China  grass  is  cultivated  extensively  in  China  and  in  several 
other  countries  in  India.  It  is  a  most  beautiful  fibre,  pos- 
sessed of  great  strength,  and  admirably  adapted  for  various 
purposes.  China  grass  cloth  has  been  long  known  and  highly 
valued  for  the  beauty  of  its  texture.  Of  late  years  im- 
provements have  been  effected  in  the  preparation  of  the  fibre, 
and  in  its  adaptation  to  the  manufactures  of  this  country. 
Very  beautiful  specimens,  both  of  the  fibre  and  of  the  cloth  wore 
shown  in  the  Exhibition  of  1 851 ,  and  much  care  was  bestowed  on 
1 1  if  i  r  preparation.  In  1862  excellent  specimens  of  both  were  also 
exhibited  in  the  International  Exhibition.  Like  Hemp,  however, 
in  a  greater  degree,  it  is  hard  and  not  well  adapted  for  spin- 


98  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

ning  on  Flax  machinery,  and  little  progress  has  yet  been  made 
in  introducing  it  largely  into  the  trade.  From  the  expense  of 
its  cultivation  and  the  comparatively  small  quantity  produced,  it 
has  hitherto  commanded  so  high  a  price  in  the  market,  as  to  put 
it  beyond  the  reach  of  the  general  trade,  and  make  the  consump- 
tion insignificant. 

The  KHEEA  OF  ASSAM  is  perhaps  identical  with  China  grass, 
and  the  same  fibre  under  different  names  is  grown  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  district  of  Rungpore  in  Burma,  in  Siam,  and  in  other 
eastern  countries.  Its  strength  has  been  frequently  tested,  and 
found  to  be  considerably  greater  than  Russian  Hemp,  it  would 
therefore  appear  to  be  a  very  suitable  material  for  twines  and 
ropes,  although  too  harsh  and  hard  for  anything  but  the  coarser 
kinds  of  textile  fabrics. 

The  Neilgherry  or  Himmalay  mountains  abound  in  other 
species  of  nettle  valuable  for  their  fibres.  The  plants  of  India 
have  each  their  distinctive  varieties,  and  every  oriental  country 
has  members  of  the  same  extensive  family.  Little  has  yet  been 
done  to  make  them  available  to  the  industry  of  this  country, 
but  that  little  is  now  being  directed  to  practical  ends,  and  in  a 
few  years  the  nation  may  expect  to  reap  the  advantage. 

NEW  ZEALAND  FLAX,  (Phormium  tenas)  was  discovered  by 
Captain  Cook  in  New  Zealand,  and  he  says  "  The  country  pro- 
duced a  grass  plant  like  flags,  of  the  nature  of  Hemp  or  Flax, 
but  superior  in  quality  to  either  ;  of  this  the  natives  make  cloth- 
ing, lines,  nets,  &c"  It  is  indigenous  to  these  Islands,  and 
grows  in  various  districts  of  them.  In  1798  it  was  introduced 
into  the  South  of  Ireland,  and  it  has  also  been  found  to  flourish 
on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  but  it  is  not  now  cultivated 
in  either  of  these  places.  It  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  would 
thrive  in  any  temperate  climate,  but  the  heat  of  an  Indian 
summer  and  the  cold  of  a  Russian  winter  are  too  great  extremes 
for  it.  It  prefers  swampy  lands,  and  is  sometimes  met  with 
in  its  native  country  growing  some  feet  under  salt  water,  and 
also  in  places  at  some  distance  from  the  sea  shore. 

The  leaves  of  the  plant  are  perennial,  hard,  sword-shaped, 
and  from  five  to  seven  feet  in  length,  with  a  flower-stalk  rising 
four  or  five  feet  above  them,  and  bearing  a  profusion  of  yellow 


\  AKIOI  S    HHRB8.  99 

flowers,  followed  by  triangular  seed-vessels,  filled  with  flat  and 
thin  black  shining  seeds.  Three-year-old  plants  are  said  to  yield 
on  an  average  thirty-six  leaves,  besides  offsets  from  the  roots. 
An  acre  planted  with  them,  three  feet  apart  (but  that  is  too 
close),  will  yield  about  fifteen  or  sixteen  hundredweight  of 
scutched  and  cleaned  fibre,  as  six  leaves  produce  one  ounce 
of  them.  The  leaves  are  cut  when  full-grown,  macerated  in 
water  for  a  few  days,  and  then  passed  under  a  heavy  roller.  The 
natives,  however,  cut  the  leaves  when  full  grown,  and  separate 
the  fibres  wlule  yet  green. 

The  leaves  are  scraped  with  a  shell,  the  fibres  separated  u  it  h 
the  thumb-nails,  and  then  combed  still  farther  to  part  them. 
Instead  of  the  fibre  surrounding  a  woody  stem  like  common 
Flax,  New  Zealand  Flax  is  a  mass  of  fibre  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  leaf,  stretching  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  leaf  in  per- 
fectly parallel  lines,  with  a  green  covering  on  the  upper  surface, 
which,  when  dried,  becomes  yellow,  and  is  easily  removed  in  the 
scutching  mill.  In  cleaning  it  wastes  very  little  in  weight,  and  it 
increases  in  bulk,  which  is  very  different  from  ordinary  Flax. 
After  the  fibres  have  been  subdivided  by  the  comb,  they  are 
dried  in  the  sun,  and  become  perfectly  white.  Some  of  them 
arc  coarse  and  strong,  others  line  with  a  silky  appearance,  and 
which  are  capable  of  being  heckled  to  an  almost  inconceivable 
fineness.  It  is  said  the  plant  may  be  shorn  of  its  leaves  in  the 
morning,  and  be  ready  for  weaving  before  evening,  but  it  is 
the  same  with  some  other  endogenous  fibres,  which  are  naturally 
white. 

The  fibres  of  this  Flax  are  possessed  of  great  strength,  and 
under  a  direct  strain  will,  if  dry,  support  a  heavy  weight ;  in  a 
damp  or  wet  state  their  strength  is  much  impaired,  but  when 
again  dried  they  regain  their  original  tenacity.  It  has  the  great 
disadvantage  of  many  of  the  white  fibres,  of  breaking  at  a  knot. 
For  spinning  and  weaving  purposes  the  extreme  brittlencss  of  the 
fibre  is  its  primary  defect,  and  it  is  really  so  very  serious  a  one, 
that  until  some  means  be  found  to  overcome  this  and  make  it 
more  pliable,  it  will  never  be  employed  in  quantity  for  those  pur- 
poses. Many  attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to 
give  it  spinning  quality,  and  a  person  named  Burns,  by  some 
process  invented  by  him,  prepared  samples,  one  half  of  which 
G  2 


100 


THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 


were  left  in  the  natural  state  to  show  the  contrast.  The  others 
were  of  a  beautiful  soft  texture,  with  the  hrittleness  completely 
overcome.  The  cost  of  this  process  was  too  great  for  being 
turned  to  practical  account,  but  a  less  costly  mode  may  yet 
be  discovered,  which  will  bring  the  fibre  within  the  range  of 
the  operations  of  both  the  spinner  and  weaver. 

In  experiments  made  with  the  fibre  it  has  been  spun  over 
ordinary  Flax  machinery  as  fine  as  one  pound  per  spindle,  but 
until  a  cheap  softening  process  be  adopted  little  of  it  will  be 
spun  even  into  considerably  heavier  sizes  than  that,  as  it  cannot 
be  wrought  profitably.  It  is,  however,  well  adapted  for  lines, 
twines,  and  cordage,  and  for  these  purposes  it  will  give  satisfac- 
tion to  the  consumer.  Sail-cloth,  sacking,  &c.,  are  also  made  of 
it,  and  the  sails,  cables,  and  running  rigging  of  the  beautiful 
model  frigate  presented  by  King  William  the  Fourth  to  the 
King  of  Prussia  were  entirely  formed  of  it. 

The  fibre  is  easily  dyed,  and  takes  on  a  good  bright  colour, 
although  it  may  be  fugitive.  It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that 
it  would  not  unite  with  tar,  but  it  has  been  found  to  imbibe  it 
in  equal  proportions  with  Kussian  Hemp.  Murray,  in  his 
pamphlet  on  this  plant,  had  it  printed  on  paper  made  from  its 
leaves.  It  would  therefore  appear  to  be  applicable  to  many 
purposes,  and  it  may  yet  prove  a  valuable  plant  both  to  its 
native  country  and  to  its  antipodes,  Great  Britain. 

MANILA  HEMP,  (Musa  textilisj  has  of  late  years  come  into 
great  favour  in  this  country,  and  it  now  supplants  Kussian  Hemp 
for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  and  is  there  called  Abaca.  It  is  found  both  in  a 
wild  and  cultivated  state,  but  the  natural  groves  are  considered 
as  property.  The  plant  is  of  the  same  family  as  that  which 
yields  the  plantain  and  banana  fruit.  With  the  produce  of  the 
Abaca  the  natives  of  some  of  the  villages  in  these  Islands  pur- 
chase the  necessaries  of  life,  clothe  themselves,  and  pay  taxes, 
&c.  Some  of  these  villages  furnish  yearly  1500  arobas  (about 
17  tons)  each  of  the  fibre,  and  others  export  as  much  cordage 
made  of  it. 

The  first  export  of  Manila  Hemp  from  the  Philippine  Islands 
was  about  14  tons  in  1818.  After  this  there  was  no  more 
demand  until  1822,  when  a  regular  trade  began,  and  since  then 


VARIOUS  FIBRES.  101 

it  has  gradually  progressed  In  1844  the  exports  had  reached 
r,L';M  tons,  and  by  1852  the  total  quantity  amounted  to  15,296 
tons,  of  which  13,782  was  for  the  United  States.  In  1854,  the 
export  to  Great  Britain  was  5805,  and  to  the  United  States 
13,751,  making  19,556  tons  in  all.  By  1856  the  exports  to  the 
United  States  had  increased  to  19,528  tons,  but  to  Britain  (in- 
cluding 43  tons  to  Singapore  and  India),  it  had  decreased  to 
2363  tons,  making  the  total  exports  for  that  year  21,891  tons. 
The  total  quantity  shipped  from  Manila  in  the  year  from  21st 
May  1862  to  21st  May  1863  was,  to  Great  Britain,  15,625  tons  ; 
to  America,  11,581  tons  ;  to  other  places,  359  tons  ;  making  a 
total  of  27,565  tons. 

Manila  Hemp  imported  into  Great  Britain  from  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  :  — 


1857.  LW  1859.  I860.  1861. 

Cwt  55,861      Cwt.  144,593      Cwt.  168,893      Cwt.  77,538        Cwt.  208,980 

£90,541  £198,288  £208,321  £88,801  £226,114 

The  plant  which  yields  Manila  Hemp  is  sometimes  called  a 
tree,  but  it  is  in  fact  only  a  large  herbaceous  plant.  It  is 
abundant  in  the  volcanic  region  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
from  Luzon  to  Mindanao,  as  well  as  in  the  neighbouring  Islands, 
even  as  far  south  as  the  Moluccas.  It  may  therefore  be  easily 
cultivated  in  other  countries  where  the  soil,  moisture,  and  climate 
nearly  assimilate  to  those  within  this  range.  The  plants  of  the 
Abaca  were  subjected  to  experiment  by  Dr  Roxburgh  in  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  and  his  specimens  are  still  in  the  East 
India  Museum. 

The  Abaca  is  cut  when  about  one  year  and  a  half  old, 
just  before  its  flowering  or  fructification  is  likely  to  commence. 
If  cut  afterwards,  the  fibres  are  said  to  be  weaker,  and  if 
earlier  they  are  shorter  but  finer.  It  is  cut  near  the  roots, 
and  the  leaves  are  taken  off  just  below  their  expansion.  It  is 
then  slit  open  longitudinally,  and  the  central  peduncle  separated 
from  the  sheathing  layers  of  fibre,  which  are  the  petioles  of  the 
leaves.  Of  these  layers  the  outer  are  hard  and  strong,  and  em- 
ployed in  the  fabrication  of  cordage.  The  intermediate  layers  are 
finer  and  suitable  for  coarse  cloth,  adapted  for  clothing  purposes, 
and  the  inner  layers  consist  of  still  finer  fibres,  which  are 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  more  delicate  textures.  Muslin 
and  g'-ass  cloth  are  made  from  the  finest  fibres  of  Manila  Hemp, 


102  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 

and  some  of  them  are  so  very  fine  that  a  garment  made  of  them 
may,  it  is  said,  be  enclosed  in  the  hollow  of  the  hand. 

The  stem-like  mass  consists  of  cellular  tissue  and  fibres,  with  a 
thickish,  watery  fluid,  which  must  be  pressed  out.  The  fibrous 
coats,  when  stripped  off,  are  left  for  a  day  in  the  shade  to  dry, 
and  are  then  divided  lengthwise  into  strips,  three  inches  wide. 
The  petioles  are  stripped  off  one  by  one,  and  an  incision  made 
across  on  the  inside  with  a  knife,  to  take  off  the  bark  which 
covers  them.  They  are  then  scraped  or  made  to  undergo  a  sort 
of  heckling  until  only  the  fibres  remain,  and  when  sufficiently 
scraped  the  bundles  of  fibres  are  shaken  into  separate  threads ; 
they  are  then  washed,  dried,  and  picked  up  by  women, 
who  separate  the  finest  with  great  dexterity.  Those  for  cord- 
age require  no  farther  preparation,  but  those  for  fine  weaving 
are  made  up  into  small  bundles,  and  beaten  with  a  wooden 
mallet  until  they  are  soft  and  pliable.  Their  ends  are  then 
gummed  together,  and  the  connected  thread  wound  into  balls, 
when  it  is  then  ready  for  the  weaver. 

The  stuff  when  woven  is  soaked  in  warm  water  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  after  which  it  is  steeped  in  cold  water,  then  in 
rice  water,  and  again  washed,  which  makes  it  soft,  lustrous 
and  of  a  white  colour.  Some  of  the  cloths  are  dyed  of  various 
colours,  and  others  are  embroidered. 

Very  little  of  the  Manila  Hemp  imported  into  this  country 
is  of  the  finest  description  of  fibre,  but  some  of  it  can  be  formed 
into  small  threads,  and  it  is  of  a  fine  light  cream  colour,  lustrous, 
and  very  sightly.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  a  species  of  matting, 
which  is  both  beautiful  and  durable,  and  for  twines  and  cord- 
age, for  which  purposes  it  is  very  suitable.  The  finest  qualities 
imported  command  a  high  price  in  this  country,  and,  as  its 
valuable  properties  become  better  known,  it  is  getting  into  more 
general  use  and  greater  favour.  Although  possessed  of  great 
strength,  like  New  Zealand  Flax  and  some  other  fibres,  the 
single  fibres  cut  when  knotted,  and  they  do  not  possess  the 
qualities  requisite  for  being  spun  over  Flax  or  other  small 
machinery.  Could  they  be  rendered  suitable  for  this  purpose 
the  fibre  would,  from  its  strength  and  lustre,  be  very  valuable, 
and  it  would  be  highly  prized  throughout  the  linen  manufactur- 
ing districts 


VARIOUS   FIBRES.  103 

The  Lime  or  Linden  Tree,  (Tilia  Europcea),  although  classed 
by  botanists  in  the  some  family  with  Jute,  is  so  very  different 
in  appearance  that  an  ordinary  observer  would  place  it  in 
quite  another  genus.  This  tree  is  well  known,  and  a  general 
favourite  in  the  parks  and  public  places  of  tliis  country,  both  for 
the  beauty  of  its  appearance,  and  the  fragrance  of  its  flowers. 
It  abounds  in  the  forests  of  Europe,  hot  especially  in  those  of 
IJussia,  where  it  is  highly  prized  for  its  many  valuable  pro- 
perties. The  wood  is  light  and  white,  and  used  for  carved 
works,  furniture,  and  other  purposes.  After  the  trees  are 
cut  down  in  summer  and  the  bark  removed,  some  of  them  are 
burnt  into  cliarcoal,  and  the  sap  when  drawn  off  and  evaporated 
yields  sugar.  The  honey  of  the  sweet  scented  flowers  is  much 
sought  after  by  the  bees,  and  at  this  season  their  hum  is  heard 
throughout  the  entire  day,  as  th«y  ply  their  busy  labour  among 
tlif  branches.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is  made  into  ropes  and 
mats,  and  of  this  the  well-known  Russia  mats  of  commerce  are 
manufactured. 

The  Lime  trees  intended  for  being  cut  down  for  their  bar1; 
are  allowed  to  grow  from  four  to  sixteen  years,  the  older  one> 
being  used  for  the  better  and  larger  kinds  of  mats,  and  the  young 
stems  where  size  is  not  essential.  They  are  cut  down  when 
from  six  inches  to  one  foot  in  diameter,  and  the  trees  are  selected 
in  the  woods  a  little  before  the  season  for  cutting.  The  proper 
time  for  cutting  them  is  in  the  early  summer,  in  the  months  of 
May  and  June,  when  the  trees  are  full  of  sap,  and  the  bark  is 
most  easily  detached  from  the  stem.  When  they  are  cut  the 
bark  is  immediately  separated,  both  from  the  tree  and  the 
branches,  being  first  cut  longitudinally  in  lengths  of  six  or 
eight  feet,  then  raiM<l  with  an  instrument  made  of  bone,  and 
afterwards  torn  off  by  the  hand.  The  bark  on  being  removed 
from  the  tree  is  laid  on  the  ground  to  dry,  two  or  three  strips 
being  placed  one  over  the  other,  and  kept  straight  by  being  tied 
down  to  long  poles.  When  required  for  use  they  are  steeped 
in  water  until  the  layers  readily  separate  from  each  other, 
mul  from  the  bark.  The  coarse  layers  are  on  the  outside," 
and  the  finest  in  the  interior.  After  being  steeped,  the  bark 
is  taken  out  and  separated  into  ribands  or  strands,  which  are 
hung  up  in  the  shade,  generally  iu  the  wood  where  the  tree* 


104  THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 

grew,  and  in  the  course  of  the  summer  the  ribands  are  manufac- 
tured into  mats.  They  are  also  made  into  a  coarse  sort  of  rope, 
and  they  are  used  for  making  matted  shoes,  which  are  much 
worn  by  the  Kussian  peasantry. 

For  every  pair  of  shoes  the  bark  of  from  two  to  four  young 
Linden  shoots  are  required,  and  although  the  stems  again  shoot 
up  more  rapidly  as  they  are  cut,  the  destruction  of  the  tree  for 
this  purpose  alone  is  immense ;  and  when  to  this  is  added  the 
enormous  quantity  of  mats  made  annually,  both  for  home  con- 
sumption and  for  export,  the  total  number  of  trees  which  must 
yearly  be  cut  down  is  something  prodigious. 

A  few  mats  are  made  in  some  parts  of  Sweden,  but  the  vast  bulk 
of  them  are  produced  in  the  Q-overnment  of  Viatka,  and  some  of 
the  contiguous  Governments  of  Kussia.  During  the  period  for 
barking,  the  villages  in  the  places  where  the  trade  is  carried  on 
are  nearly  deserted,  almost  the  whole  population  being  then  in 
the  woods,  employed  in  stripping  the  trees.  After  this  opera- 
tion is  performed  they  again  return  to  their  homes,  and  work 
up  the  fibre  or  bast  into  mats  From  careful  investigation  it 
is  estimated  that  the  average  annual  production  of  mats  in 
European  Eussia  is  as  follows  :  — 

Government  of  Viatka,  .  .  .  .  6,000,000  pieces. 

Do.        of  Kostroma,         ....  4,000,000      ,, 

Do.        ofKasan, 1,000,000      „ 

Do.        of  Nijni  Novgorod,  .  .  .  1,000,000      „ 

Do.        of  Vologda,  Tamboff,  Simbirsk,  &  Penza,  2,000,000      ,. 

Total,  .  .          14,000^000      „ 

It  is  further  estimated  that  of  this  extraordinary  quantity  about 
three-fourths  are  used  in  Russia,  and  one-fourth  exported 
chiefly  from  Archangel,  St  Petersburg,  and  Riga.  These 
mats  will  average  perhaps  fully  three  pounds  each,  making  a 
total  weight  of  about  20,000  tons  annually. 

In  the  vegetable  world  there  are  a  vast  number  of  fibre  pro- 
ducing plants,  in  some  of  which  the  fibrous  parts  are  in  the 
leaves,  in  others  in  the  bark,  while  some  have  them  around  the 
fruit,  and  others  are  fibrous  throughout  their  entire  structure. 
The  appearance  of  these  plants,  their  construction  and  habits, 
and  the  soil  and  climate  which  produce  them,  vary  as  much  as 


VARIOUS  FIBRES.  105 

the  characteristics  of  the  fibres  produced.  In  Endogens  the 
fibres  grow  insM.  tl,,«  stem  or  leaves,  and  are  pushed  outwards 
by  new  growths,  while  in  the  Exogena  the  fibres  grow  outside 
the  stem,  and  form  a  bark  or  outer  covering  to  it.  In  many  of 
the  former  the  fibrous  parts  are  separated  by  pressure  and 
washing  in  water,  and  in  the  latter  the  separation  is  generally 
effected  by  steeping  in  water,  after  which  the  stem  or  woody 
part  is  readily  removed. 

The  fibres  of  many  endogenous  plants  are  harsh  and  coarse, 
and  not  at  all  adapted  as  substitutes  for  any  description  of  linen. 
The  want  of  proper  machines  for  scutching  even  the  softest  and 
most  pliable  of  them  has  tended  to  prevent  them  from  being 
experimented  upon  in  connection  with  the  linen  trade.  With 
suitable  machinery  to  clean  and  prepare  the  fibre,  it  is  probable 
that  some  of  this  class  of  plants  may  yet  be  made  available  for 
mixing  with,  or  as  a  substitute  for  Flax  fabrics.  In  the  Inter- 
national Exhibition  of  1862  some  machinery  for  this  purpose  was 
shown,  and  much  lauded,  especially  an  American  invention, 
which  Sandford  and  Mallory,  the  parties  producing  it,  and 
Alex.  Guild  of  Dundee,  their  agent  in  this  country,  assert  to  be 
the  desiderated  machine.  Practical  experience  of  some  dura- 
tion will  alone  test  this,  and  until  it  has  undergone  the  ordeal 
it  would  be  premature  to  speak  confidently  on  such  a  subject, 
however  promising  the  machine  may  appear  to  be. 

It  is  to  exogenous  plants,  therefore,  that  the  Linen  manufac- 
turer must  yet  look  for  a  supply  of  the  raw  material  of  his  trade. 
Already  some  of  them  have  been  rendered  subservient  to  his  pur- 
pose, but  there  is  no  doubt  that  very  many  more  exist  in  the 
floriculture  of  nature,  although  hitherto  unknown  to  man.  The 
discoverer  and  introducer  into  the  manufactures  of  his  country  of 
a  single  useful  fibre  is  a  public  benefactor.  Such  a  discovery 
creates  new  fabrics,  opens  up  new  markets,  employs  more  people, 
and,  by  making  trade  less  dependent  on  old  branches,  gives 
steadiness  to  it,  and  raises  the  general  comfort  of  the  people. 

Some  of  the  fibres  already  mentioned,  though  comparatively 
new  to  the  trade  and  commerce  of  this  country,  have  already 
done  much  to  add  to  its  general  prosperity.  Many  others  might 
be  noticed  which  are  known  to  exist,  though  not  yet  experimented 
upon  and  made  available  for  useful  purposes.  It  does  not,  how- 


1  06  THE  RAW  MATERIAL. 

ever,  appear  to  be  needful  to  do  so,  as  those  described  give  a 
pretty  general  idea  of  the  culture  of  fibrous  plants,  and  the  mode 
of  preparation  of  their  filaments  for  manufacturing  purposes- 
Those  who  have  the  desire  and  may  be  favourably  situated  for  ex- 
perimenting upon  such  plants  ought  to  do  so,  and  if  what  has  now 
been  written  on  the  subject  prompts  any  one  to  action  and  pro- 
duces practical  results,  it  will  not  have  been  written  in  vain. 

Gr.  and  J.  A.  Noble  of  London,  in  their  monthly  circular  of 
4th  March,  1861,  make  some  observations  with  regard  to  the 
fibres  of  India,  which  being  pertinent  to  the  purpose,  are  given 
entire:^ 

"  In  1857  we  sold  by  auction  various  parcels  of  Indian  fibres  en- 
trusted to  us  by  the  East  India  Company,  and  forwarded  as  samples 
to  introduce  them  to  the  notice  of  those  interested.  Unfortunately 
the  Insurrection  in  India  prevented  the  development  of  the 
results  then  obtained,  the  sale  was  numerously  attended,  several 
purchases  being  made  for  the  continent.  We  extract  particu- 
lars of  a  few  of  the  fibres,  that  can  be  relied  upon  as  certain  to 
meet  with  ready  demand,  which  will  afford  some  index  to  their 
practical  value,  although  the  prices  obtained  for  many  of 
the  lots  were  we  consider,  higher  (on  the  account  of  the  com- 
petition for  experimental  purposes,)  than  would  be  realized  with 
regular  supplies. 

"  The  Himalayan,  or  True  Hemp  from  the  Punjaub,  known 
also  as  Kemaon,  Kote  Kangra,  and  Kooloo,  from  the  various 
distritcs  that  have  hitherto  produced  it,  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant ;  it  possesses  all  the  good  qualities  of  Kussian  Hemp,  is 
naturally  strong,  whilst  it  can  be  reduced  to  a  fibre  fit  for  most 
Flax  purposes.  The  samples,  consisting  of  63  bales,  realized 
from  £26  15s  to  £32  per  ton. 

"  The  Kheea  fibre  is  more  valuable,  and  perhaps  more 
urgently  required  than  the  last ;  this  also  is  known  by  several 
names,  indigenous  to  nearly  the  whole  southern  coast  of  Asia  ; 
it  is  principally  known  in  Bengal  as  Kunkhoora  in  Sumatra, 
Calooe ;  in  Singapore  and  Bankok,  Taleh  Kameh ;  in  Japan, 
Karao  ;  in  China,  Chu-ma ;  in  Europe  frequently  as  China 
Grass  ;  some  hundred  bales  have  been  imported  at  different 
periods  ;  the  method  of  reducing  it  to  its  silky  condition  has  not 
long  been  perfected,  but  the  whole  of  the  samples  (64  bales) 


VARIOUS   F1BBK8. 

sold  for  various  experimental  purposes,  at  from  £30  to 
£46  per  ton. 

"  The  Aloe  fibre,  55  bales,  sold  at  from  £37  to  £40  per  ton, 
partly  taken  for  the  continent,  fromw  hence  we  have  had  several 
subsequent  inquiries. 

"The  lliliiM-us  known  in  Bengal  as  Ambaree,  attracted  tin 
attention  of  spinners  of  Jute,  to  which  it  bears  a  great  resem- 
blance, it  is  sometimes  coarser  in  quality,  and  generally  much 
stronger.  Prices  range  from  £11  for  very  common  to  £25  15s 
]><  r  ton,  the  latt.  i  price  being  obtained  for  a  sample  of  fibre 
superior  in  every  respect  to  Jute,  and  for  which  it  would  prove 
a  very  welcome  substitute  to  our  manufacturers. 

"  There  was,  amongst  several  other  common  fibres  fit  only  for 
paper-makers,  a  sample  of  "  Gharoo,"  from  Malacca  and  Arra- 
can,  growing  there,  it  is  stated,  very  abundantly,  and  easily  pro- 
curable ;  being  in  a  rough  state  it  fetched  only  £10  5s  per  ton, 
it  has,  however,  been  since  inquired  after  by  the  manufacturer. 

"  We  ought  to  observe  that  these  fibres  were  shipped,  for  the 
most  part,  in  a  very  rough  condition,  without  any  attempt  to  assort 
the  qualities,  the  packing  also  was  invariably  very  defective ; 
this  inattention  materially  depreciated  the  value  of  the  whole  of 
the  samples  sold,  and  we  believe  that  they  have  been  upon 
different  occasions  the  chief  cause  of  disappointment  to  those 
who  have  imported  fibre.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  the  extreme 
prices  paid  for  Flax  during  1854  induced  a  belief  that  fibre 
of  any  description,  and  however  prepared,  would  sell  here 
readily ;  this  caused  shipments  to  be  made  of  parcels  hastily 
and  badly  selected,  which,  when  received  here,  were  found  suit- 
able for  none  but  the  most  ordinary  purposes,  discouraging  to 
the  shippers,  and  unsatisfactory  to  those  manufacturers  who  tested 
them.  As  the  cost  of  importation  is  the  same  upon  produce 
badly  prepared,  as  when  in  good  condition,  it  is  very  palpable 
that  a  great  mistake  is  committed  in  not  attending  to  this  im- 
portant matter  in  all  shipments  of  fibre,  more  especially  if  we 
remember  that  good  quality  is  generally  the  most  saleable  and 
the  most  remunerating. 

41  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  useless  to  look  for  any  important 
practical  results  to  follow  the  importation  of  a  small  parcel  of 
any  new  fibre  ;  manufacturers  are  not  disposed  to  incur  expenses 


108 


THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 


in  modifying  their  machinery,  and  testing  the  quality  of  a  new 
material,  unless  it  be  offered  in  a  sufficient  quantity  to  enable 
them  to  ascertain  its  comparative  merits  and  qualifications  by 
placing  it  on  the  market  in  a  manufactured  condition/' 

The  following  list  of  prices  of  various  fibres  is  taken  from 
Messrs  Noble's  Prices  Current,  dated  London,  3d  July,  1863. 
The  various  statistical  tables  which  follow  have  been  collected 
from  official  and  other  reliable  sources,  and  great  care  taken 
to  have  them  accurate.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  other 
statistical  tables  given  throughout  the  volume : — 


PKICES  CURRENT. 
Per  Ton. 


JUTE.- 

Fine,      .            .            .  .Per  Ton.  £27  10  to  £29    0 

Medium  to  Good,          .  .  „  24    0  „  26  10 

Common,            .            .  .  „  21    0  „  23    0 

Rejections,         .            .  .  „  17    0  „  19  10 

Cuttings  or  Roots,         .  .  „  11  10  „     

EAST  INDIA  HEMP.— 

MANILA.— Superior  to  Fine  Roping,  „  26    0  „  27  10 

Fair  to  Good,     .            .  „  24  15  „  25  10 

Common,           .            .  .  „  23    0  „  24    0 

Fine  White  (Lupiz),     .  .  „  52    0  „  54    0 

Do.        (Quillot),    .  .  „  50    0  „  51    0 

SUNN  AND  MADRAS.— Good,  .  „  28    0  „  30  10 

Common  to  Fair,           .  .  „  23    0  „  26    0 

BOMBAY.— Good,      .           .  .  „  27    0  „  29    0 

Common  to  Fair,           .  .  „  23  10  „  25    0 

COIR  GOODS.— 

YARN.— Fine  to  Superfine,  .  „  38    0  „  56    0 

Medium  to  Good,          .  ,,24  10  „  35    0 

Common,           .            .  .  „  19  10    ,  22  10 

FIBRE.— Long,  Clean,  and  Good  Coloured,  „  32    0    ,  23    0 

Ordinary  to  Fair,         .  .  „  24    0    ,  28    0 

ROPE.— Cochin,        .            .  .  „  22  10    ,  29  10 

Ceylon,  .            .            .  .  „  22    0    ,  26    0 

Bombay,             .            .  .  „  20    0    ,  24    0 

JoNK-Cochin,         .           .  .  „  24    0    ,  25  10 

Ceylon,               .            .  .  „  20    0    ,  23    0 

BRISTLE  FIBRE.-  Superfine,  .  „  50    0    ,  52    0 

Good  Fair,        .            .  .  „  30    0    ,  34    0 

Ordinary,           .            .  .  „  26    0    ,  27  10 

KITOOL  FIBRE.  -Black,       .  .  Per  Ib.  9£d    „  lid 

Brown,  ...  „  7d    „  9d 

PlASSAVA. 

Bahia,    .            .            .  .Per  Ton.   £14    0  „  £14  10 

Para,      .            .            .  .  „  30    0  „  31    0 

MEXICAN  FIBRE,     .  „  60    0  ,,    

HEMP  YARN. — 

St  Petersburg,  1st  Qality,  .  „  44  10  „  45    0 


VARIOUS  FIBRES. 


1011 


St  Petersburg,  a  I  Quality,     . 
PALM  LEAF, 
HMMP— EOBOPIAN.— 

St  Petersburg-  Clean . 
Ontahot, 
Half-clean,     . 
Polish— Rhin*, 
OuUhot, 
Paaa,    . 

Italian— 1st  Quality,  Roping, . 
2d      do.  do.      . 

1st     do.      Spinning, 


Per  Tun.    £30    0  „  £32    0 
90,,     .... 


LM 
1st 

•J.I 
3d 


do. 
do. 
do. 
do. 


do. 
DrWMi, 

do. 
do. 


Hungarian— Dn-ssed,    . 
Undreased, 
FLAJL- 

Riga— WFPK, 
WFPHD, 
WZK(Zins)   . 
St  Petersburg— 12  Head, 
9    do. 
6    do. 

Archangel — 3d  Crown, 
Zabrack,  . 

Egyptian— Clean  Scutched.    . 
Half  clean  do. , 
Government  Dressed, 
Hand  Dressed, 
Common,     . 

New  Zealand— Dressed,  good, 
Undressed,       . 
Tow.- 

Archangel— No.  1  Tow, 
No.  2  do., 
2d  Codilla, 
3d  do., 

Vologda— No.  1  Tow, 
No.  2   do., 

St  Petersburg— Codilla, 

Italian— 1st  Bologna,  . 

2d        do.,     . 

1st  Ceuto,      . 

2d    do., 


„ 

H 

10,, 

40  15 

tt 

87 

10,. 

38  10 

tt 

37 

o,, 

— 

,, 

42 

10,, 

44  10 

tt 

41 

10,, 

42  10 

tt 

41 

10,, 

42  10 

tt 

40 

0,, 

41  10 

tt 

38 

0,, 

39    0 

I, 

46 

0,, 

48    0 

tt 

43 

o,, 

44    0 

„ 

70 

o,, 

73    0 

tt 

60 

o,, 

63    8 

M 

54 

o  „ 

57    0 

II 

38 

o,, 

40    0 

tt 

30 

o,, 

31    0 

m 

62 

o,, 

72    0 

tt 

62 

o,, 

68    0 

tt 

61 

0,, 



It 

49 

o,, 

49  10 

1* 

43 

10,, 

44  10 

tt 

33 

10,, 

34    0 

tl 

62 

o,, 

63    0 

II 

56 

o,, 

57    0 

tt 

58 

o  „ 

66    0 

It 

48 

0,, 

54    0 

tt 

54 

0,, 

60    0 

tt 

39 

0,, 

46    0 

„ 

25 

0,, 

30    0 

„ 

28 

o  „ 

30    0 

tl 

20 

o  „ 

23    0 

II 

48 

10  „ 

49  10 

tl 

47 

10,, 

48  10 

tt 

48 

0,, 

.... 

tt 

35 

10  „ 

36  10 

II 

45 

10,, 

4610 

tt 

40 

o,, 

41    0 

It 

14 

0,, 

14  10 

tt 

36 

o,, 

36  10 

tt 

33 

10,, 

34    0 

II 

37 

o,, 

38    0 

tt 

32 

10,, 

33  10 

110 


THE    RAW   MATERIAL. 


IMPORTS,  &c.  OF  EAST  INDIA  HEMP  INTO  LONDON  IN  THE  YEARS 

UNDERMENTIONED. 
Imported.      Delivered.  Stocks  31st  December. 

Bombay.         Sunn.  Manila. 

1857        Tons,    2,846  3,114  2,388 


1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 


5,331 

3,263 

139 

498 

3,861 

5,825 

2,650 

223 

263 

7,182 

1,664 

3,938 

50 

28 

5,397 

4,436 

4,225 

69 

18 

5,602 

4,200 


4,640 


98 


5,155 


QUANTITIES  AND  COMPUTED  REAL  VALUE  OF  FLAX,  HEMP,  AND  JUTE,  IMPORTED 

INTO  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  FOR  THE  YEARS  1854  TO  1862,  INCLUSIVE,  AND 
THE  RATE  AT  WHICH  THE  VALUE  OF  THE  JUTE  FROM  CALCUTTA  is  CALCULATED. 


FLAX,  Tow,  &c. 

HEMP,  Tow,  &c. 

JUTE 

Tons. 

£ 

Tons. 

& 

Tons. 

Rate. 

£ 

1854 

65,161 

3,384,216 

37,312 

1,817,905 

24,087 

25s  6d 

553,993 

1855 

64,672 

3,317,122 

36,419 

1,471,649 

26,965 

16s  7d 

447,167 

1856 

84,352 

3,633,194 

39,831 

1,319,907 

36,555 

16s  9d 

612,290 

1857 

93,312 

3,524,767 

40,978 

1,216,664 

30,942 

20s  lid 

646,356 

1858 

64,195 

3,020,879 

45,014 

1,222,393 

36,904 

16s  lOd 

619,668 

1859 

71,602 

3,769,058 

54,935 

1,469,360 

53,064 

14s  lid 

790,383 

1860 

73,240 

3,836,770 

39,620 

1,203,869 

40,839 

16s  2d 

660,913 

1861 

66,684 

3,423,137 

41,079 

1,153,915 

45,205 

15s  9d 

709,961 

1862 

89,918 

4,693,928 

49,088 

1,445,004 

48,497 

807,952 

Note. — The  rate  for  1862  is  not  known,  as  the  details  for  that  year  were  not 
published  when  this  sheet  went  to  press.  The  want  of  these  details  occasions  a  few 
blanks  in  some  of  the  other  Tables  in  the  volume. 


\AKIOI  s     KIBltEH. 


Ill 


TOTAL  QUANTITIES*  UP  FLAX  AND  Tow  IMPORTED  WTO  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 
IN  EACH  YEAR,  FROM  1801  to  1802. 


1801 

L803 
We 

1S01 
is<.:, 

LSOT, 
I  SltS 

1888 

isio 
1811 
1813 
L818 

isll 


1S17 
isis 
isio 
1630 

1S21 


1S24 
1S25 

is.v, 

1S27 

1S2S 
1S20 
ls;;o 


1833 

1884 
1885 


ls:>7 


1888 

1S4'» 
1S41 
1S42 


1S44 

1848 

1S47 
1S4S 
1849 
1850 
is:,i 
1808 
1888 

1885 

is:,; 

1857 
1888 


I8rt» 
I8.;i 


FLAX. 


9,406 
L0.7M 

IO.TM) 

13,091 
18,493 
15,306 

IS, '.MS 

8,824 

i-.t.:.;i 
88,805 
11,203 
17,813 

19,497 


Fromoth- 

i-r  Tart,. 


14.723 

14,330 

if,.  77:, 

15.774 
IS  254 
20,003 
M.S'.  12 
22,415 
3».314 
2i;,:!05 
33,407 
32.157 
34.1  OS 


38,843 

2S.141 
21.024 


51.47S 
35,285 
tf,536 

4S.47:i 


54.4*  ;n 
:,:,,<;(.  l 
42,981 


34,068 


•;7,t;n; 
.;•_'.(  .:w 

40.034 

47,498 

r,4741 

O.-J'.H) 

86 

54,008 
tU.745 
46,544 
53,738 

52,4sr, 
47.. U  . 


4  LSI 

1876 
8,833 
1588 
1094 
1688 


i.'.'i-.t 
587 
317 


From  all 
Parts. 


Ton*. 

13,686 
14,1:10 
14,683 
17,680 
38,587 
17,945 
11,139 


35,734 
18,180 


vi  !\  .  luip,,rtKf,,r 
theft  jrs  eniUDff  M  under. 


From 
Rusda. 


T5ET 


12,500 
13,681 

i:,.:;i;i 
14,526 
15,860 
L6.933 


The  Keoonls  of 
5,529     25,036 


r,,oi5 
7,053 


8,845 
8,678 

'.i.:,  12 

12.  SO:, 

14,r,s2 

19,448 

8,086 

ll,s',7 
ll,r,52 
11. !ti»l 


15,658 

15,7:52 


26,836 
25,899 
19,142 
18,869 

15.052 


37,886 
30,838 

is,54»'. 
18,896 


29,108 

IS.  7  75 
22.010 
30,382 
55,871 


30,344 

20.571'. 
17.IV51 
17.S70 


19,054 


10,638 
30,738 


30,486 


3o.:,o5 
27,r,07 
37,127 
52,762 
34,431 
45.M54 
43,809 


47,205 
4(>,821 

5.US2 
4(>.:,s.; 
37,0-10 
7»;.45T, 

50,043 


fil,lS4 


•  17.342 
57,288 

7I.S57 
7'.',  174 


57,:;:,:. 


7:5.1  S3 
90,333 

iv.tjoo 

7«»,4.r, 
95,123 
r,.-,.ir,i 
64,672 
84,352 
93,312 
«V».105 
H,602 
73.240 


i:,.ssi 
this  Year 
IS,  4 15 
K797 
13.540 
14,244 

13,548 

13.0,13 

18,828 

15. '.171 
17,225 

17,337 

18,471 
21,979 
83,608 

2.UOS 
20,o()l 
31,012 

32.2S5 

83,239 

33,21 S 
34.555 
33,344 

30,693 
84,830 
34,973 
88,088 
80,538 
43,847 
43,171 
44. 70S 
41,70.; 

48,869 

is.  752 
4r,,4f,l 
44,S2C, 
44.7SO 
47.102 
51,00-1 

51,7s.; 

54.474 
56,565 
44,897 

32  .5*  M 
3:,.  124 

88,374 
34,734 

43,621 

54.101 
52.S25 


Fn-ro  all 


TC5T 


16,733 
17,675 
18,976 
L8,33fi 

20,<N.3 
30,430 
19,189 

18,587 


HEMP,  JUTE,  4c. 


1    lull) 


Tons. 
84,109 
23,288 


12,007 
39,804 


88,688 


From  all 
Parts. 


were^DeiitroTed  by  Fire. 


21,424 

19,383 

i«;..v,i 
is,i.;i 
IS.SM 
17/.M7 
is.  172 
21,331 
23.2S4 
24.547 
27,S75 
3t.r,03 

3.;.;,(U 
30,474 
42,.i'.n; 
44,491 
43,  :',SO 

45,s:,s 

4C,.C,12 
40,147 
4S.O-14 
40,011 
5 1,038 
52,121 
57.0SS 
C,  1.207 
r,T,,332 
64,509 
65,958 
64,066 

•;7,«;«;i 

.-,0,315 

r,7,3is 

66,381 
66,646 

68,878 

72.021 
73,305 
76,961 

SI,  340 

7.;.:u5 

71,020 

75,948 

Ni.524 
74,.'W 
7-VW 
77.:^40 
73.807 
73.12S 


86,334 
86,138 

IS,  4  50 

33,936 

32.071 


29,188 

32,t;5S 

27.S.1S 

88,933 

23.254 


33,055 


24,018 

23.40S 

3oi52«i 

87,833 
39,584 
99,050 
39,073 
89,954 
•J7.i:w 

20.77S 
23,153 
32. 70S 


81,033 

27,113 
2.1.S20 
3i,S47 

;i.t,(MO 

3:5.220 


w 

27,008 

20,035 
30,624 
36,583 


24.017 
30.450 


Tons. 
87,467 
86,370 
87i884 
86,857 
8L585 
87,404 
38,884 
13,133 
43,793 
48,080 
33,444 
48480 

28,436 
87,638 
is,  773 
38,764 

:{4,210 
24..;30 
21.300 
12.7SO 

30,833 
83,357 

-*•-•"' 
2'kii;.; 
88,669 

25.2«M1 
IS,  747 
25,3;W 
20,541 

20,r,7S 

2t\373 

88,680 
84478 

20.::o2 

88,681 
86,519 
49,786 

32I608 
29,295 

36.7S7 
45  .^,2 

44,' 145 
40,578 
42,288 

53.0-.t5 
52.431 

«vi,.;70 

53.407 

r,l.so4 
»;  i.3iio 

63,384 
76,386 

71.020 
81,918 
107,00-0 
80.450 
86,284 
87.588 


112 


THE   RAW   MATERIAL. 


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114 


THE    RAW   MATERIAL. 


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116 


THE    RAW    MATERIAL. 


EXPORTS  OF  FLAX,  JUTE,  AND  HEMP  FROM  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  TO  VAKTOUS 

COUNTRIES. 


Where  Exported. 

18 

58 

18 

60 

IE 

61 

FLAX,  Tow,  &c. 

Cwts. 

£ 

Cwt 

£ 

Cwts. 

£ 

Belgium, 

13,571 

28,284 

3,009 

6,461 

25,218 

53,969 

France, 

101,273 

230,924 

5,051 

11,450 

17.722 

42,588 

Portugal,  Azores,  &c.,  . 
Spain  and  the  Canaries 

4,963 

12,164 

4,772 
1,210 

12,851 
3,669 

3,996 
1,885 

11,011 
6,395 

Italv  —  N7aples  and  Sicily, 
United  States,  . 
Other  Countries,  . 

4,*712 

8J7C4 

1,990 
5,979 
1,966 

6,139 
17,109 

6,887 

1,873 

947 
957 

5,266 
3,355 
2,529 

Total, 

124,519 

280,076 

23,977 

64,566 

52,598 

125,113 

JUTE. 

- 

828 

669 

5155 

4060 

Bremen, 



1,180 

929 

Holland. 

555 

449 

Belgium, 

3,179 

2,676 

4,133 

3,341 

3,379 

2,661 

France, 

3,267 

2,750 

23,070 

18,648 

69,020 

54,353 

Spain  and  the  Canaries, 

7,046 

5,930 

6,272 

5,070 

3,659 

2.881 

United  States 

735 

594 

2252 

1  774 

Other  Countries,  . 

333 

280 

732 

592 

2,326 

1,832 

Total, 

13,825 

11,636 

36,325 

29,363 

86,971 

68,490 

HEMP,  Tow,  &c. 

Sweden,        .        .        * 

105 

170 

1,093 

1,558 

Hamburg, 

2,241 

3,791 

5,149 

7,989 

Holland, 

33,219 

46,903 

30,964 

39,020 

5,032 

8,743 

Belgium, 
France, 

14,060 
26,042 

20,113 
36,222 

16,537 
27,462 

24,968 
40,262 

21,268 
24,692 

30,991 
34,845 

Portugal,  Azores,  &c., 

7,041 

9,725 

5,769 

8,887 

7,549 

11,450 

Italy—  Sardinian  States, 
Spain  and  the  Canaries, 
United  States 

676 
1,597 

17,927 

1,498 
-  3,408 
24,812 

6,129 
1,905 

13  152 
3,777 

1,904 
1  467 

2,709 
2  813 

West  Coast  of  Africa 

4  000 

5  700 

Channel  Islands, 

3,775 

6,055 

3,715 

5,494 

3,649 

4,743 

British  North  America, 

1,152 

1,643 

.   ... 

'  2,588 

4,067 

Other  Countries, 

3,964 

6,652 

5,294 

8,841 

3,843 

6,500 

Total, 

111,694 

160,822 

103,029 

152,560 

77,085 

114,119 

OTHER  VEGETABLE  SUB- 

STANCES OF  THE  NATURE  OF 

1,204 

1,395 

6,186 

5,877 

2,488 

5,185 

HEMP. 

VAKIO!  S    i'lll It KS 


117 


P*j»oifAL  PORTS  I»TO  WHICH  FLIX,  HKMP,  JUTE,  &c.,  WE»«  IMPORTED  INTO 
THK  UNITED  KINGDOM  is  THE  YEAR*  NAMKD. 


1857 

18GO 

1861 

Flax 

Hemp 

Jote. 

Flax. 

H.  u\j> 

Jute. 

Flax. 

Hemp. 

Jot*. 

Ac. 

ENGLAND. 
London,.    .      Tons, 

JJTWPOOI,            .    „ 

Bristol,         .       „ 

3,179 
1049 

:.; 

13,004 
8,7* 

;,'.•;. 

£% 

786 
776 
134 

10,255 

7,727 
462 

IMH 

'l3C 

1,348 
1,140 
164 

11,281 
10,587 

461 

38 

Hull,        . 

1,667 

7 

•Jl.:.:v. 

5.  •_•:>:. 

!4,<;iM 

2,814 

138 

Newcastle,    .      „ 

1'1\  mouth,         .   „ 

l.irjj 

1.661 

246 

362 

27 

1,463 
1,404 



283 
14 

7.V 

Southampton 
Grimsby 

47 
78 

347 
633 

10 
23 



155 
382 

10 



Hartlep  >ol,  . 

129 

1,708 



1,517 

1,540 

Other  1'orts,     .  „ 

1,569 

2848 

5 

2,438 

6,636 



4,543 

3,'Jl'i> 

Total  ENGLAND  „ 

29,821 

30,144 

32,206 

66.TH 

33,185 

40,850 

24,170 

32,076 

44,596 

l,'i:h.                Tons, 

934 

4,584 

2,282 

2,313   

2,006 

2,982 

Glanffow 

137 

42( 

767 

12 

4«i-' 

Greenock,          .  „ 

135 

466 

8H 



66 

244 

944 

543 

Aberdeen,      .       ,, 

1,297 

461 

..  . 

1,19£ 

293 

.  ... 

1,365 

35C 

Dundee,    .        .  ,, 

:>O.OSL 

..  . 

30,0.  )5 

899 



•'."•  '.M;> 

1,051 

468 

Port  Glasgow,      ,, 
Grangemouth.  .  „ 

681 
642 

661 

321 

•    • 

9M 

250 

914 
145 



172 
152 

8lA 



Montrose,      .                5,087 
<*th,      .                6,231 

54 

li: 

2,514 
2,757 

81 

4.-> 

.... 

•-V.7" 

90 
50 



Kirkcaldy,     . 
Other  Ports,     .  „ 

BL8M 
691 

160 
533 

8,510 

175 

5 
318 

.... 

5,318 

197 

111 

171 

::::: 

Total  SCOT  LAND,,, 

57,435 

s  no 

88 

43,085 

5,846 

244 

49,060 

7,031 

1,011 

IRE  LA  VD 

Dul.lin,     .        Tons, 

147 

16 

190 

2       272 

Belfast,          .        „ 

5,755 

<;:*; 

... 

1.1  L'7 

30   

452        30 

Cork,         .        .   „ 

156 

243 

103   -- 

17ft 

145 

•  •  •  • 

.... 



in 





18 



Total  IRELAND,  „ 

6,066 

1,026 

16 

1,427 

333 



454       49b^ 

| 

T.-tu.           „      93,312 

;<:».MO 

32,310  73.2401 

8MM 

41,094 

66,684  39,603  45,H07 

118  ANCIENT    LINEN. 


SECTION    II. 

ANCIENT   LINEN. 


IF  Linen  is  not  the  oldest  of  textile  fabrics,  it  is  second  only  to 
woollen,  and  both  were  made  at  a  very  remote  period.  The 
Bible  is  the  most  ancient  of  written  records,  and  it  contains 
many  references  to  Flax  and  Linen,  and  to  the  transformation  of 
the  one  into  the  other.  Before  Moses  wrote  the  first  books  of 
the  Sacred  Volume,  before  Joseph  was  sold  as  a  slave  to  Poti- 
phar,  before  even  the  patriarch  Abraham  visited  Pharaoh,  the 
Egyptians  had  attained  to  great  perfection  in  the  fabrication  of 
Linen.  The  pictorial  representations  and  explanatory  hiero- 
glyphics of  the  cultivation  of  Flax  and  its  manufacture  into 
Linen,  found  in  the  palaces,  temples,  and  tombs  of  Egypt,  carry 
back  the  trade  for  full  four  thousand  years.  Even  this  remote 
age  may  not  have  seen  the  invention  of  the  art ;  but  when,  or 
where,  or  by  whom,  Linen  was  first  made,  is  not  known,  and 
cannot  now  be  ascertained. 

It  is  probable  that  Linen  owes  its  origin  to  a  period  not  long 
subsequent  to  the  creation  of  man.  In  antediluvian  ages  sepa- 
rate trades  appear  to  have  been  assigned  to,  or  appropriated  by, 
each  person  or  family.  The  manufacture  of  fibrous  substances 
into  articles  of  clothing,  and  for  other  domestic  purposes,  must 
then  have  had  its  representatives,  as  well  as  the  other  trades  or 
professions  which  are  incidentally  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

The  knowledge  of  this  branch  of  manufacture  as  of  others 
would  pass  from  the  antediluvian  age  through  the  Ark,  to  the 
posterity  of  Noah  in  post-diluvian  times.  Probably  to  Ham 
had  been  assigned  the  duty  of  providing  the  family  of  Noah 
with  the  requisite  textile  fabrics,  and  his  family  would  continue 
to  do  so  while  the  people  dwelt  together.  If  so,  Ham  had  no 


ANCIENT    LINEN.  119 

<  1.  >ubt  learned  to  spin  and  weave  before  the  Flood,  and  soon  there- 
;ift  r  l-'hix  would  be  grown  and  Linen  woven  in  Armenia. 
Afterward,  as  the  family  migrated  southward,  they  would  carry 
the  art  with  them,  practice  it  at  Babel,  and  thence  convey  it  to 
the  land  to  which  they  emigrated,  when  the  people  were  di> 
pcrsnl  at  the  cuiit'iM"!!  of  tongUMi  BOOM  bdodbfll  of  the  family 
led  in  Canaan,  and  others  in  Egypt,  and  in  both  countries, 
especially  in  the  latter,  the  Linen  trade  speedily  took  root  and 
grew  up. 

The  sub-division  of  labour  is  not  new,  as  it  was  approved  and 
practised  long  before  the  Flood.  The  posterity  of  Ham  seem, 
from  the  period  of  their  settlement  in  Egypt,  to  have  adopted  the 
same  system  there.  The  Linen  manufacture  had  with  then 
special  representatives,  whose  sole  business  was  to  grow,  and 
spin  and  weave  the  Flax.  Long  continued  practice  and  care- 
ful application  by  hands  and  heads  devoted  to  the  trade  would 
speedily  perfect  the  manufacture,  and  enable  them  to  transform 
the  Flax  into  the  "  fine  Linen  of  Egypt."  That  country  may, 
tin -ret'ore.  \vith  propriety,  be  called  the  cradle,  if  not  the  birth- 
place, of  the  Linen  Trade.  There  the  manufacture  attained  a 
perfection,  perhaps  never  equalled,  and  certainly  never  surpassed, 
elsewhere,  either  in  ancient  or  in  modern  times.  From  that 
land  the  art  travelled  northward,  and  westward,  and  Greeks 
and  Romans,  Germans  and  Britons,  owe  their  knowledge  of  it 
to  the  ancient  Egyptians — a  people  living  in  a  highly  civili/ed 
state  long  ages  before  even  Greece  was  a  nation. 

The  I'.ible,  from  its  high  origin  and  truthful  character,  de- 
mands and  commands  priority  in  treating  of  ancient  Linen. 
um  the  great  antiquity  and  wondrous  perfection  of 
•Manufactures,  the  next  ehapt.  r  will  be  devoted.  Other 
ancient  countries,  famous  for  their  Linen,  will  then  be  shortly 
nut  iced,  and  this  section  will  conclude  with  chapters  on  the  Linen 
"I  (ireece  and  Rome.  Unfortunately  statistics  are  wanting 
to  tell  of  the  quantity  of  Linen  produced  in  any  of  these 
countries,  but  some  idea  of  its  extent  and  value  may  be 
formed  from  a  consideration  of  the  many  purposes  t«»  which  it 
was  applied,  and  the  teeming  population  who  daily  used  it. 
From  the  earliot  period  the  trade  has  been  of  great  magnitude, 
and  it  has  exercised  no  little  influence  for  £ood  upon  mankind.- 


120  ANCIENT   LINEN. 


CHAPTER  I. 

BIBLE        LINEN. 

MaD,  in  the  state  of  purity  in  which  he  was  at  first  created, 
required  no  clothing,  for  it  is  said,  "  They  were  both  naked,  the 
man  and  his  wife,  and  they  were  not  ashamed."  When  they 
fell,  "The  eyes  of  both  of  them  were  opened,  and  they  knew 
that  they  were  naked,  and  they  sewed  fig  leaves  together  and 
made  themselves  aprons/'  or  things  to  gird  about  their  loins. 
This  was  unquestionably  the  first  fibre  manufactured  by  human 
hands,  and  it  was  formed  because  man  required  to  hide  his 
shame.  Manufacturing  and  sorrow  were  thus  closely  united  at 
first,  and  labour  and  sorrow  have  too  often  been  combined  since. 
At  the  first  interview  between  man  and  his  Maker  after  the  fall, 
it  is  said,  "  unto  Adam  also,  and  to  his  wife,  did  the  Lord  God 
make  coats  of  skins,  and  clothed  them,"  or,  as  it  might  more 
correctly  be  rendered,  cause  them  to  make,  Glod  being  often 
represented  in  the  Bible  as  doing  what  he  directs  to  be  done. 
The  word  translated  t{  coats"  might  more  properly  be  written 
tunics,  a  close  garment  that  was  usually  worn  next  the  skin, 
reached  to  the  knees,  and  had  sleeves.  In  after  times  it 
was  made  of  woollen  or  Linen. 

Fig  leaves 

They  gathered,  broad  as  Amazonian  tavge, 
Aud  with  what  skill  they  had  together  sewed 
To  gird  their  waist — vain  covering,  if  to  hide 
Their  guilt  and  dreaded  shame  I     Oh,  how  unlike 
To  that  first  naked  glory  \ 

The  spider  may  be  regarded  as  the  earliest  spinner  and  weaver 
on  this  earth.  Doubtless  she  had  attained  to  as  great  perfection 
in  her  own  particular  manufacture  at  the  time  of  our  First 
Parents'  expulsion  from  the  glories  of  the  garden  of  Eden,  as  in 
these  days  of  spinning  frames  and  power-looms.  This  perfec- 
tion surpasses  even  the  "  woven  air"  of  antiquity,  or  the  rarest 
skill  yet  attained  in  modern  times,  and  were  it  reached,  the 
nomenclature  of  the  trade  would  require  to  be  enlarged,  ade- 


nir.u.   i. INKS.  121 

to  delim-  its  rx«jnisite  quality.  She  was,  and  is  an  ex- 
t  in.  irdinary  monopolist.  She  grows  her  own  raw  material,  spins 
it  into  yarn,  and  weaves  it  into  cloth,  solely  by  means  of  In T 
own  delicate  little  organs.  The  strength  of  the  workmanship 
may  not  be  great,  but  it  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  purpose 
this  ingenious  little  manufaelurer  intends  it  to  serve.  Bri- 
t  tin's  power  is  vast,  her  mechanical  skill  is  unrivalled,  and  her 
textile  fabrics  clothe  all  nations,  but  it  is  beyond  the  power  of 
the  most  expert  of  her  sons  to  form  wheels  and  pinions  or  other 
mechanism  to  prodnee  a  texture  to  rival  the  spider's  web. 
I:idred.  the  mnst  expert  of  her  fair  daughters,  e\<n  in  the 
palmy  days  of  the  spinning  wheel,  (and  then  their  supple  fingers 
could  fabricate  a  thread  fine  far  beyond  the  reach  of  machinery), 
could  not  spin  yarn  fine  enough  to  weave  a  fabric  that  would 
equal  the  \\vli  i.f  the  spider  in  catching  flies.  "  The  hypocrite's 
im>t  >hall  }»•  a  spider's  web."  "The  spider  taketh  hold  with 
her  hands,  and  is  in  king's  palaces/'  The  wicked  "  weave  the 
spider's  web."  So  saith  the  sacred  record. 

Whether  or  not  the  spider's  web  would  convey  to  the  mind  of 
Adam  some  idea  regarding  a  woven  fabric,  can  only  be  conjec- 
tured ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that,  after  being  driven  from  the 
garden  of  Eden,  he  and  his  posterity  continued  tocover  themseh .  s 
with  some  description  of  clothing.  The  change  from  this  blissful 
abode  to  less  favoured  regions  rendered  a  more  substantial 
covering  necessary.  Their  merciful  Creator  provided  their  first 
ihvss,  or  taught  them  how  to  provide  it,  and  this  knowledge  would 
enable  them  to  prepare  clothing  in  the  future,  both  for  them- 
selves and  family.  That  God  does  so  instruct  his  creatures  is 
expressly  stated  by  Isaiah,  and  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that 
Adam  got  all  needful  instructions  to  fit  him  for  his  new  and 
fearfully  altered  position. 

Probably  their  clothing  at  first  was  formed  of  skins,  it  may 
be  of  the  animals  offered  in  sacrifice  to  God,  and  these  would 
be  followed  by  some  sort  of  woven  substance.  Although  tin  -re 
is  no  positive  record  of  what  material  that  was  composed,  it 
is  very  likely  to  have  been  wool.  Abel,  the  second  son  of 
Adam,  was  "  a  keeper  of  sheep,"  and  the  flock  supplied  a  ready 
material  of  which  to  make  clothing,  the  fleece  requiring  com- 
parativrly  littl.-  preparation  to  adapt  it  for  being  made  into 


122  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

coarse  cloth.  Food  and  clothing  were  the  first  wants  of  fallen 
man,  and  the  flock  offered  a  natural  and  ready  supply  of 
both. 

In  the  antediluvian  age,  as  in  the  ages  after  the  Flood,  some  of 
the  people  dwelt  in  houses,  while  others  led  a  nomadic  or  pas- 
toral life,  and  lived  in  tents.  It  is  said  of  one  of  Lantech's 
wives,  "  Adah  bare  Jabal,  he  was  the  father  of  such  as  dwell  in 
tents  and  have  cattle."  Nomades  must  wander  from  place  to 
place  in  search  of  fresh  pasturage  for  their  flocks  and  herds,  and 
their  tents,  while  impervious  to  wind  and  rain,  require  also  to 
be  light  and  portable,  that  they  may  be  easily  removed.  No 
other  than  a  woven  fabric  is  well  adapted  for  such  a  purpose, 
and  therefore  it  is  certain  that  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cloth 
suitable  for  clothing  and  tents,  and  for  other  domestic  purposes, 
formed  one  of  the  very  earliest  arts  acquired  by  man. 

There  is  no  mention  of  Linen  in  the  antediluvian  age,  but  there 
is  little  doubt  that  it  was  then  known  and  used.  It  is  recorded 
that  there  were  then  musicians,  and  artificers  in  iron  and  brass, 
and  shipbuilders,  and  tillers  of  the  ground.  Such  notices  imply 
a  knowledge  of  the  productions  of  nature,  and  of  the  art 
of  applying  them  to  the  use  of  man.  They  also  infer  that  the 
people  lived  in  a  state  of  luxury,  and  sought  to  enjoy  the 
pleasures  of  life.  Linen  forms  a  cool,  clean,  and  comfortable 
article  of  clothing,  more  especially  in  warm  climates,  and  even 
then  it  would  probably  be  sought  for  as  a  substitute  for  woollen 
garments  in  the  hot  season  of  the  year. 

It  is  certain  that  it  was  known  and  manufactured  at  a  period 
not  long  subsequent  to  the  Flood,  and  therefore  it  is  very  likely 
to  have  been  known  and  in  use  before  that  event  occurred. 

The  facility  of  changing  body  linen  in  temperate  climates  in 
'modern  times,  has  added  at  once  to  health  and  longevity,  and 
has  greatly  contributed  to  the  comfort  of  the  wearers.  The 
same  feeling  must  have  existed  among  mankind  in  early  ages, 
especially  in  hot  and  sultry  climes,  and  this  would  cause  such  a 
material  as  Linen  to  be  sought  for,  and  highly  valued  when  found. 
By  the  experiments  made  by  Mr  Thomson,  afterward  referred  to, 
it  appears  that  every  Linen  thread  presents  only  the  sides  of 
cylinders,  while  that  of  cotton  is  surrounded  by  an  innumerable 
multitude  of  exceedingly  minute  edges.  This  may  explain  the 


Bllti.i.    UNKN.  123 

reason  why  tin  eflbctl  oi  Lin.-n  and  cotton  upou  the  health  uud 
feelings  of  those  who  wear  them  are  so  different.  Linen  is  much 
more  lustrous  than  cotton,  and  the  reason  would  seem  to  be 
because  the  lucid  surfaces  on  the  fibres  of  Linen  are  much  larger 
than  mi  those  of  cotton,  and  therefore  more  l.ri-ht  and  shining. 

It  IB  rallied  that  Noah,  shortly  after  tin-  Flood,  was  uncovered 
in  his  tent,  and  that  Shem  and  .laphrih.  two  of  his  sons,  took  a 
garment  and  covered  th«  i  rial  her.  Noah  ami  his  family  must  have 
had  their  clothing  and  tents  with  them  in  the  Ark.  as  this  event 
appears  to  have  happened  shortly  alter  the  Flood  subsided,  and 
\\  IHM  there  was  110  time  to  prepare  MH  -h  articles.  Fora 

considerable  period  after  this  event  the  Hi  Me  makes  little  men- 
tion of  woven  fal-rics  although  they  must  have  been  in  constant 
use.  It  is  stated  that  Abraham  pitched  his  tent  near  Bethel; 
that  he  sat  in  his  tent  door  in  the  heat  of  the  day  ;  that  he  would 
not  take  from  a  thread  even  to  a  shoe  latchet  of  the  spoil  of  the 
t'mir  kings  whom  he  discomfited ;  and  such  like  passages. 

The  Arab  tent  is  composed  of  a  cover  of  black  goat's  hair, 
compactly  woven,  with  sides  of  coarse  wool,  spun  at  home  by  the 
women.  Those  in  use  by  Abraham  and  others  in  patriarchal 
days  were  probably  of  a  similar  description,  as  there  is  little 
change  in  the  manners  and  customs  of  these  primitive  people 
since  the  earliest  records.  A  curtain  of  white  woollen  or  Linen 
stuff,  sometimes  embroidered,  divides  the  tent  in  two,  the  outer 
1  .emii;  for  the  men  and  the  inner  for  the  women. 

When  Bebekah  met  Isaac,  she  lighted  off  the  camel,  and  took 
a  veil  and  covered  herself.  The  Eastern  veil  is  a  large  sheet, 
which  being  thrown  over  the  head,  descends  to  the  heels,  and 
when  gathered  iu  front  envelopes  the  whole  person.  In  this 
early  age  they  were  almost  always  of  Linen,  and  in  some  in- 
stances, as  in  the  case  of  Ruth,  of  a  coarse  strong  texture,  cap- 
able of  containing  a  considerable  quantity  of  grain.  This  is  the 
first  time  that  a  fabric,  which  it  is  almost  certain  was  Linen,  is 
mentioned  in  the  Hi  Me,  although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it 
was  in  use  in  Phoenicia  before  this  period,  as  Egypt,  a.  neigh- 
bouring country,  was  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  hundreds  of 
years  before  Abraham  went  there. 

Rebekah'took  goodly  raiment  of  her  i  Idcst  son  Esau,  which 
with  her  in  the  house,  probably  of  her  own  manufacture. 


124  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

and  put  it  on  Jacob  her  youngest  son.  When  Jacob  went 
near  to  his  father  and  kissed  him,  Isaac  blessed  him  and  said  the 
smell  of  my  son  is  as  the  smell  of  a  field  which  the  Lord  hath 
blessed.  This  would  seem  to  imply  that  the  garment  was  made 
of  Linen,  which  is  the  produce  of  the  fields,  as  to  none  other 
could  the  expression  used  be  so  applicable. 

Woven  fabrics  are  also  mentioned  in  other  passages  of  the 
Bible  in  these  early  times,  such  as  the  following: — Laban 
searched  for  his  goods  among  the  household  stuft  of  Jacob  ; 
Tamar,  Judah's  daughter-in-law,  put  off  the  widow's  garment ; 
and  Jacob  made  for  Joseph  a  coat  of  many  colours.  About  this 
coat  there  is  considerable  diversity  of  opinion,  but  it  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  composed  of  patch- work,  and  very  probably 
of  different  colours  of  woven  cloth,  Such  a  dress  was  highly 
esteemed  in  Eastern  countries  in  early  times.  The  mother  of 
Sisera,  anticipating  the  return  of  her  son  victorious,  says,  "  Have 
they  not  sped,  have  they  not  divided  the  prey,  to  every  man  a 
damsel  or  two  ?  To  Sisera  a  prey  of  divers  colours  of  needle  work, 
of  divers  colours  of  needlework  on  both  sides,  meet  for  the  necks  of 
them  that  take  the  spoil."  In  the  days  of  David,  kings'  daughters, 
who  were  virgins,  wore  a  garment  of  divers  colours.  In  those  times 
the  art  of  interweaving  a  variegated  pattern  in  the  original  tex- 
ture was  little  known,  and  such  dresses  must  therefore  have 
been  scarce  and  very  valuable.  Asiatics  are  still  fond  of  dresses 
in  which  various  fabrics  are  interwoven,  and  Mr  Roberts  states 
that  in  India  it  is  customary  to  invest  a  beautiful  or  favourite 
child  with  a  coat  of  many  colours,  which  are  often  tastefully 
sewn  together. 

When  Joseph's  brethren  took  his  coat  of  many  colours,  which 
they  had  dipped  in  the  blood  of  the  slain  kid,  and  brought  it  to 
their  father,  he  knew  it  and  was  very  sorrowful.  It  is  added  that 
"  Jacob  rent  his  clothes  and  put  sackcloth  upon  his  loins,  and 
mourned  for  his  son  many  days."  This  sackcloth  was  probably 
a  coarse  fabric  of  Linen  cloth,  used  for  the  purpose  of  hold- 
ing grain  and  other  commodities,  very  much  as  it  is  at  the 
present  day.  It  was  often  used,  even  in  these  early  times,  in 
seasons  of  deep  affliction,  when  pleasure  was  burdensome,  and 
the  suffering  body  soothed  the  afflicted  mind. 

Sackcloth  is  often  associated  in  Scripture  with  times  of  great 


HIHI.i:    L1NKN.  1-.' 

sintering  and  sadness.  When  Sennacherib  invaded  Judea, 
1 1  /ekiah  rent  his  clothes,  and  covered  himself  with  sackcloth, 
and  went  into  the  House  of  the  Lord  to  implore  his  guidance 
and  help.  Mordecai  rent  his  clothes  and  put  on  sackcloth  and 
ashes  when  Haman  decreed  the  destruction  of  the  whole  of  tip 
Jews ;  and  many  of  the  Jews  lay  in  sackcloth  and  ashes  on 
that  mournful  occasion.  Daniel  set  his  face  unto  the  Lord  God 
to  seek  by  prayers  and  supplications,  with  fasting  and  sackcloth 
and  ashes.  At  the  preaching  of  Jonah  the  people  of  Ninev.-li 
put  on  sackcloth  from  the  greatest  of  them  even  to  the  least. 
And  the  king  arose  from  his  throne  and  laid  his  robe  from  him, 
and  covered  him  with  sackcloth  and  sat  in  ashes.  Sackcloth  is  re- 
peatedly mentioned  by  Isaiah,  and  in  other  passages  in  the  Bil  1«\ 
and  for  a  very  long  period  it  must  have  been  used  as  a  symbol 
of  grief  by  God's  ancient  people.  That  it  was  used  for  a  similar 
purpose  by  other  nations  as  well  as  by  the  Israelites,  is  shown  in 
ilk-  case  of  the  repentance  of  the  Ninevites.  Indeed,  from  the 
most  remote  times  it  seems  to  have  been  worn  in  seasons  of  deep 
affliction  by  the  inhabtants  of  all  Eastern  countries. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  noticed  that  cloth  made  of  goat's  Imir 
was  used  for  sacks  by  the  Greeks  and  Komans.  "  The  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  and  Syriac  term  for  cloth  made  of  this  material  is 
Shac  or  Sac,  translated  Saccus  in  the  Vulgate  version  of  the 
Scriptures.  The  Latin  Sagum  appears  to  have  had  the  same 
origin.  In  English,  sack  and  shag  differ  little  from  the  oriental 
terms  either  in  sound  or  sense."  It  may  bo,  therefore,  that  the 
sackcloth  spoken  of  in  Scripture  was  of  goafs  hair,  and  not 
of  Linen,  and  that  the  sacks  which  Jacob's  sons  took  to  Egypt 
to  contain  the  corn,  and  those  of  the  wily  Gibconites,  wore  also 
of  that  material.  If  the  sacks  which  the  brethren  of  Joseph 
took  down  with  them  to  Egypt  to  contain  the  corn  which  tiny 
went  to  buy  were  not  made  of  goat's  hair,  they  were  probably 
made  from  Flax,  it  being  the  strongest  and  most  suitable 
material  of  which  they  could  have  been  formed.  It  is  possible 
that  they  may  have  been  the  manufacture  of  Egypt,  as  various 
qualities  of  Linen  had  found  their  way  into  Phoenicia  long  be- 
fore that  time. 

The  first  mention  of  Linen  by  name  in  the  Scriptures  is  whon 
Pharaoh  exalted  Joseph  to  the  second  place  in  the  land  of 


126  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

Egypt: — "  And  Pharaoh  took  off  his  ring  from  off  his  hand, 
and  put  it  upon  Joseph's  hand,  and  arrayed  him  in  vestures 
of  Linen,  and  put  a  gold  chain  ahout  his  neck."  Although 
this  is  the  first  time  the  term  Linen  appears  in  the  Bible, 
it  is  well  known  to  have  been  a  common  article  of  clothing 
at  a  much  more  remote  period.  The  first  portion  of  the 
earth  occupied  by  man  was  in  Asia,  not  far  from  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  it  was  near  to  the  same  river  that  the  Ark 
settled  on  the  subsidence  of  the  water  after  the  Flood.  There 
the  heat  is  so  great,  especially  in  summer,  that  woollen  clothing 
is  very  burdensome.  The  only  other  fibre  adapted  for  being 
formed  into  cloth,  with  which  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  world 
seem  to  have  been  acquainted,  was  Flax.  That  this  plant  was 
known  and  made  into  cloth  at  a  very  early  period,  is  fully  estab- 
lished, because  specimens  of  Linen  have  been  discovered  in 
Egypt,  which  are  proved  to  be  fully  4000  years  old.  Linen 
may  have  been  made  at  as  early  a  date  in  other  countries,  but, 
so  far  as  known,  there  is  no  record  of  this  extant,  the  first  men- 
tion of  the  article,  either  in  sacred  or  profane  history,  being  in 
connection  with  that  country.  As  the  Linen  of  Egypt  will 
be  treated  of  in  the  following  chapter,  it  will  be  referred  to 
here  only  in  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  elucidate  Bible  Linen. 

The  vestures  with  which  Joseph  was  arrayed  were  probably  a 
kilt,  suspended  from  the  shoulders  by  straps,  fastened  round  the 
middle,  and  reaching  below  the  knees,  with  a  large  full  shirt 
over  it.  Both  articles  were  composed  of  fine  white  Linen,  the 
upper  being  of  a  very  beautiful  and  transparent  texture,  and 
fringed  at  the  bottom.  This  was  the  usual  dress  of  the  king  of 
Egypt,  and  it  may  have  been  one  of  Pharaoh's  dresses  which 
was  put  upon  Joseph,  that  having  sometimes  been  done  in 
Eastern  countries  when  the  king  desired  to  show  a  very  special 
mark  of  respect  to  a  favourite  subject. 

In  embalming  the  dead  in  Egypt  many  folds  of  Linen  were 
wrapped  round  the  body,  the  quality  of  the  fabric  varying  with 
the  rank  of  the  deceased.  Jacob,  and  afterwards  Joseph,  were 
both  embalmed  in  the  usual  way,  and  their  bodies  carried  up 
from  Egypt  to  the  promised  land,  for  the  purpose  of  being 
buried  in  the  Cave  of  Machpelah,  the  former  shortly  after  his 
death,  and  the  latter  when  the  Israelites  went  up  to  take  posses- 


BIBLE  LINEN.  127 

sion  of  Canaan.  No  doubt  the  Linen  which  was  employed  for 
embalming  so  great  personages  was  of  fine  texture,  some- 
what corresponding  to  their  exalted  position.  It  may  still  be 
about  these  bodies  in  that  celebrated  cave,  but  the  Moslem 
guards  it  with  so  great  jealousy  that  its  wonders  are  all  un- 
known. 

Flax  is  first  noticed  in  Scripture-  (indeed  this  is  the  e.-irliest 
mention  of  Flax  by  any  author),  in  the  record  of  the  plagues 
inflicted  upon  Egypt,  when  it  is  stated  that  "  the  Flax  and  the 
barley  were  smitten  ;  for  the  barley  was  in  the  ear  and  the  Flax 
was  boiled."  Flax  \\;is  ;(  Inrm-  ;ii;«l  vulunhle  crop  in  that 
country,  and  its  destruction  would  be  a  serious  loss  to  the 
people,  because,  in  addition  to  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  Flax, 
those  who  manufactured  it  into  yarn  and  cloth  would  lose  their 
employment  until  another  crop  was  grown,  as  it  is  improbable 
that  a  year's  spare  stock  would  be  on  hand.  Flax  was  also  grown 
at  this  period  near  the  Jordan,  in  Canaan.  It  is  reported  that 
Rahab  brought  the  spies  when  they  visited  Jericho  "up  to  the 
roof  of  the  house,  and  hid  them  with  the  stalks  of  Flax,  which 
she  h.id  laid  in  order  upon  the  roof."  This  was  literally  "  Flax 
of  the  wood,"  undressed  Flax  with  its  ligneous  parts,  placed  on 
the  roof  to  dry,  preparatory  to  being  scutched,  the  flat  roofs  of 
Oriental  houses  being  well  suited  for  laying  out  vegetable  pro- 
ducts which  required  to  be  aired  in  the  sun,  and  it  shows  that 
the  Flax  had  then  but  recently  been  gathered. 

Job,  who  lived  at  an  early  period,  complained  that  his 
days  were  swifter  than  a  weaver's  shuttle.  The  staff  of 
Goliath's  spear  was  like  a  weaver's  beam,  so  also  was  the 
staff  of  his  brother's  spear.  In  the  hand  of  the  Egyptian 
who  was  slain  by  one  of  David's  mighty  men  was  a  spear 
like  a  weaver's  beam.  These  and  other  passages  show  that 
Flax  was  cultivated,  prepared,  spun  into  yarn,  woven  into 
cloth,  and  considered  an  important  article  of  merchant li/<  in 
very  remote  ages,  not  only  in  Egypt,  but  also  in  the  adjoin- 
ing countries.  It  has  been  satisfactorily  proved  that  Linen 
was  manufactured  by  the  Israelites  shortly  after  their  settle- 
ment in  Canaan,  and  for  ages  long  subsequent  to  that  event. 
The  common,  the  hairy,  and  the  knotted  species  or  varieties 
of  Flax  were  all  grown  from  an  early  period  in  Palestine, 


128  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

and  for  long  ages  it  was  cultivated  very  extensively  in  that 
country.  In  the  wilderness,  and  after  their  settlement  in 
Canaan,  it  was  the  women  chiefly  who  span  the  yarn,  wove  the 
cloth,  and  embroidered  it,  not  only  for  domestic  purposes,  but 
also  for  sale.  The  Linen  manufactures  of  Palestine  were 
generally  of  the  coarser  descriptions,  the  finer  qualities  having 
been  imported  from  Egypt.  The  Hebrews  having  in  view  the 
formation  of  a  national  establishment  of  their  own,  would  no 
doubt  learn  the  art  of  spinning  and  weaving  before  they  left 
Egypt,  and  it  is  certain  they  improved  and  perfected  the  know- 
ledge so  acquired  during  their  sojourn  in  the  wilderness.  The 
furnishings  of  Linen  for  the  temple  and  for  the  robes  of  the 
priests  appear  to  have  been  marvels  of  art  in  spinning,  in  weav- 
ing, in  dyeing,  and  in  embroidery,  and  they  show  the  great  pro- 
gress which  the  Israelites  had  then  attained  in  this  branch  of 
manufacture. 

When  the  Israelites  quitted  Egypt  they  carried  with  them  a 
vast  quantity  of  valuable  and  costly  articles.  This  is  clearly 
shown  by  the  varied  and  extensive  offerings  of  the  people  for 
the  furnishings  of  the  tabernacle,  among  which  was  "  blue  and 
purple,  and  scarlet,  and  fine  Linen,  and  goat's  hair/'  The  inner 
curtains  of  the  tabernacle  were  composed  of  fine  soft  Linen,  splen- 
didly embroidered  with  figures  of  cherubim,  and  fancy  work  in 
scarlet  and  purple,  and  light  blue.  They  were  put  round  the 
pillars,  and  hung  down  in  a  loose  and  flowing  manner  from  their 
chapiters.  Cords  were  put  through  rings  in  the  pillars  to  keep 
the  tabernacle  from  being  shaken  with  the  wind,  and  these  were 
no  doubt  of  Flax,  as  were  also  the  loops  on  the  edges  of  the 
curtains.  The  veil  of  the  "  holy  of  holies"  was  of  the  same 
texture,  and,  according  to  Josephus,  it  was  embroidered  with  all 
sorts  of  flowers  which  the  earth  produces,  and  interwoven  with 
various  ornamental  figures,  excepting  the  forms  of  animals. 
The  outer  covering  of  the  tabernacle  was  formed  of  a  plain 
hanging  of  fine  twined  Linen,  which  seems  to  have  been 
wrought  in  an  open  or  net  work  texture,  to  permit  the  people 
without  to  see  the  interior.  The  door  curtain  was  of  a  different 
fabric  from  the  general  hanging,  being  a  great  curtain  of  fine 
twined  Linen,  embroidered  with  blue  and  purple  and  scarlet. 

Josephus  says  that  another  veil  of  like  magnitude,  and  tex- 


BIBLE   LINEN.  129 

duo,  and  colour,  covered  the  entrance  to  this  holy  place,  from 
i  IM  'top  half  way  down  the  pillar.  Over  this  was  another  veil 
of  Linen  of  a  like  size,  drawn  this  way  and  that  way  by  cords, 
that  it  iiii^ht  be  no  hindrance  to  the  view  of  the  sanctuary  on 
solemn  days ;  but  on  cold  or  wet  days  it  was  expanded,  and  pro- 
tected the  veil  of  divers  colours.  Josephus  adds,  "  Whence  that 
custom  of  ours  is  d*  ri\«l  of  having  a  fine  Linen  veil  after  the 
temple  has  been  built  to  be  drawn  over  the  entrances." 

The  high  priest's  garments  were  also  chiefly  composed  of 
Linen,  upon  which  the  various  ornaments  and  symbols  were 
fixed.  The  ephod  was  a  close  robe  or  vest,  reaching  from  the 
shoulders  to  the  loins,  and  made  of  a  rich  cloth  of  fine  Linen, 
i  inbroidered  in  blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  gold.  The  girdle  of 
the  ephod  and  the  breastplate  were  formed  of  the  same  rich 
material.  The  robe  of  the  ephod  was  a  long  Linen  gown  of 
light  blue,  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  leg,  or  perhaps  to  the 
feet.  It  was  woven  all  of  a  piece,  without  seam,  and  with  an 
opening  at  the  top  for  the  head  to  pass  through.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  skirt  were  figures  of  pomegranates  wrought  with  blue, 
purple,  and  scarlet  yarn.  The  mitre  was  a  turban  of  fine  Linen, 
above  which  was  another  with  swathes  of  blue  embroidered, 
around  which  was  a  golden  crown.  The  coat  of  fine  Linen 
was  the  inmost  of  the  sacerdotal  garments,  and  was  a  long  robe 
(it ting  close  to  the  body,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  with  sleeves 
tied  fast  to  the  arms.  This  vestment  was  made  of  Flax  doubled, 
and  was  called  Chethone,  denoting  Linen,  which  was  called  by 
that  name.  It  was  embroidered  with  flowers  of  scarlet,  and 
purple,  and  blue,  and  fine  twined  Linen ;  but  the  fabric  was 
nothing  but  fine  Linen.  It  was  also  worn  by  the  other  priests  while 
officiating.  The  girdle  of  needle  work  worn  by  all  the  priests 
was  a  piece  of  fine  twined  Linen,  embroidered  in  blue,  purple, 
and  scarlet,  which  went  round  the  body,  but  so  loosely  woven 
that  it  is  said  to  have  resembled  the  skin  of  a  serpent.  Mai- 
monides  says  it  was  three  fingers  broad,  and  thirty-two  cubits 
long.  The  priests  also  wore  bonnets  or  turbans  of  Linen  cloth, 
which  was  doubled  round  the  head  many  times  and  sewed  to- 
gether ;  and  Linen  breeches  or  drawers,  reaching  from  the  loins 
to  the  knee.  The  old  robes  of  the  priests  were  unravelled  to 
burn  as  wicks  for  the  lamps  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles, 
i 


130  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

It  is  related  that  "  all  the  women  who  were  wise  hearted  among 
the  Israelites  did  spin  with  their  hands,  and  brought  that  which 
they  had  spun,  both  of  blue,  and  of  purple,  and  of  scarlet,  and 
of  fine  Linen,  an  offering  unto  the  Lord."  Also  that  the  Lord 
filled  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  with  the  spirit  of  God  in  wisdom, 
and  in  knowledge,  &c.,  to  work  all  manner  of  work  of  the  cun- 
ning workman,  and  of  the  embroiderer  in  blue,  and  purple,  and 
scarlet,  and  fine  Linen,  and  of  the  weaver.  This  shows  that  the 
Israelites  had  constructed  in  the  wilderness  looms,  and  all  the 
other  necessary  implements  and  machinery  for  the  production  of 
the  articles  required  for  the  tabernacle,  and  other  such  purposes. 

Linen  would  thus  appear  to  have  entered  largely  into  the 
magnificent  furniture  and  fittings  of  the  tabernacle,  and  almost 
wholly  to  have  composed  the  clothing  and  gorgeous  robes  of  the 
priests,  both  on  ordinary  and  on  state  occasions,  even  at  the  very 
beginning  of  the  Jewish  ritual.  Aaron,  when  he  entered  the  holy 
place,  was  required  to  "  wash  his  flesh  in  water,  to  put  on  the 
holy  Linen  coat,  to  have  the  Linen  breeches  upon  his  flesh,  to 
to  be  girded  with  a  Linen  girdle,  and  to  be  attired  with  the 
Linen  mitre  :  These  are  holy  garments/' 

For  a  long  period  Linen  continued  to  be  the  clothing  of  the 
priests  when  they  were  serving  in  the  sanctuary.  Garments 
woven  in  one  piece  throughout,  so  as  to  need  no  making,  were 
held  in  high  repute ;  hence  the  Jews  have  a  tradition  that  no 
needle  was  employed  in  the  clothing  of  the  high  priest,  each 
piece  of  which  was  of  one  continued  texture.  This  idea  throws 
light  on  the  description  of  the  coat  of  Jesus : — "  The  coat  was 
without  seam,  woven  from  the  top  throughout."  This  seamless 
coat  would  seem  to  indicate  that  our  Lord,  knowing  that  his 
time  was  now  come,  had  arrayed  himself  in  vestments  suitable 
to  the  dignity  of  His  Messianic  office. 

Philo,  who  lived  at  Alexandria,  says  "  the  Jewish  high  priest 
wore  a  Linen  garment  made  of  the  purest  Byssus,  which  was  a 
symbol  of  firmness,  incorruption,  and  of  the  clearest  splendour, 
since  fine  Linen  is  most  difficult  to  tear,  is  made  of  nothing 
mortal,  and  becomes  brighter  and  more  resembling  light  the 
more  it  is  cleansed  by  washing." 

Josephus  says  the  Jewish  priests  wore  drawers  of  "  spun 
Flax,"  and  over  the  drawers  a  shirt  with  flowers  woven  into  it, 


l.ir.I.I.    1. 1  NEW.  131 

\\lnrli  \\viv  Q|  ilnvr  diil'rivtit  Hubstaiicctt.  He  ultto  mentions  that 
tin  (in  tains  of  the  tabernacle  were  of  the  same  materials,  and 
in  all  these  articles  the  ornaments  were  of  splendid  materials 
a  IK  I  ( ••  .lours,  put  upon  a  ground  of  fine  white  Linen. 

Reymier  says  that  the  law  which  obliged  the  priesthood  to  be 
clothed  in  Linen  garments,  imposed  on  them  an  onerous  obliga- 
tion, but  there  is  not  on  any  ground  tin-  K  a-i  pr«  tonce  for  such 
a  strange  assertion.  If  there  had  been  no  command  on  the 
subject,  the  Jewish  priesthood,  following  the  example  oi 
Egyptian  priests,  would  very  probably  have  chosen  Linen  for 
thrir  clothing,  especially  when  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary,  it  being  not  only  clean,  and  pure,  and  comfortable 
in  itself,  but  also  an  emblem  of  purity,  and  nothing  better  cuukl 
have  been  used  in  its  stead.  There  was,  however,  a  distinct 
revelation  on  the  subject,  which  positively  settled  the  matter. 
The  divine  mind  ordered  Linen  clothing  for  the  priests,  because 
it  was  in  every  respect  the  most  suitable,  and  no  passage  occurs 
in  the  Bible  to  prove  the  assertion  that  the  priests  considered 
the  command  burdensome,  or  that  they  wanted  it  changed. 

That  it  also  formed  part  of  the  ordinary  clothing  of  the 
people  in  the  wilderness  appears  from  the  rules  for  cleansing  the 
garment  "  that  the  plague  of  leprosy  was  in."  Whether  it  was  a 
woollen  garment  or  a  Linen  garment,  or  whether  it  was  in  the 
warp  or  woof  of  Linen  or  of  woollen,  it  had  to  be  shut  up 
certain  days,  and  if  at  the  end  of  that  period  the  disease  stain 
had  spread  it  was  to  be  burned  ;  but  if  not  it  was  to  be  washed, 
and  after  other  trials  it  might  be  cleansed  and  then  used  again. 

The  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  wear  a  garment  mingled 
of  Linen  and  woollen,  or  of  Linsey-woolsey.  Josephus  as- 
signs as  a  reason  for  this,  that  such  clothing  was  allowed  only 
to  the  priests,  and  such  no  doubt  was  the  case  in  later  times, 
although  not  in  the  days  of  Moses.  Maimonides  says  it  was  to 
cat  idolatry,  as  heathen  priests  wore  such  mixed  garments 
in  the  hope  of  a  lucky  conjunction  of  the  planets  bringing  down 
a  blessing  upon  their  sheep  and  their  Flax. 

Flax  was  used  for  making  cords  and  ropes,  both  by  the  Jews 

and  neighbouring  nations.      Samson  was  twice  bound  with  new 

ropes  of  Flax,  as  recorded  in  the  Book  of  Judges,  but  with  him 

the  new  Flax  cord  became  as  Flax  that  was  burned  with  fire  • 

i2 


132  ANCIENT   LINES. 

and  again,  he  brake  them  off  his  arm  like  a  thread.  Herodotus 
mentions  that  the  Phoenicians  furnished  Xerxes  with  ropes  of 
Flax  for  constructing  his  bridge  across  the  Hellespont,  while 
the  Egyptians  supplied  ropes  of  papyrus,  which  were  inferior 
to  the  others  in  strength. 

Linen  was  frequently  used  in  early  times  for  writing  on.  Even 
long  before  the  mention  of  papyrus,  Linen  books  are  noticed 
by  Pliny,  and  Vopiscus,  and  Livy  speaks  of  such  books  being 
found  in  the  temple  of  Moneta.  Some  biblical  scholars  suppose 
that  the  original  of  the  Pentateuch  and  of  the  other  books  of 
the  Old  Testament  were  written  on  rolls  of  Linen.  The  ques- 
tion is  open  to  investigation,  as  the  Bible  does  not  say  of  what 
the  rolls  were  composed.  Very  probably  when  a  roll  or  book 
is  mentioned  it  is  to  be  understood  as  of  Linen,  or  of  the  skins 
of  animals.  The  Sibylline  books  were  made  of  Linen,  and 
many  mummy  cloths  have  hieroglyphics  on  them. 

Samuel,  when  a  child,  ministered  before  the  Lord,  girded 
with  a  Linen  ephod.  David,  at  the  removal  of  the  ark,  "  was 
clothed  with  a  robe  of  fine  Linen;  and  all  the  Levites  that 
bare  the  ark,  and  the  singers,  and  Chenaniah  the  master  of  the 
song,  with  the  singers,  were  clothed  with  robes  of  fine  Linen. 
David  also  had  upon  him  an  ephod  of  Linen/'  Solomon  im- 
ported Linen  yarn  from  Egypt,  and  it  is  added  "  the  King's 
merchants  received  it  at  a  price."  The  making  of  Linen  in 
Israel  appears  to  have  been  confined  to  certain  families,  as 
it  is  reported  in  the  genealogies  recorded  in  Chronicles  that 
"  the  sons  of  Selah  the  son  of  Judah  were,  Er,  the  father  of 
Lecah,  and  Laadah  the  father  of  Mereshah,  and  the  families 
of  the  house  of  them  that  wrought  fine  Linen,  of  the  house  of 
Ashbea."  The  Hebrew  literally  is  "  the  families  (or  perhaps 
the  partnerships)  of  the  manufactory  of  Byssus/'  Among  the 
other  workmen  got  by  Solomon  from  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre,  to 
assist  in  the  erection  of  the  Temple,  was  Hiram,  the  son  of  a 
widow  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  or  Naphtali,  whose  father  was  a  man 
of  Tyre,  (or  according  to  Josephus,  his  father  was  Ur,  of  the 
stock  of  the  Israelites),  skilful  to  work  in  gold,  in  purple,  in 
blue,  in  fine  Linen,  and  in  crimson.  He  made  the  veil  of 
the  temple  of  blue,  and  purple,  and  crimson,  and  fine  Linen, 
and  wrought  Cherubim  thereon.  Josephus  says  Solomon  "had 


1UULK    UNEX.  133 

veils  of  blue,  and  purple,  ami  sc.-u-lrt,  ami  tin-  brightest  and 
«•!'  I. i neii,  with  the  most  curious  of  flowers  wrought  upon 
,"  which  were  drawn  before  the  doors  of  the  most  holy 
place  in  the  temple.  He  also  hod  Linen  curtains  drawn  over 
the  doors  of  the  holy  place,  in  the  same  manner  as  they  were 
drawn  over  the  doors  of  the  most  holy  place. 

It  is  recorded  in  Psalms  that  the  clothing  of  the  King's 
•  la u -hi IT  is  of  wrought  gold,  and  that  she  shall  be  brought 
unto  tin  King  in  raiment  of  needle  work.  This  is  supposed  to 
rriiT  to  Pharaoh's  daughter,  and  if  so,  her  costly  dress  was 
doubtless  of  Egyptian  manufacture,  and  composed  of  fine  Lim-n 
of  an  extraordinary  light  and  gauzy  texture,  and  beautifully 
cmbmiiK  n  -1. 

In  Proverbs  the  attire  of  an  harlot  is  mentioned.  In  some 
nations  these  lewd  women,  these  courtezans,  were  obliged  to 
wear  a  dress  different  from  other  women.  In  Israel  it  is  not  cer- 
tain what  sort  of  habit  this  was  ;  but  as  the  Athenian  Lawgiver 
who  took  many  of  his  customs  from  the  Jews,  and  very  likely 
this  among  the  rest,  ordered  that  women  of  innocent  conversa- 
tion should  never  appear  abroad  except  in  grave  and  modest 
apparel,  and  that  the  rest  should  wear  flowered  garments,  it  is 
probable  that  in  Israel  they  had  to  appear  in  a  somewhat  simi- 
lar attire.  This  dress  was  very  probably  of  the  Linen  of  Egypt, 
coloured  or  embroidered  in  some  distinctive  way.  The  harlot  is 
also  said  to  have  decked  her  bed  with  coverings  of  tapestry,  with 
carved  works,  with  fine  Linen  of  Egypt.  Perhaps  this  would 
be  better  expressed  by  saying,  I  have  covered  my  couch  with 
variegated  coverings  of  Egyptian  tapestry,  as  that  would  be  more 
in  accordance  with  the  more  probable  interpretation  of  the  text. 
The  word  used  in  the  Septuagint  would  suggest  that  it  was 
the  same  on  both  sides,  and  it  may  be  supposed  to  apply  to  some 
rich  figured  stuff  employed  for  coverings  to  divans  or  sofas 
(which  must  be  understood  in  such  passages  instead  of  beds),  and 
perhaps  also  to  cover  such  thin  mattresses  or  quilts,  as  now 
serve  in  Western  Asia  for  coverlets  or  counterpanes.  This 
forms  in  fact  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  domestic  luxury  in  the 
East,  for  as  the  best  rooms  have  no  other  furniture  than  sofas 
and  cushions,  miy  "lie  desires  that  the  stuffs  with  which  they 
are  covered  should  furnish  evidence  of  his  taste  and  wealth.  It 


134  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

may  also  extend  to  the  curtains  with  which  the  doors  were 
hung  during  warm  weather ;  and  in  general  it  may  be  said,  that, 
studious  as  Orientals  are  of  richness  in  their  personal  attire, 
they  are  perhaps  still  more  anxious  about  the  draperies  of  their 
principal  apartments.  It  would  appear  to  have  been  the  same 
in  ancient  times. 

The  Medes  and  Babylonians  were  celebrated  for  their  em- 
broidered stuffs,  and  cloth  of  a  like  description.  Their  noted 
tapestries,  &c.,  were  figured  by  the  needle,  and  were  very 
famous  in  these  and  other  countries.  The  Egyptians  rivalled 
the  Babylonians  in  this  class  of  fabrics,  and  if  the  variegated 
coverings  mentioned  in  the  text  above  referred  to  had  been  Baby- 
lonian, it  might  have  been  concluded  that  they  were  wrought 
by  the  needle.  They,  are,  however,  said  to  be  Egyptian, 
and  as  the  Egyptians  not  only  excelled  in  needlework,  but  also 
produced  variegated  patterns  in  the  loom,  as  well  as  by  the  subse- 
quent application  of  colours  to  stuffs  that  were  woven  plain,  it  is 
doubtful  to  which  of  these  the  passage  refers,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  refers  to  Linen  of  one  or  other  of  these  descriptions. 

In  Proverbs  a  very  different  class  of  women  is  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Linen  than  those  referred  to  in  the  foregoing 
passage.  The  one  is  the  harlot,  the  most  debased  of  woman- 
kind ;  the  other  is  the  virtuous  woman,  "  one  among  a  thousand" 
— "She  seeketh  wool  and  Flax,  and  worketh  willingly  with 
her  hands.  She  layeth  her  hands  to  the  spindle,  and  her 
hands  hold  the  distaff.  All  her  household  are  clothed  with 
scarlet.  She  maketh  herself  covering  of  tapestry,  her  cloth- 
ing is  silk  and  purple.  She  maketh  fine  Linen,  and  selleth 
it,  and  delivereth  girdles  unto  the  merchants."  These  pas- 
sages give  the  character  and  occupation  of  an  industrious 
housewife  among  the  Hebrews,  and  are  very  instructive  and  in- 
teresting. In  the  early  history  of  nations,  and  before  trade  had 
been  established  with  neighbouring  countries,  or  home  manu- 
factures become  objects  of  attention,  every  kind  of  drapery 
was  manufactured  at  home  by  the  women.  In  such  times  the 
women  took  a  pride  in  boasting  that  their  husbands  and  children 
were  solely  attired  by  the  labour  of  their  hands,  and  a  very 
proper  subject  of  congratulation  it  was. 

Among  the  pastoral  tribes  of  Asia,  and  among  the  peasantry 


U1BLE   LINEN.  135 

in  various  parts  of  the  world  who  can  themselves  raise  the 
materials  of  manufacture,  or  who  cannot  purchase  so  000 
ven  ient  ly  or  so  cheaply  as  they  can  produce,  this  practice  is  still 
<  "iitinued.  Among  such  classes,  ladies  ofhijn  rank,  then  as  now, 
took  the  sole  management  of  the  various  branches  of  domestic  eco- 
nomy, and  assisted  their  maidens  in  the  production  of  embroidery 
ni i.l  other  fine  work.  Homer  represents  some  of  the  most  di.-t  in 
gmshed  ladies  as  so  employed.  Penelope  pliei I  1 1 1«  •  - j  •  i  1 1 - 1  lo  and 
loom,  and  tasked  her  maidens.  The  royal  mother  of  Nausicaa 
in  the  dawn  of  morning,  worked  beside  tin-  hearth,  spinning 
soft  fleeces  dyed  with  the  sea  purple.  Even  the  glorious  11  elm 
wove  a  gorgeous  web  representing  tlie  battles  which  nations 
waged  for  her  sake. 

The  proximity  of  time  of  these  examples  of  royal  industry, 
and  its  distance  from  the  present,  render  such  il lustrations  all 
the  more  interesting.  In  tliis  country,  during  the  middle  ages, 
if  not  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  such  usages  were  com- 
mon. It  is  much  the  same  still  in  Normandy,  and  also  in 
oriental  countries. 

The  virtuous  woman  "  maketh  fine  Linen  and  selleth  it." 
This  passage  most  probably  means  that  she  made  under  gar- 
ments or  shirts,  girdles,  and  other  articles  of  Linen,  primarily 
for  the  use  of  the  family ;  and  that,  when  more  were  pro- 
duced than  supplied  the  wants  of  the  household,  she  sold  the 
surplus  to  the  merchant  or  shopkeeper  who  dealt  in,'  such 
products  of  female  labour.  By  this  means,  bachelors,  and 
families  who  had  no  manufactures  in  their  houses,  or  not  suffi- 
eient  for  their  wants,  were  supplied  from  the  superabundant 
of  those  who  produced  more  than  they  required.  This  kept  the 
domestic  establishment  of  such  ladies  fully  and  profitably  em- 
ployed, and  was  at  the  same  time  a  great  advantage  to  those 
who  had  no  such  establishments  of  their  own  to  supply  these 
ssaries.  At  a  time  when  such  articles  were  not,  as  now,  to 
be  purchased  any  day  by  those  who  have  the  means  to  pay  for 
them,  the  products  of  the  industry  of  the  virtuous  Hebrew 
women  must  have  been  a  great  boon  to  thoso  who  required 
them,  while  they  were  at  the  same  time  a  high  commendation 
of.  and  pr..  lit  able  to,  those  who  produced  them. 

It  is  recorded  in  KM  her.  that  King  Ahasucrus  made  afeast  in 


136  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

Shushan,  the  palace,  in  the  garden  of  the  king's  palace.  The 
hangings  of  the  pavillion  were  of  various  colours,  fastened  with 
cords  of  Linen  and  purple  to  silver  rings  and  pillars  of  marble. 
Also,  that  Mordecai,  after  his  advancement,  "  went  out  from  the 
presence  of  the  king  in  royal  apparel  of  blue  (or  violet)  and 
white,  with  a  great  crown  of  gold,  and  with  a  garment  of  fine 
Linen  and  purple."  This  shows  the  use  of  Linen  in  Babylonia 
at  this  period,  and  the  perfection  which  had  then  been  attained 
in  its  manufacture  ;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  Linen  had 
been  made  in  the  country  or  imported  from  Egypt  by  the  luxu- 
rious Ahasuerus,  although  it  appears  most  probable  that  it  was 
made  in  Babylonia. 

In  the  days  of  Isaiah,  the  daughters  of  Zion  were  haughty, 
wanton,  and  filled  with  pride,  and  to  punish  them  the  Lord 
threatened  to  destroy  their  beauty,  and  take  away  their  gaudy 
attire.  Some  of  the  articles  of  dress  and  ornament  worn  by 
them  are  very  curious  and  instructive,  as  showing  the  luxury  of 
the  Lord's  chosen  people  in  that  early  age.  Several  of  the 
articles  of  clothing  then  worn  by  the  women  of  Jerusalem  were 
composed  of  Linen,  and  prove  the  extensive  use  of  this  fabric 
among  the  Israelites.  The  mufflers  (or  spangled  ornaments)  were 
no  doubt  a  description  of  veil,  and  these,  as  already  mentioned, 
were  made  of  Linen,  the  Eastern  women  not  wearing  trans- 
parent veils  as  is  done  in  this  country.  Veils  are  almost  univer- 
sally worn  by  women  in  the  East,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  it 
does  not  appear  from  Egyptian  paintings  that  they  were  then 
used  by  the  females  of  Egypt,  although  they  were  in  general 
use  in  many  Eastern  countries  at  that  early  period.  The 
bonnets  or  turbans  were  sometimes  composed  of  Linen  wound 
round  the  head,  and  sometimes  of  rich  handkerchiefs  or  shawls. 
Changeable  suits  of  apparel  denote  beautiful  or  costly  garments, 
of  the  richest  stuff  that  could  then  be  procured.  Mantles  and 
wimples  were  formed  of  various  sorts  of  material,  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  weaver.  Fine  Linen  here  probably  denotes 
shirts  or  inner  garments.  Hoods  are  supposed  to  have  been 
handkerchiefs  or  pieces  of  Linen  cloth  ,which,  after  covering  the 
head,  fell  down  behind  the  back,  and  were  brought  round  in 
front  to  cover  the  bosom  and  lower  part  of  the  face,  and  thus 
also  supply  the  place  of  a  veil.  The  veil  mentioned  is  probably 


BIBLE   LIN  I  137 

llu  head  veil  worn  within  doors.  It  forms  one  of  the  most 
graceful  articles  of  female  attire  in  the  East  at  the  present  day. 
The  stomacher  was  a  piece  of  wide  Linen  put  loosely  round  the 
waist,  with  the  corners  hanging  down  either  behind  or  in  front. 
The  dress  and  ornaments  described  by  the  prophet  were  very 
attractive  and  costly,  and  the  changing  of  them  for  a  girding 
of  sackcloth  must  have  been  a  sore  trial  to  tla  Uuutitul  daugh- 
ters of  Zion. 

The  ordinary  clothing  of  the  Hebrews  was  a  coat  or  waiscoat 
and  a  cloak.  The  coat  was  of  Linen,  and  the  cloak  of  stuff  or 
woollen  cloth,  and  the  Hebrews  never  changed  the  fashion 
of  these  garments.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  same 
description  of  dress  whicli  was  worn  by  them  when  they 
first  entered  into  the  promised  land  was  continued  until  the 
time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

The  brant  it'i.l  passage,  in  which  the  prophet,  referring  to  the 
Living  Saviour,  says,  "  A  bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break,  and 
the  smoking  (or  dimly  burning)  Flax  shall  he  not  quench," 
displays  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  fibre  in  a 
state  of  ignition.  The  ends  of  the  bundles,  if  exposed  to  the 
air,  will  rise  into  flame,  but  farther  in  the  fire  will  continue  to 
burn  dimly  or  smoulder  until  the  whole  be  consumed.  In  this 
way  fire  may  be  lodged  for  days  among  Flax,  and  it  is  only 
wlu-n  fanned  by  the  wind  that  it  will  burst  into  flame.  The 
Hebrews  used  Flax  for  wicks  to  their  lamps,  which  makes  the 
allusion  to  the  smoking  Flax  all  the  more  appropriate  and 
beautiful. 

In  the  prophet's  burden  of  Egypt,  among  the  misfortunes  and 
desolations  that  were  to  befal  that  people,  it  is  recorded  thus : — 
"  Moreover  they  that  \\nikiu  fine  Flax,  and  they  that  weave 
net  works  (or  white  works),  shall  be  confounded/'  This  shows 
that  the  manufacture  of  Linen  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant carried  on  in  Egypt,  as  it  is  specially  singled  out  as  a 
vulnerable  point,  which,  if  confounded,  would  bring  great  woe 
upon  the  people  and  the  country. 

Jeremiah,  in  describing  the  custom  of  clothing  the  idol 
statues  in  rich  dresses,  says,  "  blue  and  purple  is  their  clothing. 
The  vestments  and  decorations  of  the  statues  of  the  gods  in 
hrathen  temples  were  frequently  of  the  most  gorgeous  des- 


138  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

cription,  testifying  at  once  to  the  wealth  and  to  the  liberality 
of  their  votaries.  The  material  was  of  the  very  finest  texture, 
manufactured  in  the  most  skilful  manner,  and  embroidered  and 
ornamented  with  the  most  costly  articles,  the  whole  forming  robes 
of  the  greatest  delicacy  and  beauty.  This  was  the  common  prac- 
tice among  heathen  nations,  and  the  Jews  adopted  it  when  they 
lapsed  into  idolatry.  There  were  various  reasons  for  this,  such  as 
that  it  told  effectively  upon  the  minds  of  the  undiscerning 
multitude,  and  it  was  a  matter  of  some  importance  to  the 
priests,  as  they  derived  considerable  profit  from  the  robes 
and  ornaments  lavished  upon  the  idols.  Pausanias  mentions 
a  brazen  statue  of  Neptune  at  Elis,  which  was  about  the 
size  of  a  large  man,  and  was  clad  sometimes  in  woollen 
raiment,  and  at  others  in  Linen  and  Byssus.  In  the  Apocry- 
phal book  of  Baruch,  it  is  said,  the  priests  take  off  the  garments 
from  the  idols  to  clothe  their  wives  and  children. 

The  prophet  was  told  by  the  Lord  to  get  a  Linen  girdle  and 
put  it  upon  his  loins,  and  afterwards  to  hide  it  by  Euphrates 
that  it  might  be  marred,  implying  that  the  pride  of  Judah 
should  be  so  marred.  Girdles  were  and  still  are  of  importance 
in  the  East.  They  are  frequently  of  Linen,  but  often  of  other 
material,  and  the  size  and  richness  of  the  girdle  marks  the 
dignity  of  the  wearer. 

Ezekiel,  in  describing  the  goodness  of  God  to  his  ancient 
people,  says,  "  I  clothed  thee  also  with  broidered  work,  and  shod 
thee  with  badger's  skins,  and  girded  thee  a,bout  with  fine  Linen  ; 
I  covered  thee  with  silk."  "  And  thy  raiment  was  of  fine  Linen, 
and  silk,  and  broidered  work."  This  shows  that  embroidered 
dresses  and  clothing  of  fine  Linen  and  silk  were  tokens  of 
wealth  and  dignity,  and  as  such  held  in  high  favour,  and 
much  prized  in  those  days.  It  also  shows  that  Israel  forgot 
the  bountiful  giver  of  such  signal  marks  of  greatness. 

The  Assyrians,  the  lovers  on  whom  the  Israelites  doted,  were 
clothed  in  blue.  Blue  colour,  probably  sky  blue,  was  held  by 
the  Jews  and  other  Oriental  nations  in  high  esteem.  It  is 
often  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  it  formed  one  of  the  colours 
in  the  High  Priest's  robe,  in  the  hangings  of  the  tabernacle, 
&c.  Light  blue  is  still  a  favourite  colour  among  the  Persians, 
in  whose  dress  it  is  more  extensively  used  than  any  other.  The 


IlIBLB  LINEN.  139 

outer  gown  nu<l  tli.-  ilniwen  are  the  articles  most  frequently 
worn  of  this  colour,  and  among  all  classes  these  are  usually  ot 
Linen.  In  Arabia  the  dress  of  the  women  commonly  consists  of 
an  ample  sliilt  and  drawers  of  blue  Linen. 

In  the  lamentation  ior  Tyre  the  prophet  beautifully  and 
graphically  describes  the  iiK-nlmn'li.  •  in  which  the  merchant 
I  .rinces  of  that  world-renowned  city  traded.  Prominent  among 
these  were  "fine  Linen,  with  broidered  work  from  Egypt  was 
that  which  thou  spreadest  forth  to  be  thy  sail ;  blue  and 
purple  (or  purple  and  scarlet)  from  the  Isles  of  Elishah  was 
ilmt  which  covered  tlu. 

Fine  Linen  was  not  a  very  suitable  article  for  the  sails  of  a 
ship  in  any  other  than  holiday  navigation,  nor  would  it 
be  very  eligible  even  then.  It  is  possible  that  the  passage  may 
refer  to  flags  or  ensigns  rather  than  to  sails,  as  these  generally 
have  some  painting  or  device  upon  them.  The  description 
may,  however,  refer  to  the  splendid  pleasure-galleys  of  the  mer- 
chant princes  of  Tyre,  which,  from  the  vast  wealth  of  the  owners, 
would  be  gorgeously  fitted  up,  and  for  them  such  sails  may  have 
been  adapted.  In  Egypt,  while  the  ordinary  sails  were  white, 
those  belonging  to  the  pleasure  vessels  of  the  king  and  the  nobles 
were  often  painted  with  rich  colours,  or  embroidered  with 
fanciful  devices.  Some  of  them  were  striped,  others  cheque  n  -.1. 
Sails  of  this  sort  were  also  furnished  with  a  strong  hem  or  border, 
neatly  coloured,  to  preserve  them  from  injury,  and  a  light  rope 
was  generally  sewed  round  them  for  the  same  purpose. 

Javan  is  the  general  title  for  the  Greek  nation,  and  Elisha 
was  one  of  the  sons  of  Javan.  The  Isles  of  Elishah  may, 
therefore,  be  taken  for  a  part  of  Greece,  such  as  Elis,  Hellas, 
or  Peloponnesus.  The  Tyrians  were  the  most  famous  dyers 
of  purple,  but  next  to  the  Tyrian  was  the  purple  of  Laco- 
nia,  and  the  purple  cloth  of  that  province  was  used  because 
it  was  cheaper  than  that  of  Tyre,  which  was  reserved  for  the 
use  of  kin<;s.  It  was  employed  for  awnings  to  the  galleys, 
which  were  sometimes  magnificent.  The  galley  in  which 
Cleopatra  sailed  down  the  river  to  meet  Antony,  had  an  awn- 
ing of  cloth  of  gold,  and  the  description  which  historians  and 
poets  give  of  this  vessel  is  explanatory  of  the  prophet's  descrip- 
ti<>n  of  the  splendour  and  magnificence  of  the  Tyrian  vessels. 


140  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

To  this  galley  Shakspeare  alludes  in  the  following  beautiful 


The  barge  she  sat  in,  like  a  burnished  throne 
Burnt  on  the  water ;  the  poop  was  beaten  gold, 
Purple  the  sails,  and  so  perfumed  that 
The  winds  were  love-sick  with  'em. 

Syria  or  Aram,  in  Scripture  sometimes  means  Mesopotamia, 
and  sometimes  Damascus  and  the  country  about  Libanus,  &c. 
The  merchants  of  that  country  attended  the  fairs  or  markets  of 
Tyre  with  the  produce  of  Persia  and  other  lands,  taking  in 
return  purple  and  broidered  work,  and  fine  Linen,  and  other 
productions  of  Tyre,  or  those  supplied  by  her  commerce. 

In  Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  temple,  he  mentions  that  the  man 
had  a  line  of  Flax  in  his  hand ;  the  word  line  being  derived 
from  linea,  Flax.  He  also  records  that  when  the  priests  the 
Levites  "  enter  in  at  the  gates  of  the  inner  court,  they  shall  be 
clothed  with  Linen  garments  ;  and  no  wool  shall  come  upon 
them  whiles  they  minister  in  the  gates  of  the  inner  court,  and 
within.  They  shall  have  Linen  bonnets  upon  their  heads,  and 
shall  have  Linen  breeches  upon  their  loins ;  they  shall  not  gird 
themselves  with  anything  that  causeth  sweat."  They  were  re- 
quired when  they  went  forth  into  the  outer  court  to  put  off 
the  garments  wherein  they  minstered,  and  put  them  in  the  holy 
chambers,  and  to  put  on  other  garments.  It  thus  appears  that 
the  wearing  of  Linen  by  the  priests  during  their  holy  ministra- 
tions was,  and  was  to  be,  a  standing  ordinance  among  the 
Israelites  while  their  ceremonial  ritual  lasted. 

Daniel  records  in  his  last  vision  that  the  man  who  was  upon 
the  waters  of  the  great  river  Hiddekel,  and  told  how  long  it 
should  be  to  the  end  of  the  wonders  which  had  been  revealed 
to  Daniel,  was  "  clothed  in  Linen,  his  loins  being  girded  with 
fine  gold  of  Uphaz,  his  body  like  the  beryl,  and  his  face  as  the 
appearance  of  lightning/'  &c.  Again  and  again  the  Linen  cloth- 
ing of  this  glorious  one  is  mentioned,  thus  implying  that  Linen  is 
an  emblem  of  purity,  and  therefore  it  is  represented  as  .being 
employed  as  the  clothing  of  the  angels,  yea,  even  of  the  King 
of  Glory.  The  Jews  believed  that  good  angels  always  wore, 
or  at  least  always  appeared  in  white  raiment  of  Linen. 

Two  passages  in  Hosea  clearly  indicate  that  wool  and  Flax 


BIBLE  LINEN.  141 

were  the  materials  of  which  the  < -Inthing  of  the  Israelites  was 
composed,  and  that  these  were  articles  of  primary  necessity  with 
that  prupk-.  The  syinholical  wife  o<  the  prophet  said  "  I  wfll 
go  after  my  lovers  who  gave  me  my  bread  and  my  water,  my 
wool  ami  my  Flax,  mini'  oil  and  my  drink."  Not  finding  her 
lovers,  she  resolved  to  return  to  her  first  husband,  "  For  then 
was  it  better  with  me  than  now/'  forgetting  that  it  is  the  Lord 
who  supplies  the  wants  of  His  people.  For  her  sin  the  Lord 
declared  that  he  would  "  take  away  my  corn  and  my  wine  in 
the  season  thereof,  and  will  recover  (or  take  away)  my  wool  and 
my  Flax  given  to  cover  my  nakedness."  He,  for  her  sins,  says 
he  will  now  "  discover  her  lewdness  in  the  sight  of  her  lovers, 
and  none  shall  deliver  her  out  of  mine  hand." 

There  has  been  no  little  controversy  about  the  nature  of  the 
material  translated  Linen  in  the  Bible,  as  four  different 
ll.lirew  words  have  been  rendered  Linen  in  our  translation. 
Pislita,  which  is  sometimes  rendered  Flax  and  at  other  times 
Linen;  Bad,  which  signifies  Linen;  Butz,  Byssus;  Shash,  Cotton. 
When  Pishta  or  Bad  is  used  there  is  no  doubt  that  Linen 
is  implied.  The  one  may  mean  the  Flax  plant,  and  the  other 
the  cloth  made  of  it,  and  both  may  have  been  used,  as  Flax 
and  Linen  often  are  in  this  country,  to  mean  Linen.  The 
Hebrew  word  Shash  is  translated  "  Byssus"  in  the  Septuagint 
version,  and  in  our  own  "  fine  Linen,"  and  Shash  is  the  name 
applied  at  this  day  by  the  Arabs  to  fine  muslin,  which  is  of 
Cotton,  and  not  of  Linen. 

The  word  "Butz"  does  not  appear  in  the  text  of  Moses, 
although  the  Greeks  and  Latins  use  the  word  Byssus.  which  came 
from  Butz,  to  signify  the  fine  Linen  of  certain  habits  belonging 
to  the  priests.  "  Butz "  occurs  only  iu  three  or  four  passages 
in  the  Bible.  In  Chronicles,  David  is  described  as  dressed 
in  a  mantle  of  Butz,  with  the  singers  and  Levites,  and  also 
with  having  on  at  the  same  time  a  Linen  ephod.  Solo- 
mon used  Butz  in  the  veils  of  the  temple  and  sanctuary; 
Ahasuerus'  tents  were  upheld  by  cords  of  Butz,  and  Mor- 
decai  was  clothed  with  a  mantle  of  purple  and  Butz  when 
King  Ahasuerus  honoured  him  with  the  first  employment  in  his 
kingdom.  The  word  is  generally  understood  to  mean  the  fine 
Egyptian  Linen  of  which  priests'  tunics  were  made.  In  the 


142  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

present  day  part  of  the  clothing  of  the  dignitaries  of  the  English 
Church  is  of  Lawn,  which  is  a  species  of  very  fine  Linen, 
although  not  known  by  the  name  of  Linen,  and  in  like 
manner  Byssus  may  have  been  some  very  fine  description 
of  Linen  known  under  that  title.  There  was  a  manufac- 
ture of  Butz  in  the  city  of  Beersheba  in  Palestine.  The 
mummy  cloths  said  by  Herodotus  to  be  "  of  Byssine  sindon,"  are 
now  known  to  be  invariably  of  Linen,  therefore  the  Byssus  can- 
not be  Cotton.  Probably  he  meant  no  more  by  this  expression 
than  fine  cloth,  without  reference  to  the  material  of  which 
it  was  made.  This  subject  is  more  fully  adverted  to  in  describ- 
ing Egyptian  Linen,  and  need  not  be  farther  continued  here. 

Frequent  mention  of  Linen  is  made  in  the  New  Testament, 
both  with  reference  to  terrestrial  and  to  celestial  objects.     St 
Mark  mentions  that  a  young  man  followed  Jesus,  "  having  a 
Linen   cloth  cast  about  his  naked  body,  and  the  young  men 
laid  hold  of  him,  and  he  left  the  Linen  cloth,  and  fled  from 
them  naked."      The   Linen   cloth  it  is  very  likely,  was  his 
ordinary  dress,  or  it  may  have   been  hastily  thrown  around 
him  when  he  heard  the  tumult  created  by  Jesus  passing  by, 
and  went  out  to  see  the  cause.     In  the  original,  the  word  is 
the  same  as  that  which  describes  the  "  Linen  cloth"  in  which 
the  body  of  Jesus  was  wrapped  and  hastily  laid  in  the  sepulchre 
of  Joseph  of  Arimathea.     The  cloth  in  which  the  body  of  Jesus 
was  wrapped  before  being  laid  in  the  grave  is  described  as  a 
clean  Linen  cloth.     Very  probably  it  had  been  so  much  taken 
off  a  piece  of  new  white  Linen  as  was  required  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  there  was  no  time  to  prepare  a  shroud  specially  for  the 
Lord's  body.     Indeed  it  is  said  by  St  Mark  that  Joseph  "bought 
fine  Linen,  and  took  him  down,  and  wrapped  him  in  the  Linen, 
and  laid  him  in  a  sepulchre/'     The  Linen  was  thus  new,  and 
bought  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  wrapping  the  body  of  Jesus 
in ;  and  as  "  Linen  clothes"  are  mentioned  by  St  John,  the  piece 
had  evidently  been  cut  into  portions,  the  better  to  wrap  up  the 
body  in  it. 

It  was  the  custom  then  in  Judea,  as  it  still  is  in  Western 
Asia,  to  wrap  the  dead  body  tightly  round  with  many  folds  of 
Linen  cloth,  generally  from  a  piece,  and  then  to  sew  up  and 
fasten  the  ends  to  keep  the  whole  compact.  The  face  was 


niBLE   LINK 

covered  with  a  Linen  napkin,  ami  it  was  th.  practice  to  use 
llu-in  of  the  sain,  kiml  and  value,  whether  lor  rich  or  poor. 
The  body  was  buried  on  the  day  of  the  death,  or  on  the  day 
f"l lowing  it,  no  coffin  being  used  to  enclose  it.  The  grave 
i  let  lies  and  napkin  with  which  Lazarus  was  bound  were  no  doubt 
of  Linen,  and  the  description  of  Jesus  raising  him  from  the 
dead  is  explanatory  of  this  custom.  The  rich  man  is  described 
as  clothed  in  purple  and  fine  Linen,  implying  that  Linen 
clothing  was  in  common  use  among  the  wealthy  Jews  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour.  It  was  also  used  for  other  purposes,  as  it  is 
mentioned  that  Jesus  "took  a  towel  and  girded  himself,"  that  is, 
with  the  towel.  It  was  customary  for  a  servant  to  wash  his 
master  or  his  master's  guests,  and  when  he  did  so  he  girded 
himself  with  a  long  piece  of  Linen  cloth,  the  ends  of  which 
being  left  hanging  loose  supplied  the  towel  with  which  the 
hands  and  feet  were  wiped  after  being  washed. 

In  the  Revelation  of  St  John,  it  is  said  that  the  seven  angels 
who  came  out  of  the  temple  having  the  seven  last  plagues  were 
"clothed  in  pure  and  white  Linen/'  The  merchandize  of  mystical 
Babylon  were  "  fine  Linen,  and  purple,  and  silk,  and  scarlet,"  &c. 
The  merchants  who  traded  in  these  things  shall  stand  afar  off 
viewing  the  destruction  of  Babylon,  and  shall  say,  "  alas,  alas  ! 
that  great  city  that  was  clothed  in  fine  Linen,  and  purple 
and  scarlet,  and  decked  with  gold,"  &c., "  for  in  one  hour  so  great 
riches  is  come  to  nought/' 

Linen  was  used  by  man  for  purposes  of  clothing  at  an  early 
period  in  his  history.  Where  cleanliness  and  purity  were  re- 
quired it  was  ever  the  chosen  fabric.  It  has  continued  in  use 
till  now,  and  while  time  lasts  it  will  continue  to  be  a  favourite 
dress  with  many  people.  Nor  will  its  use  cease  when  time  has 
passed,  as  the  last  mention  of  Linen  in  the  Bible  is  in  reference 
to  the  glorious  hereafter — to  the  heavenly  Jerusalem. 

In  the  triumphant  song  in  heaven  the  redeemed  shall  rejoice 
because  "  the  marriage  of  the  Lamb  is  come,  and  His  wife  hath 
made  herself  ready,  and  to  her  it  was  granted  that  she  should 
be  arrayed  in  fine  Linen,  clean  and  white  (or  bright),  for  the 
fine  Linen  is  the  righteousness  of  saints  "  In  heaven  the  Lamb's 
wife  would  be  arrayed  in  the  most  beautiful  of  dresses.  She  seems 
to  have  asked  for  one  pre-eminently  pure,  and  it  was  granted 


144  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

that  she  should  get  the  one  she  most  prized.  The  most  glorious 
vesture  in  which  she  could  be  arrayed  by  the  Lamb  was  fine 
Linen,  so  clean  and  white  as  to  be  a  fit  emblem  of  the  righteous- 
ness of  saints.  Earthly  Linen  is  made  from  Flax  which  springs 
from  the  earth,  and  when  finely  bleached  is  very  white  and  clear, 
but  the  celestial  fabric,  the  fine  Linen  of  the  heavenly  kingdom, 
is  washed  in  the  blood  of  Jesus,  and  therefore  infinitely  bright 
and  pure.  It  is  the  true  holy  garment  of  saints. 

He  whose  name  is  called  the  Word  of  God,  who  was  clothed 
with  a  vesture  dipped  in  blood,  and  sat  upon  the  white  horse, 
went  forth,  and  was  followed  by  the  armies  who  were  in  heaven 
upon  white  horses,  clothed  in  fine  Linen,  clean  and  white.  The 
Lamb,  His  wife,  and  His  army,  the  soldiers  of  the  cross  who 
have  fought  the  good  fight  of  faith  and  won  the  prize,  are  all 
clothed  in  fine  Linen,  clean  and  white,  and  all  supremely  pure. 

In  all  ages  Linen  has  been  considered  by  man  as  an  emblem 
of  spotless  purity,  and  well  it  may  be  so,  for  what  on  earth  is 
cleaner,  what  can  be  purer,  than  fine  Linen  clean  and  white  ? 
It  was  the  purest  material  in  which  it  was  possible  to  clothe 
the  priesthood  when  performing  their  sacred  duties,  and  it  was 
used  for  this  purpose  in  the  idolatrous  ritual  of  Egypt,  of  Greece, 
and  of  Rome,  as  well  as  by  the  Aaronic  priesthood  who 
ministered  at  the  altar  of  the  God  of  Israel.  In  heaven,  for 
want  of  a  brighter  and  cleaner  object  familiar  to  man,  the 
righteousness  of  saints  is  said  to  be  fine  Linen,  and  there,  be- 
cause no  finer  or  purer  covering  is  known  to  man,  it  is  said  to 
be  the  clothing  of  the  followers  of  the  Lamb.  Fine  Linen,  clean 
and  white,  is  thus  a  token  of  purity  on  earth  and  an  emblem  of 
glory  in  heaven. 

In  the  present  day  there  is  little  Flax  grown  in  Palestine,  and 
Linen  is  not  now  an  article  of  much  consumption  by  the  in- 
habitants of  that  country.  It  appears  to  have  been  to  a  great 
extent  supplanted  by  cotton,  but  why  this  should  be  the  case  it 
is  difficult  to  say.  The  habits  and  tastes  of  nations  frequently 
change,  and  articles  which  have  been  long  in  use,  from  various 
causes  become  obsolete.  Palestine  has  been  repeatedly  overrun 
by  new  and  stranger  races,  who  would,  no  doubt,  import  their 
own  customs  in  dress  as  in  other  things,  and  in  this  way  the 
wearng  of  Linen  may  have  fallen  out  of  use. 


TIAN  LIN  145 


CHAPTER  II. 
EGYPTIAN  LINEN. 

EGYPT  was  early  peopled  by  a  civilized  race.  Menes  or  Mis- 
raim,  the  son  of  Ham,  the  first  king,  founded  the  kingdom  in 
th«  year  of  the  world  1816,  or,  according  to  the  commonly  re- 
ceived chronology,  2188  years  before  Christ.  Egypt  has  ever 
been  considered  by  the  ancients  as  the  cradle  of  the  sciences,  and 
tin-  nursery  of  the  arts.  The  wonderful  monuments  of  anti- 
quity in  which  it  abounds  are  unequalled  in  any  land,  and  far 
surpass  the  greatest  works  of  modern  times.  Its  pyramids,  its 
palaces,  its  temples,  and  its  tombs,  are  the  astonishment  and 
admiration  of  mankind.  Its  fertility,  caused  by  the  annual 
u  \vrllow  of  the  mysterious  Nile,  was  as  famous  as  its  noble 
works  of  art,  and  the  teeming  soil  enabled  an  almost  incredible 
multitude  of  inhabitants  to  reside  within  its  circumscribed  limits. 

The  population  of  Egypt,  although  all  descended  from  Ham, 
their  common  father,  was  divided  into  various  distinct  classes — 
the  king,  the  priest,  the  scholar,  the  warrior,  the  husbandman, 
the  shepherd,  and  the  artificer,  had  each  their  several  duties  and 
privileges.  Their  common  origin  stamped  a  kind  of  nobility  on 
y  person  descended  from  the  common  stock,  and  each  class 
was  respected  by  all  the  others.  None  were  allowed  to  change 
iluir  profession,  so  that  each,  by  practice,  became  expert  in  their 
own  calling,  and,  profiting  by  the  experience  of  their  ancestors, 
attained  the  highest  perfection  in  arts  and  sciences. 

Egypt  holds  the  first  rank  in  the  production  of  Linen,  both 
from  the  antiquity  and  extent  of  the  trade,  and  naturally  takes 
tli*  first  place,  after  Bible  Linen,  in  an  account  of  this  ancient 
manufacture.  The  Egyptians  early  excelled  in  the  art,  and  they 
were  justly  celebrated  for  the  superiority  of  their  Linens  more 
than  four  thousand  years  ago.  The  Flax  plant,  matured  by  the 
fertilizing  slime  annually  spread  over  the  country  by  the  Nile. 


146  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

grew  there  in  perfection.  Pliny  mentions  three  sorts  of  Flax 
which  were  grown  in  Egypt.  He  gives  the  first  place  to  Abes- 
ton  or  Abestinem,  fi.e.J  incombustible  Flax ;  the  second  to 
Byssus,  which  was  of  very  fine  and  small  fibre ;  and  the  third  to 
the  common  Flax.  He  says  that  Byssus  was  extremely  fine  and 
dear,  and  none  but  rich  and  wealthy  persons  could  afford  to  wear 
it,  and  also  that  it  often  received  a  purple  dye,  and  served  as  an 
ornament  to  the  ladies. 

The  various  processes  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the 
plant  in  Egypt  are  admirably  depicted  on  the  enduring  walls  of 
their  ancient  palaces,  temples,  and  tombs,  by  the  skilful  hand  of 
the  artist.  Drawings  of  the  various  implements  employed ;  of  the 
people  in  the  act  of  sowing  the  seed ;  pulling  the  plant ;  carrying 
water  to  fill  wooden  vats,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of  steeping 
the  Flax  ;  putting  it  through  the  several  processes  requisite  to 
produce  the  fibre  ;  spinning  it  into  yarn  ;  and  weaving  the  yarn 
into  cloth,  are  all  distinctly  pourtrayed  The  several  operations 
are  delineated  with  a  minuteness  of  detail  and  a  beauty  of  colour- 
ing truly  astonishing.  Thanks  to  the  dry  pure  air  of  that  cele- 
brated country,  many  of  the  sketches  look  as  bright  and  fresh  as 
if  they  had  only  yesterday  got  the  last  finishing  touches  from 
the  artist,  instead  of  having  been  painted  from  2000  to  3000, 
and,  in  some  instances,  even  4000  years  ago. 

In  Egypt,  Flax  is  sown  at  the  present  time  about  the  middle  of 
November,  in  the  plains  which  have  been  inundated  bythe  Nile, 
and  it  is  pulled  in  about  110  days.  It  is  generally  in  the  boll 
in  February,  and  pulled  in  March.  There  is  little  change  in  the 
climate  of  that  country  since  the  earliest  records,  and  it  is  there- 
fore probable  that  seed  time  and  harvest  is  the  same  now  as  it 
was  in  the  days  of  the  first  of  the  Pharaohs.  The  cultivation 
of  the  plant,  the  pulling  and  steeping,  were  all  carried  on  very 
much  as  at  present,  and  not  very  different  from  the  mode  prac- 
tised in  this  country.  The  scutching  process  appears  to  have 
been  done  by  beating  the  straw  with  a  mallet  to  break  it  and 
loosen  the  fibre,  and  then  by  driving  off  the  shive  with  a  knife, 
comb,  or  other  instrument.  After  being  scutched  it  was  combed 
or  heckled,  to  break  open  or  split  up  the  fibres  and  to  remove 
the  loose  fibres  or  tow,  after  which  it  was  ready  for  spinning.  This 
was  done  by  the  distaff  and  spindle,  nearly  in  the  same  way  as 


HAN   1.1  1  17 

I  in  this  country  n  dury  ago.     The  looms  for 

w.-avinu;  tin- yarn  int..  dntli  were  of  a  comparatively  rude  con- 
struction, and  not  well  adapt* -d  t'«»r  producing  a  uniformly  fine 
texture,  but  the  industry  and  skill  of  the  Egyptians  overcame  all 
diilienlties,  and  enabled  them  to  weave  even  the  finest  qualiti<-, 
both  of  plain  and  figured  fabrics,  on  their  simple  looms. 

Sir  J  (J.  Wilkinson,  in  his  popular  account  of  the  ancient 
ptians,  minutely  describes  many  of  the  processes  connected 
with  the  growth  and  n lamifacture  of  Flax,  and  gives  numerous 
drawings  of  several  of  the  operations,  copied  from  the  draui 
in  the  tombs  and  temples  of  that  famous  land.  At  Bern  Hassan, 
the  mode  of  cultivating  the  plant  in  the  square  beds,  still  met 
witli  throughout  Egypt,  the  process  of  beating  the  stalk  and 
making  them  into  ropes,  and  the  manufacture  of  a  piece  of 
cloth,  arc  di>t  iuctly  delineated.  It  is,  however,  possible,  that  the 
part  of  the  picture  in  which  men  are  represented  pouring  water 
from  earthen  pots,  may  refer  to  the  process  of  steeping  the  stalks 
of  the  plant  after  they  were  cut.  The  square  pieces  would  then 
indicate  the  different  pits  in  which  the  stalks  were  immersed, 
containing  some  less,  some  more,  water,  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  Flax  and  the  state  in  which  the  process  then  happened 
to  be.  This  is  rendered  the  more  probable  by  the  flight  of  steps 
for  ascending  to  the  top  of  the  raised  sides  of  the  pits,  which  would 
not  have  been  introduced  if  the  level  ground  were  intended. 

In  the  grottos  of  Eileithyias,  the  gathering  of  the  Flax  is  re- 
presented in  one  of  the  bas-reliefs,  and  Costaz  says  the  Flax  i> 
recognised  by  its  length,  which  does  not  rise  above  the  hips  of 
tlit-  workm,  n,  by  the  green  colour  of  the  stalk,  and  by  the  round 
\tllowcolourofthegrain.  Four  men  and  a  woman  are  em- 
ployed in  pulling  it,  another  man  binds  it  into  sheaves,  usiu^  hi* 
l'-it  foot  to  press  the  sheaf  tight,  and  another  carries  it  to  one 
\vho>e  business  is  to  get  out  the  seed.  This  man  stands  under 
a  tree  with  a  comb  the  stock  of  which  rests  on  the  ground, 
and  it  is  kept  steady  by  the  feet  of  the  workman.  He  takes  a 
handful  of  Flax  and  pulls  it  through  the  teeth  of  the  comb,  which 
detaches  the  bolls  without  injuring  the  stalk.  Rosselina  giu  s 
a  representation  from  a  tomb  at  Koum-el  Ahinar,  in  which  the 
men  are  pulling  the  Flax  with  the  hand,  after  which  it  is  tied  in 
luiud lea  and  carried  off  the  field  on  the  back  of  asses. 

K2 


148  ANCIENT  LINEN 

The  steeping  and  the  subsequent  process  of  beating  the  stalks 
with  mallets  shown  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs,  illustrates  the 
following  passage  of  Pliny  upon  the  same  subject : — "  The  stalks 
themselves  are  immersed  in  water,  warmed  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  and  are  kept  down  by  weights  placed  upon  them  ;  for 
nothing  is  lighter  than  Flax.  The  membrane  or  rind,  becoming 
loose,  is  a  sign  of  their  being  sufficiently  macerated.  They  are 
then  taken  out  and  repeatedly  turned  over  in  the  sun  until  per- 
fectly dried,  and  afterwards  beaten  by  mallets  on  stone  slabs. 
That  which  is  nearest  the  rind  is  called  tow,  inferior  to  the  inner 
fibres,  and  fit  only  for  the  wicks  of  lamps.  It  is  combed  out 
with  iron  hooks,  until  all  the  rind  is  removed.  The  inner  part 
is  of  a  whiter  and  finer  quality.  Men  are  not  ashamed  to  pre- 
pare it.  .  .  .  After  it  is  made  up  into  yarn  it  is  polished  by 
striking  it  frequently  on  a  hard  stone,  moistened  with  water. 
When  woven  into  cloth  it  is  again  beaten  with  clubs,  being 
always  improved  in  proportion  as  it  is  beaten." 

The  Egyptians  also  parted  and  cleansed  the  fibres  of  the  Flax 
with  a  sort  of  comb,  probably  answering  to  the  iron  hooks  men- 
tioned by  Pliny.  Two  of  these,  found  with  some  tow  at  Thebes, 
are  preserved  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  the  one  having  twenty- 
nine  and  the  other  forty-six  teeth.  This  comb  was  used  instead 
of  the  heckle  of  the  present  day,  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the 
tow  or  loose  fibres  of  the  Flax,  and  also  for  breaking  or  splitting 
up  the  fibre  to  adapt  it  for  being  spun  into  finer  sizes  of  yarn. 

The  Egyptian  yarn  seems  all  to  have  been  spun  with  the 
hand,  and  the  spindle  is  invariably  seen  in  the  pictures  repre- 
senting the  manufacture  of  the  cloth.  Spinning,  as  in  Scotland 
before  the  introduction  of  spinning  by  power,  was  chiefly  the  occu- 
pation of  women,  and  Wilkinson  mentions  that  "  wife  "  is  nearly 
related  to  "  woof,"  "  weaving,"  and  "  web."  Men  were  also 
employed  at  the  spindle  and  the  loom,  though  not,  as  Herodotus 
would  seem  to  imply,  to  the  exclusion  of  women,  who,  he  pre- 
tends, undertook  the  duties  of  men  in  other  countries  "  by  going 
to  the  market,  and  engaging  in  business,  while  the  men,  shut  up 
in  the  house,  worked  at  the  loom."  Men  to  this  day  are  em- 
ployed in  making  cloth  in  Egypt  as  well  as  in  Scotland  and 
other  countries,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  have  relinquished 
their  habits  for  those  of  the  women.  The  paintings  executed 


EGYPTIAN  1  1  ' 

by  tli.  K  vptians  themselves  NfmnA  b»th  men  and  women 
manufacturing  cloth. 

In  the  hicro-lyphics  above  the  representations  of  the  persons 
«  in  plov.-d  with  the  spindle,  the  word  8ahtt  which  in  Coptic  signifies 
to  "twist/'  constantly  occurs.  The  spindles  were  generally  small, 
being  about  fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  were  made  of  various 
sorts  of  material,  such  as  wood,  cane  split,  wicker  work,  &c.,  and 
of  a  variety  of  forms  or  shapes.  Several  spindles  found  at  Thebes 
are  now  in  the  museums  of  Knrope,  and  one  of  tin-in  had  some 
of  the  Linen  thread  with  it  when  found.  In  order  to  increase 
tin-  impetus  in  ttirnii  •  iivular  head  was  occasionally  of 

gypsum  or  compu  -ition.  Some  were  formed  of  light  plaited 
work,  made  of  rushes  or  palm  leaves,  stained  of  various  colours, 
and  furnished  with  a  loop  of  the  same  material,  for  securing  lh  <j 
twine  after  it  was  wouni  The  mode  of  spinning  very  much 
MMDibled  that  anciently  practised  in  Scotland,  which  will  be  more 
particularly  described  in  the  chapter  on  Flax-spirming. 

The  historian  Herodotus  mentions  that  other  nations  made 
cloth  by  pushing  the  woof  or  weft  upwards,  while  the  Egyptians 
on  the  contrary  push  it  down.  This  is  confirmed  by  most  of  the 
paintings  which  represent  the  process  of  manufacturing  cloth. 
At  Thebes,  however,  a  man,  who  is  engaged  in  making  a  piece 
of  cloth  with  a  coloured  border  or  selvage,  appears  to  push  the 
upwards,  the  cloth  being  fixed  above  him  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  frame.  The  Egyptian  loom  somewhat  resembles  the 
hand-loom  in  common  use  in  Scotland,  but  the  weft  was  put 
in  by  the  hand,  with  a  long  wooden  needle,  split  at  each 
t  nd  to  carry  the  weft,  and  not  thrown  through  by  a  shuttle,  as 
in  the  old  system  of  hand-loom  weaving  here.  Part  of  a  needle 
ronze  of  a  later  date  was  found  at  Berenice.  They  had  also  the 
1 1<  -rizontal  loom  which  occurs  in  the  paintings  at  1  \  1 1  i -1 1 assan  and 
other  places.  At  El  Bershek,  the  mode  of  taking  up  the  increasing 
length  of  the  cloth  by  pegs  in  the  ground,  as  still  practised  in 
Ki  hiopia,  is  shown.  There  is  also  shown  at  same  place  the  manner 
in  which  the  women  wound  off  threads  from  numerous  balls  pi 
within  a  slight  framework,  the  tineness  of  the  threads  being  indi- 
cated by  the  number  taken  to  form  one  twist.  From  the  represen- 
tations of  Egyptian  looms  which  occur  in  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  it 
might  be  supposed  that  they  would  have  been  totally  incapable 


150  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

of  producing  the  fine  Linen  so  much  admired  by  the  ancients. 
The  paintings  in  which  they  occur  were  executed  at  a  very 
early  period,  and  improvements  may  have  taken  place  in  their 
construction  in  after  times  It  was  not,  however,  necessary  that 
this  should  be  the  case,  as  it  is  well  known  that  oriental  nations, 
by  very  simple  appliances,  are  in  the  habit  of  executing  the 
most  delicate  and  intricate  fabrics  in  so  perfect  a  manner,  that 
Europeans  with  the  most  complicated  looms,  and  the  newest 
improvements  in  mechanism,  cannot  surpass  them.  It  is  there- 
fore very  probable  that  their  far-famed  fine  Linen,  mentioned  in 
Scripture  and  by  ancient  writers,  was  produced  from  looms  of 
the  same  construction  as  those  represented  in  the  paintings  of 
Thebes  and  Eileithyias,  and  these  are  of  a  very  rude  and  primi- 
tive description. 

The  process  of  smoothing  or  calendering  the  cloth  is  also 
represented  in  the  paintings.  This  appears  to  have  been  done 
by  means  of  wooden  rods  passed  to  and  fro  over  the  surface. 
From  the  appearance  of  some  of  the  fine  Linen  found  in  the 
tombs,  it  may  be  conjectured  that  much  greater  pressure  was 
sometimes  used  for  this  purpose,  and  such  as  could  only  be  applied 
by  a  press,  or  cylinder  of  metal.  For  smoothing  Linen  a 
wooden  substitute  for  what  is  called  an  iron  in  this  country  was 
also  used,  some  of  which  have  been  found  at  Thebes,  six  inches 
in  length,  and  made  of  tamarisk  wood.  This  chiefly  belonged 
to  the  washerwomen,  who  had  also  a  wooden  instrument  for 
goeffreying  fine  Linen,  by  which  the  waving  lines  were  made, 
which  are  frequently  seen  in  the  dresses  of  the  kings  and  priests, 

Pliny  mentions  four  qualities  of  Linen,  particularly  noted  in 
Egypt — the  Tanitic,  the  Pelusiac,  the  Butine,  and  the  Tentyritic. 
He  also  states  that  the  immense  quantity  of  Flax  cultivated  in 
Egypt  was  accounted  for  by  their  exporting  Linen  to  Arabia 
and  India,  and  that  the  quality  of  the  Linen  produced  by  Egyp- 
tian looms  was  far  superior  to  any  other. 

The  quantity  of  Linen  manufactured  and  used  in  Egypt  in 
ancient  times  was  very  great.  Independently  of  what  was  made 
up  into  articles  of  dress,  the  numerous  wrappers  required  for 
enveloping  the  mummies,  both  of  men  and  animals,  show  how 
large  a  supply  must  have  been  kept  ready  for  the  constant 
home  demand.  In  addition  to  this  a  very  large  quantity 


11  \N    LINEN.  151 

was  regularly  exported  to  foreign  market >.  where  it  wa»  in 
-real  ropiest,  and  eagerly  purchased  by  all  who  could  alfoid 
to  do  so.  Not  only  was  tin-  line  Linen  and  hn.ideivd  work 
highly  appreciated  by  Other  nati<>:^.  but  Linen  yarn  was  a  No 
bought  by  them.  It  is  related  in  (lie  I'.ible  that  Sol..m«»n 
brought  Linen  yarn  out  of  Egypt,  and  there  i.>  n«.  doubt  he  was 
imt  the  only  foreign  buyer  ••!' tlnMntu-h  pri/.ed  and  really  valuable 
prfduetion.  When  the  1  hit  Egypt  it  is  Known  that 

they  were  Ultimately  acquainted  with  theart.ii"!  only  of  making 
line  Linen,  but  also  of  embroidery,  and  they  were  n-.t  l.-nj  ii, 
putting  their  knowledge  to  a  practical  u.-c  in  making ;  han-ini;-  !'••/ 
the  tabernacle  and  robes  for  the  pi  iests. 

I  lax  in  i  >r  dressed  state  formed  also  a  con.M<l<  T 

able  branch  of  1-^yptiau  trade,  much  of  it  bein<^  pnrehased  by 
inerchaii!>  in.ni  ( 'artha-e  and  other  countries. 

In  the  weaving,  and  in  all  the  processes  connected  with  the 
manufacture  of  fine  Linen,  the  Egyptians  have  not  been  sur- 
passed in  modern  times.  Their  Linens  were  composed  of 
different  ({iinlities  and  fabrics,  all  of  which  had  a  world  \vid< 
•  vlebrity,  and  the  more  civilized  the  people  the  more  highly 
were  they  appreciated  What  the  rich  silks  of  France,  or  the 
beautiful  lace  of  Belgium  is  to  us  in  the  present  day,  the  fine 
Linen  and  broidcred  work  of  Egypt  was  among  contemporary 
nations,  and  the  more  luxurious  their  habits  the  more  were  these 
ai  tii  les  valued  and  used. 

The  manufacture  of  Linen  in  Egypt  in  very  early  linn •> 
formed  one  of  the  principal  branches  of  industry  to  the  inha- 
bitants,  very  many  of  whom  were  engaged  in  its  production. 
The  eit y  of  Thebes  was  curly  celebrated  for  its  Linens,  and  it  i> 
probable,  from  the  immense  quantity  which  must  have 
been  made,  that  there  may  have  existed  distinct  establishments 
for  its  manufacture  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  of  a  kindred 
nature  to  the  hand-loom  weaving  shops  not  yet  extinct  in  this 
country.  It  is,  however,  certain  tliat  it  was  made  extensively 
in  the  households  of  many  of  the  inhabitants,  very  much  as  it 
was  in  Scotland  at  a  not  very  distant  period.  As  already  men- 
tinned,  the  yarn  was  spun  and  the  eloth  woven  chiefly  by  the 
women,  and  it  wa>  weaved  plain,  embroidered  or  figured, 
white  .'i  d\ed.  a>  iv«|iiired. 


152  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

Of  the  products  of  the  Egyptian  loom  in  remote  times  little 
more  is  known  than  what  the  mummy  pits  have  disclosed  to  us, 
and  it  would  be  as  unreasonable  to  look  through  modern 
sepulchres  for  specimens  and  proofs  of  the  state  of  manufactur- 
ing art  in  the  present  day,  as  to  deduce  an  opinion  of  the  skill 
of  the  Egyptians  from  those  fragments  of  cloth  which  envelope 
their  dead,  and  have  come  down  almost  unchanged  to  the  pre- 
sent age.  The  curious  and  costly  fabrics  which  adorned  the 
living,  and  were  the  pride  of  the  industry  and  the  skill  of 
Thebes,  have  probably  all  perished  ages  ago.  Some  idea  may 
be  formed  of  the  vast  accumulation  of  Linen  in  the  mummy 
pits  and  sepulchres  of  Egypt,  when  it  is  mentioned  that  it  was 
a  speculation  at  one  time  in  Europe  whether  it  should  not  be 
collected  for  the  purpose  of  making  paper. 

Some  of  the  Linen  produced  in  Egypt  was  of  a  very  common 
or  inferior  quality,  the  yarn  being  coarse  and  unequally  spun, 
and  the  reed  or  set  thin  and  open.  Specimens  of  such  cloth  are 
frequently  met  with  upon  the  mummies  which  have  been  ex- 
humed. On  opening  up  a  mummy  it  is  found  that  the  body 
is  wrapped  round  with  many  folds  of  Linen  cloth.  The  poorer 
people  were  encased  in  Linen  of  common  quality,  ranging  from 
30  to  40  porter  (6°.°  to  8?°).  The  yarn  forming  this  cloth  is 
frequently  ill  spun,  but  other  specimens  of  it  are  level  and  regu- 
larly spun,  and  though  woven  through  a  thin  reed  the  cloth 
looks  well.  This  proves  that  there  were  good  and  bad  spinners  in 
Egypt,  even  in  the  days  when  it  was  celebrated  for  its  fine 
Linen,  as  there  still  are  in  this  advanced  age 

The  great  mass  of  the  mummy  cloth  employed  in  bandages 
and  coverings,  whether  of  birds,  animals,  or  the  human  species, 
for  many  animals  and  all  human  bodies  were  embalmed,  is  of  a 
coarse  texture.  The  folds  which  are  next  the  body,  and  which 
are  generally  found  impregnated  with  resinous  or  bituminous 
matter,  are  the  coarsest,  the  upper  bandages  nearer  the  surface 
being  finer.  Sometimes  the  whole  is  enveloped  in  a  coarse  and 
thick  covering,  very  like  some  of  the  sacking  of  the  present  day, 
and  sometimes  it  is  in  coarse  and  open  cloth  like  what  is  now 
used  in  cheese  presses,  for  which  it  might  easily  be  mistaken. 
In  the  College  of  Surgeons  various  specimens  of  these  cloths 
may  be  seen,  some  of  which  are  very  curious.  In  some 


EGYPTIAN    i  168 

instances  as  many  as  seven  different  qualities  of  cloth,  varying 
from  fine  muslin  to  coarse  sail-cloth,  have  been  found  on  one 
mummy. 

The  priests,  and  the  wealthy  and  noble  classes,  were  encased 
in  Linen  of  a  very  different  texture  from  that  used  for  the 
mass  of  the  people,  many  of  the  specimens  being  remark  - 
al.lv  fine,  and  well  deserving  the  name  of"  fine  Linen  of  Egypt." 
Some  of  it  is  stout  and  well  woven,  and  made  of  excellently 
spun  yam,  quite  equal  t«»  the  productions  of  the  present  day. 
The  kings  and  queens,  especially  those  of  the  earlier  dynas- 
ties, some  of  whom  have  been  discovered,  were  embalmed  in 
a  most  costly  manner,  and  the  Linen  employed  for  wrapping 
round  them  was  of  the  very  finest  texture,  beautiful  alik 
the  quality  of  the  yarn  and  in  the  fabric  of  the  cloth.     Some 
specimens  have  been  found  so  fine  that  the  very  finest  pro- 
ductions of  the  looms  in  modem  times  will  scarcely  compare 
with  them.     The  very  finest  cambric  or  lawn  of  the" present  day 
looks  coarse  beside  these  specimens  of  the  Egyptian  looms  in 
the  days  of  the  early  Pharaohs.     Indeed,  so  fine  and  so  beauti- 
ful are  they,  that  it  is  wonderful  how  the  yarn  could  have  been 
produced,  or  a  fine  enough  reed  formed  for  weaving  them 
through. 

The  beauty  of  the  texture  and  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of 
a  mummy  cloth  found  by  Belzoni  are  very  striking.  It  is 
free  from  gum,  or  resin,  or  impregnation  of  any  kind,  and  has 
evidently  been  originally  white.  The  yarn  of  both  warp  and 
weft  is  remarkably  even  and  well  spun,  and  the  cloth  is  close 
and  firm,  yet  very  elastic.  The  thread  of  the  warp  is  double, 
consisting  of  two  fine  threads  twisted  together,  but  the  weft  is 
single.  The  warp  contains  90  threads  in  an  inch  (about  80 
porter  or  16?°),  the  woof  or  weft  only  44,  being  barely  half  as 
many.  The  fineness  of  the  threads,  estimated  according  to  the 
count  of  cotton  yarn  is  about  30  hanks  in  the  pound. 

It  would  appear  that  the  disparity  between  the  warp  and 
\\vft  of  Egyptian  cloth  was  a  system  of  their  manufacture,  as  it 
is  found  in  almost  every  specimen  of  it  which  has  been 
examined.  Sometimes  the  warp  counts  twice  as  many  threads 
in  un  inch  as  the  weft,  sometimes  three  times,  and  not  seldom 
tour  times  the  number.  Cloth  containing  80  threads  of  warp 


154  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

in  an  inch  had  40  of  weft,  others  with  120  threads  in  the  warp 
had  40  in  the  weft,  and  others  with  the  same  number  of  threads 
in  the  warp  had  only  30  in  the  weft  or  woof.  This  system,  so 
different  from  modern  cloth,  which  has  the  proportions  nearly 
equal,  originated  probably  in  the  difficulty  and  tediousness  of 
putting  in  the  weft  when  the  shuttle  was  thrown  by  hand,  as  is 
still  the  practice  in  this  country  with  some  very  coarse  fabrics, 
or  by  the  still  more  tedious  process  already  mentioned. 

Basil  Montague,  in  his  "  Thoughts  on  Laughter,"  states 
the  case  of  a  party  against  whom  an  action  was  brought  in  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  in  1821,  for  infringing  a  patent,  de- 
fending himself  in  the  following  remarkable  manner.  The 
question  was  asked  whether  the  plaintiff's  mode  of  weaving 
canvas  was  new  or  not.  A  witness  for  the  defendant  was 
called,  who  stated  that  so  far  from  the  plaintiff's  manner  of 
-doubling  the  thread  being  new,  he  could  state  with  certainty 
that  it  had  been  known  and  practised  for  upwards  of  2000  years. 
The  Court  was  incredulous  and  even  jocular  at  his  knowledge 
of  the  ancient  mode  of  thread-making,  and  the  Chief  Justice, 
quoting  the  adage,  "when  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span,"  asked 
him  if  he  could  favour  them  with  some  information  as  to  the 
method  of  spinning  practised  by  our  general  mother.  But  the 
witness,  nothing  daunted,  produced  a  specimen  of  cloth  taken 
from  the  cerement  of  an  Egyptian  mummy,  and  proved  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  whole  court  that  the  yarn  of  which  it  was 
made,  had  been  spun  and  twisted  exactly  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed in  the  plaintiff's  patent. 

Some  of  the  bandages  which  have  been  unwound  from  mum- 
mies bear  indisputable  evidence  of  having  been  mended  or 
darned  ;  seams  occur  in  others.  Old  napkins,  shirts,  and  other 
articles  of  clothing,  and  domestic  furniture,  are  often  found, 
and  in  one  an  armlet  hole  was  found  with  the  seams  around  it 
very  neatly  sewn.  This  proves  that  the  old  and  worn  Linen 
in  the  house  had  sometimes  been  given  to  the  embalmers  for 
bandages  for  the  bodies,  but  it  may  only  have  been  done  by 
very  thrifty  housewives.  Doubtless  there  were  people  in  those 
days,  as  there  still  are.  who  would  be  quite  content  to  permit, 
it  may  be  the  body  of  a  distant  relative,  to  be  entombed  at  the 
least  possible  expense  consistent  with  public  decorum.  In  one 


BGTPTU1  155 

cose  a  perfect  vest  was  discovered  on  a  mummy,  but  generally 
the  Iwvndages  are  of  new  Linen  taken  from  tin  \\  el  »s.  The  quan- 
tity of  Linen  required  for  bandages  for  mummies  must  have 
been  immense.  Some  of  those  unrolled  have  been  found  to 
wri'^h  from  20  to  30  and  40  Ibs.,  and  to  measure  upv\ 
300  yards  in  length.  The  Linen  taken  from  one  mummy, 
including;  tlif  outer  ^M((.  weighed  29  Ibs.,  and  the  total 
length  of  the  pieces  was  292  yards.  In  some  as  many  as  40 
thicknesses  of  cloth  have  been  found,  tin  inm -r  l<undages  being 
composed  of  various  widths  ;  th^  The  breadth  vari« •- 

from  a  few  inches  to  two  or  three  feet,  and  the  length  from 
two  or  three  yards,  up  to  six,  eight,  or  nine  yards. 

The  many  sorts  of  ilraperi<->  painted  in  Egyptian  tombs  lu  I p 
to  el  IK  -id  ate  the  nature  of  the  material  employed  in  encasing 
the  bodies  of  the  ancient  inhabitants,  and  supply  information 
from  which  inferences  can  be  drawn  which  may  be  received 
with  tolerable  certainty  regarding  its  texture  These  exhibit  a 
l.irp-  vari>  ty  of  qualities,  colours,  and  patterns.  Some  sorts 
are  of  various  degrees  of  thickness,  and,  so  far  as  can  be  judged 
from  paintings,  of  rich  and  delicate  workmanship,  while  others 
furnish  patterns  and  styles  not  unworthy  of  imitation  in  the  pre- 
sent age,  and  of  a  brilliancy  of  colouring  which  can  scarcely  yet 
IKJ  rivalled.  Some  qualities  again  are  so  fine  and  transparent,  that 
every  detail  of  the  figure  which  they  envelope  is  seen  with  j>er- 
fect  clearness  through  them,  as  through  very  thin  muslin  or  gau/e. 
So  great  was  the  tenuity  with  which  Linen  was  occasionally 
made  in  Egypt  that  some  of  the  specimens  obtained  the  appel- 
lation of  "  woven  air,"  and  certainly  the  praise  was  not  un- 
Fii  lit  1.  Sometimes  Linen  bandages  are  found  on  mummies 
with  writing  upon  them,  showing  that  the  Egyptians  were  ac- 
(jiiainted  with  a  mode  of  writing  on  cloth. 

Herodotus,  who  lived  460  years  before  Christ,  finely  describes 
the  process  of  embalming,  and  the  various  materials  used  in 
the  operation.  Very  large  quantities  of  Linen  cloth  were  useil 
this  purpose,  as  the  body  was  enveloped  from  head  to  foot 
in  many  folds,  generally  taken  off  a  web  or  piece  of  cloth,  of 
various  degrees  of  fineness,  depending  on  the  wealth  of  deceased, 
or  of  the  surviving  relatives.  He  says  that  Linen  was  the 
ordinary  div>s  ••!'  the  ancient  Kgyptians,  over  which  was  some- 


156  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

times  worn  a  woollen  cloak  or  shawl,  with  fringes.  The  king 
wore  a  kilt,  apron,  or  skirt,  fastened  round  the  loins  and  reaching 
below  the  knees,  something  akin  to  the  Highland  kilt  of  the  present 
day,  over  which  was  a  shirt  of  remarkably  fine  texture.  The 
queen  wore  a  light  skirt,  with  a  full  shirt  over  it  of  very  fine 
Linen.  The  nobles  and  upper  ranks  wore  the  kilt,  and  on  some 
occasions  the  shirt  over  it,  the  texture  of  which  was  not  so  fine 
as  that  worn  by  the  king.  The  lower  classes  wore  only  a  coarse 
kilt  without  any  other  covering  above  it.  In  like  manner  the 
upper  ranks  of  women  occasionally  wore  the  shirt  over  the  light 
skirt,  but  the  lower  classes  of  females  invariably  wore  the  skirt 
alone.  This  kilt  and  shirt  weie  always  of  Linen. 

Both  Celsius  and  Forster  quote  passages  from  ancient  authors 
which  concur  to  show  the  abundance  and  excellence  of  the  Flax 
grown  anciently  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  more  particularly  in  the 
vicinity  of  Pelusium,  the  general  employment  of  it  among  the 
inhabitants  for  clothing,  and  the  exclusive  use  of  Linen  cloth 
for  the  garments  of  the  priesthood  and  other  sacred  pur- 
poses, and  especially  for  the  worship  of  Isis  and  Osiris.  The 
same  authorities  mention  that  Egyptian  Flax,  and  the  cloth 
woven  from  it,  were  shipped  in  great  quantities  to  all  parts  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

The  shirt  of  the  priest  worn  in  the  worship  of  Isis  was  of 
Byssus,  adorned  with  flowers,  and  that  of  the  high  priest  of  the 
Jews  was  probably  something  similar.  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola, 
testifies  to  the  great  strength  of  Byssus, — 

Cloth  made  of  Byssus  indicates  firm  faith, 
For  threads  of  Byssus,  it  is  said,  surpass 
E'en  ropes  of  broom  in  firmness  and  in  strength. 

The  dress  of  the  priests  on  ordinary  occasions  was  of  a  simple 
description,  consisting  of  an  under  garment  like  the  usual  apron 
or  kilt  worn  by  the  Egyptians,  and  a  loose  upper  robe  with  full 
sleeves,  secured  by  a  girdle  round  the  loins ;  or  of  the  apron  and 
a  shirt  with  short  tight  sleeves,  over  which  was  thrown  a  loose 
robe,  like  a  modern  sheet,  leaving  the  right  arm  exposed.  Some- 
times a  priest,  when  officiating  in  the  temple,  laid  aside  the 
upper  vestment,  and  was  satisfied  to  wear  an  ample  robe 
bound  round  the  waist,  and  descending  over  the  apron  to  the 
ankles  (which  answers  to  the  dress  of  the  Stolistes  mentioned 


EGYPTIAN  LINEN.  157 

by  Clemens  "  covering  only  the  lower  part  of  the  body  ")  ;  and 
occasionally  he  put  on  a  long  full  garment,  reaching  from 
I .  •  -1 .  >w  the  arms  to  the  feet,  and  supported  over  the  neck  with  straps. 
tubers  again,  in  the  sacred  processions,  were  entirely  covered 
with  a  dress  of  this  kind,  reaching  to  the  throat,  and  concealing 
<  \t  n  the  hands  and  arms.  The  material  of  these  dresses  was 
almost  always  Linen. 

The  robes  of  ceremony  worn  by  the  priests  were  grand  and 
imposing,  and  peculiarities  of  costume  marked  the  respective 
grades.  Of  the  high  priests,  the  one  who  offered  sacrifice  or 
lil>.it  ion  in  the  temple  had  the  highest  post,  and  he  appears  to 
have  been  called  "  the  prophet."  He  wore  a  leopard's  skin  fit- 
ting over  his  Linen  robes,  and  a  like  covering  was  worn  by  the 
king  on  state  occasions.  The  costume  of  the  hierogrammat  or 
sacred  srriln1  consisted  of  a  luriri'  kilt  or  apron,  cither  tied  in  f'mnt 
or  wound  round  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  the  loose  upper 
robe  with  full  sleeves,  which,  in  all  cases,  was  of  the  finest  Linen. 

The  distinction  between  the  skirt  and  the  shirt  or  sheet  worn 
over  it,  as  well  as  the  reason  why  Linen  was  used  for  all  sacred  pur- 
poses, is  clearly  expressed  in  the  following  passage  from  Apul- 
eius : — "Can  any  one,  impressed  with  a  sense  of  religion,  wonder 
t  hat  a  man  who  has  been  made  acquainted  with  so  many  mysteries 
of  the  gods,  should  keep  at  home  certain  sacred  emblems  and 
wrap  them  in  a  Linen  cloth,  the  purest  covering  for  divine  objecta? 
For  wool,  the  execration  of  a  sluggish  body  taken  from  sheep, 
was  deemed  a  profane  attire,  even  according  to  the  early  tenets  of 
Orpheus  and  Pythagoras.  But  Flax,  that  cleanest  and  best  pro- 
el  IK  t  ion  of  the  field,  is  used  not  only  for  the  inner  and  outer 
clothing  of  the  most  holy  priests  of  the  Egyptians,  but  also  for 
covering  sacred  objects." 

Plutarch  says  that  the  priests  of  Isis  wore  Linen  on  account 
of  its  purity,  and  he  remarks  how  absurd  and  inconsistent  would 
have  been  their  conduct  if  they  had  carefully  plucked  the  hairs 
from  their  own  bodies  and  yet  clothed  themselves  in  wool,  which 
is  the  hair  of  sheep.  He  also  mentions  the  opinion  of  some  who 
thought  the  Flax  was  used  for  clothing  because  the  colour  of 
its  blossom  resembles  the  etherial  blue  which  surrounds  the 
world  ;  and  he  states  that  the  priests  of  Isis  were  also  buried  in 
their  sacred  vestments. 


158  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

Pliny  states  that  the  priests  sometimes  wore,  and  were  partial 
to,  cotton  garments.  Herodotus  and  Plutarch  affirm  that  Linen 
was  always  preferred,  owing  as  well  to  its  freshness  in  a  hot 
climate,  as  to  its  great  tendency  to  keep  the  body  clean,  and 
that  a  religious  prej  udice  forbade  the  priests  to  wear  vestments 
of  any  other  quality.  This,  however,  refers  to  the  inner  portion 
of  the  dress,  and  the  prohibition  of  entering  a  temple  with  cotton 
or  woollen  garments  led  to  the  notion  that  none  but  Linen  were 
worn  by  them  at  any  time.  The  same  custom  was  adopted  by 
the  votaries  of  Isis,  when  her  rites  were  introduced  by  the  Greeks 
and  Eomans,  and  Linen  dresses  were  appropriated  to  those  who 
had  been  initiated  in  the  sacred  mysteries. 

Whatever  restrictions  may  have  been  in  force  respecting  the 
use  of  cotton  among  the  priesthood,  other  classes  were  at  liberty 
to  consult  their  own  choice,  during  life,  and  either  wear  clothing 
of  cool  Flax  or  of  soft  cotton,  as  was  most  agreeable  to  them- 
selves. Notwithstanding  this  permission,  the  nobles  and  higher 
ranks  generally  were  almost  always  habited  in  Linen  clothing, 
but  the  lower  classes  occasionally  wore  woollen  garments,  al- 
though Linen  was  also  their  usual  attire. 

Cloth  was  sometimes  made  of  Flax  warp  and  cotton  woof,  and 
this  quality  of  fabric  is  still  manufactured  by  the  modern  Egyp- 
tians. Julius  Pollux,  after  describing  the  cotton  plant  as  an 
Egyptian  production,  and  stating  that  cloth  was  manufactured 
of  the  "  wool  of  its  nut,"  mentions  this  mixed  fabric.  It  is  a 
kindred  cloth  to  many  of  the  unions  made  in  this  country  at  the 
present  day.  Pure  cotton  cloth,  and  also  this  mixed  article, 
were  used  to  a  great  extent  for  coverings  of  chairs  and  couches, 
and  for  various  other  purposes. 

No  one  was  allowed  to  be  buried  in  a  woollen  garment,  in 
consequence  of  its  engendering  worms,  which  would  injure  the 
body.  After  death  the  body  was  invariably  enveloped  in  ban- 
dages of  Linen,  and  this  regulation  accounts  for  the  mummy 
cloths  of  even  the  poorest  individuals  being,  in  every  instance, 
formed  of  that  material. 

The  followers  of  the  Orphic  and  Bacchic  rites,  which  were, 
according  to  Herodotus,  Egyptian,  and  the  Pythagoreans  also, 
were  forbidden  to  enter  any  sacred  edifice  or  to  bury  their  dead 
in  woollen  vests.  There  is  a  sacred  reason  assigned  for  this, 


ii\s  ii  159 

the  old  traveller   :m.l  thi-  suciv.l  MOM  k«-pt  him  fn.m  tell- 
ing mure. 

Perhaps  the  only  existing  representative  of  an  ancient  article 
of  dress  which  may  in  any  degree  be  supposed  to  resemble  the 
Limn  robes  formerly  worn  in  Iv.-ypt.  in  one  of  the  two  Egyptian 
Linen  tunics  obtained  by  General  Reymer,  while  in  K-\  pt  with 
the  French  expedition,  from  the  Arabs  of  Sakharah,  who  said 
hey  had  found  it  in  a  hole  filled  with  sand,  which  they  had 
<  1«  a  red  out.  Tt  is  of  square  form,  being  three  feet  one  inch 
each  way,  and  the  sleeves  are  about  sixteen  inches  long.  There 
is  an  opening  at  the  top  for  the  head,  and  on  the  whole  it  re- 
sembles a  common  shirt  more  than  any  other  article  of  our 
There  are  two  square  pieces  of  embroidery  let  into  the 
both  before  and  behind  in  the  lower  part  of  the  shirt, 
and  similar  square  pieces  are  on  each  shoulder.  On  each 
arm  there  are  also  two  pieces  of  embroidery,  and  one  on 
each  side  between  the  hole  for  the  neck  and  the  square 
patch  on  the  shoulder,  hanging  down  like  a  pair  of  braces  both 
before  and  behind.  These  embroidered  parts  are  sewed  to  the 
cloth.  The  embroidery  contains  nothing  of  a  pictorial  kind, 
heing  formed  of  squares  and  circles,  &c.  The  cloth  is  yellow 
and  the  embroidery  brown.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  mate- 
rial l>e  Flax,  cotton,  or  hemp,  but  it  is  most  likely  Linen,  and 
the  embroidery  is  supposed  to  be  made  of  the  hair  of  an  ani- 
mal. The  body  of  the  tunic  is  formed  of  two  breadths,  and  the 
seams  on  each  side,  and  also  the  bottom  of  the  sleeves  are  cov< 
with  in  at  » -doings.  The  opening  for  the  neck  could  be  con- 
tracted by  some  small  ties  which  are  still  attached  to  it.  From 
its  ornamental  appearance  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  outer 
covering,  or  perhaps  it  is  only  an  article  of  dress  for  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  during  summer,  and  it  was  obviously  intended 
to  be  compressed  round  the  waist  by  a  girdle. 

It  would  appear  that  it  was  chiefly  of  the  description  of  Flax 
which  Pliny  calls  Byssus,  that  the  fine  Linen  of  Egypt  was  made 
which  has  been  so  much  celebrated  by  the  nations  of  antiquity. 
No  doubt  it  was  of  this  material  that  the  fine  filmy  cloth  for- 
merly described  was  formed,  the  threads  composing  which  were  so 
fine  as  to  be  almost  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  It  is  also  pro- 
hahle  that  it  was  the  same  sort  of  Flax  of  which  the  rich  and 


160  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

magnificent  furnishings  of  the  Hebrew  tabernacle,  and  the 
beautiful  and  gorgeous  dress  of  the  high  priest,  were  made.  The 
Israelites  must  have  taken  the  Linen,  or  else  the  Flax  of  which 
it  was  made,  when  they  went  out  from  Egypt,  as  they  had  no 
other  means  of  getting  the  material  of  which  the  priestly 
robes  and  sacred  vestments  and  furnishings  for  the  tabernacle 
were  formed. 

What  special  sort  of  Flax  this  was  is  not  now  known,  but 
perhaps  it  may  only  have  been  a  finer  variety  of  the  common 
Flax  plant,  the  fibre  of  which  was  rendered  susceptible  of  finer 
sub-division  by  careful  culture.  It  is  well  known  that  some  soils, 
and  some  modes  of  cultivation  and  preparation  of  Flax,  pro- 
duce a  much  finer  fibre  than  others:  It  may,  however,  have 
been  an  entirely  different  plant,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  now 
lost.  Should  this  be  so  the  loss  is  much  to  be  deplored. 

By  some  parties  the  cloth  known  as  Byssus  is  said  to  have 
been  composed  of  a  species  of  silk  which  was  found  growing 
from  a  certain  shell -fish  called  "pinna."  By  others  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  fine  Linen  was  in  reality  silk,  but  this  is  also 
liable  to  considerable  doubt.  The  earliest  notice  we  have  of 
silk  is  derived  from  China,  and  although  it  is  known  that  the 
Egyptians  traded  with  India  at  an  early  period,  and  may,  and 
indeed  in  later  times  did,  get  silk  from  China  through  India, 
there  is  no  evidence  that  they  imported  it,  or  were  even  acquainted 
with  this  material  at  the  very  remote  period  when  it  is  certain  the 
exquisite  fabrics  called  "  fine  Linen"  were  first  produced  there. 

All  doubts  regarding  the  character  of  the  material  in  which 
the  dead  were  wrapped  has  now  been  satisfactorily  set  at  rest. 
The  received  opinion  in  Europe  until  lately  was  that  it  was 
composed  of  cotton,  and  it  was  forbidden  to  doubt  that  "  the 
bands  of  Byssine  Sindon,"  said  by  Herodotus  to  have  been  used 
for  enveloping  the  mummies,  were  cotton.  The  unscientific 
inhabitants  of  Egypt  never,  however,  questioned  the  fact  that 
they  were  Linen,  and  they  have  been  proved  to  be  perfectly 
correct. 

Accurate  experiments  have  been  made  by  Mr  Bauer  of 
Clitheroe,  one  of  the  most  experienced  cotton  manufacturers  in 
the  world,  who  obtained  and  experimented  upon  about  400 
specimens  of  mummy  cloth,  Mr  Thomson,  Dr  Ure,  and  others 


EGYCTIAN    I  !  1'Jl 


with  the  aid  of  powerful  microscopes,  on  tin-  nature  of  tin- 
of  Lin.  -n  an.  I  o>tt,,M  thread.  These  have  shown  that  tin-  i! 
of  Linen  invariably  present  a  cylindrical  form,  trim-  parent.  and 
articulated,  or  jointed  like  a  cane,  while  cotton  fibres  offer  the 
appearance  of  a  flat  riband,  with  a  hem  and  border  at  each  edge. 
Tin-re  in,  therefore,  no  possibility  of  mistaking  the  fibres  of 
cither,  except,  perhaps,  when  the  cotton  is  in  an  unripe  state, 
when  the  flattening  shape  of  the  centre  is  less  apparent. 

The  results  having  been  found  similar  in  every  instance,  and 
the  structure  of  the  fibres  thus  unquestionably  determined,  tin 
threads  ..!'  imimmv  cloths,  l.uth  line  and  o.arse.  hn.wn  and 
bleached,  were  submitted  to  the  same  test,  and  no  single  excep- 
tion was  found  to  their  being  Linen  ;  nor  was  there  even  a 
single  instance  of  a  mixture  of  Linen  and  cotton  thread  found. 
The  experiments  on  this  point  have  been  so  numerous,  and  so 
carefully  conducted  by  many  parties,  that  there  can  be  no  room 
for  farther  doubt  on  this  subject,  all  the  mummy  cloths,  yet 
tested,  being  veritably  Linen.  The  fact  of  the  mummy  cloths 
being  Linen  is  therefore  decided. 

The  name  Byasua,  it  is  true,  presents  a  difficulty,  owing  to 
the  Hebrew  Shasli  being  translated  Byssus  in  the  Septuagint 
version,  and  in  our  own  "  fine  Linen  ;  "  and  to  Shash  being  the 
name  applied  at  this  day  by  the  Arabs  to  fine  muslin,  which  is  of 
cotton  and  not  of  Linen  ;  but  as  the  mummy  cloths,  said  by 
Herodotus  to  be  "of  Bysaine  Sindon"  are  known  to  be  invari- 
ably Linen,  the  Byssus  cannot  be  cotton.  Herodotus  ind«  ed 
uses  the  word  '*  tree  wool"  to  denote  cotton  ;  and  Julius  Pollux 
adopts  the  same  name,  distinguishing  it  also  from  Byssus,  which 
he  calls  a  species  of  Indian  Flax.  The  use  of  the  two  words 
Byssus  and  Linen,  presents  no  difficulty,  since  they  might  be 
employed,  like  our  Flax  and  Linen,  to  signify  the  plant  and  the 
substance  made  from  it. 

Mr  Thomson  mentions  some  fragments  of  mummy  cloths 
sent  to  England  by  the  late  Mr  Salt,  which  he  saw  in  the 
British  Museum.  They  were  of  different  degrees  of  fineness, 
some  fringed  at  the  ends,  and  some  striped  at  the  edges.  His 
first  impression  was  that  they  were  muslin,  and  of  Indian  manu- 
facture, as  it  is  mentioned  in  the  *'  Periplus  of  the  Erythraean 
Sea"  (ascribed  to  Arrian,  but  more  piobably  the  work  of  some 
L 


162  ANCIENT  LINEN. 

Greek  merchant,  himself  engaged  in  the  trade),  that  muslins 
from  the  Ganges  were  an  article  of  export  from  India  to  the 
Arabian  gulph  in  the  days  of  the  Ptolemies.  This  suspicion 
that  they  were  cotton  was  soon  removed  by  the  microscope  of 
Mr  Bauer,  which  showed  that  they  were  all,  without  exception, 
Linen.  Some  were  thin  and  transparent,  and  of  very  delicate 
texture.  The  finest  appeared  to  be  made  of  yarn  of  100  hanks 
in  the  pound,  with  140  threads  in  the  inch  of  warp  (about  125 
porter  or  25°.°),  and  about  sixty- four  in  the  weft  or  woof.  A 
specimen  of  muslin  in  the  Museum  of  the  East  India  House, 
the  finest  production  of  the  Dacca  loom,  has  only  100  threads  in 
an  inch  in  the  warp,  and  eighty-four  in  the  weft,  but  the  sur- 
prising fineness  of  the  yarns,  which,  though  spun  by  the  hand, 
is  not  less  than  250  hanks  in  the  pound,  gives  to  this  fabric 
its  unrivalled  tenuity  and  lightness. 

Some  of  the  cloths  examined  by  Mr  Thomson  were  fringed 
at  the  ends,  and  one,  a  sort  of  scarf,  about  four  feet  long,  was 
fringed  at  both  ends.  Three  or  four  threads  twisted  together 
with  the  fingers  to  form  a  strong  one,  and  two  of  these  again 
twisted  together,  and  knotted  at  the  middle  and  at  the  end  to 
prevent  unravelling,  formed  the  fringe,  precisely  in  the  same 
way  as  the  silk  shawls  of  the  present  day  are  fringed. 

The  selvages  of  Egyptian  Linens  are  generally  formed  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  are  well  calculated  by  their  strength  to 
protect  the  cloth  from  accident.  Fillets  of  strong  cloth  or  tape 
also  secure  the  ends  of  the  pieces  from  injury,  showing  a  know- 
ledge of  all  the  little  resources  of  modern  manufacture.  Several 
of  the  specimens,  both  of  fine  and  coarse  cloth,  were  bordered 
with  blue  stripes  of  various  patterns,  and  in  some  of  them  these 
stripes  alternated  with  narrow  lines  of  another  colour.  The  width 
of  the  patterns  varied  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quar- 
ter. In  one  piece  examined  were  seen  seven  blue  stripes,  the 
broadest  about  half  an  inch  wide,  nearest  the  selvage,  followed 
by  five  very  narrow  ones,  and  terminating  by  one  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  broad.  Had  this  pattern,  instead  of  being  confined  to 
the  edge  of  the  cloth,  been  repeated  across  its  whole  breadth, 
it  would  have  formed  a  modern  gingham,  which  there  is  little 
doubt  was  one  of  the  articles  of  Egyptian  industry. 

A  small  pattern,  about  half  an  inch  broad,  formed  the  edging 


1...M-1IAN      11 


•foot  ,,f  the  tine-t  ..t  ti,,  -  appm]  ofa 

of  Line.  :ilt<  mating  with  three  Hues  ofa  fawn  colour,  formi 
simple  and  elegant  border.     These  stripes  were  prodm  •<  -d  in  the 
loom  by  coloured  threads  previously  dyed  in  the  yarn,  but  the 
nature  of  the  fawn  colour  could  not  be  ascertained,  as  it  was 
too  much  faded  by  age,  and  the  quantity  too  small  to  admit  of 
IM  in_r  determined  satisfactorily.      Although  there  was  no  doubt 
that  tin-  colouring  of  the  blue  stri|>e8  was  indigo,  to  prove  it  tin- 
threads  were  submitted  to  a  careful  examination.     Uoiled   in 
water  for  some  time  the  colour  did  not  yield  in  the  least,  nor 
was  it  all  affected  by  soap,  nor  by  strong  alkalies  ;  sulphuric 
tli  luted  only  so  far  as  not  to  .1-  -  tn>\  -the  cloth,  had  no  action  on 
the  colour;    chloride  of  lime  gradually  reduced,  and  at  last 
destroyed  it;  strong  nitric  acid  dropped  upon  the  blue,  turned 
it  to  orange,  and  in  the  same  instant  destroyed  it.     These  i 
prove  the  colouring  matter  of  the  stripes  to  be  indigo. 

This  dye  was  unknown  to  Herodotus,  for  he  makes  no  men- 
tion of  it.  It  was  known  to  Pliny,  who,  though  ignorant  of  its 
true  nature  and  the  history  of  its  production,  has  correctly  de- 
scribed the  most  characteristic  of  its  properties  —  the  emission  of 
a  beautiful  purple  vapour  when  exposed  to  heat.  Had  his  com- 
mentators been  acquainted  with  the  sublimation  of  indigo,  it 
would  have  saved  many  learned  doubts.  The  Periplus  men  tiom 
that  it  was  an  article  of  export  from  Barbarike,  on  the  Indus,  to 
Egypt,  where  its  employment  by  the  manufacturers  of  that 
country,  probably  from  a  remote  period,  is  clearly  established 
l>y  the  specimens  here  descriK  <1. 

A  piece  of  Linen  cloth  brought  from  Thebes  offers  a  v.-r\ 

good  instance  of  the  coloured  border.     It  is  of  ordinary  qualify, 

ninety-six  threads  being  in  the  inch  of  warp,  and  thirty-four  in 

the  weft.      The  border  consists  of  one  broad  band  and  six  nar- 

stripes,  ofa  blue  colour,  evidently  dyed  with  indigo.      The 

hand  which  is  nearest  the  selvage,  is  one  inch  and  one  fifth  in 

1th,  the  others  consist  each  of  two  threads,  in  the  direction 

of  the  warp,  with  the  exception  of  the  innermost  one,  which  is 

of  live  threads,  and  the  dividing  line  between  the  fourth  and 

fifth    i-  varied   hy  the  introduction  of  a  blue  thread  down  the 

centre.       The   yellowish    tinire   upon   the    rest  of  the   cloth 

ipposed   to  arise  from  some  a  stringent  preparation  eni- 

L  2 


164  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

ployed  for  its  preservation,  which  imparts  a  similar  colour  to 
water,  but  affords  no  trace  of  tannin.  In  none  of  the  speci- 
mens examined  by  Mr  Thomson  did  either  gelatine  or  albu- 
men, or  solution  of  iron,  afford  any  precipitate,  but  the 
subacetate  of  lead  produced  a  cloud,  indicating  the  presence 
of  extractive  matter. 

It  is  evident  that  the  colour  was  imparted  to  the  threads  pre- 
vious to  being  woven  into  cloth,  as  the  blue  remains  unaltered. 
The  cloths  with  broad  coloured  borders  are  curious,  as  they 
illustrate  the  paintings,  and  show  that  they  were  similar  to  those 
made  by  the  looms  in  the  age  of  the  Pharaohs  of  the  12th  and 
18th  dynasties,  the  date  of  the  former  being  reckoned  about 
2000  years  before  Christ.  The  Nubians  wear  shawls  with  the 
same  borders,  manufactured  in  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  at  the 
present  day.  The  Egyptians  also  dyed  old  dresses  in  those 
days. 

Another  piece  of  Linen  from  Thebes  has  152  threads  to  the 
inch  in  the  warp,  and  seventy-one  in  the  weft.  It  is  of  a  much 
darker  hue  than  the  cloth  just  mentioned,  and  was  perhaps  dyed 
with  the  Cartliamus  Tinctorius,  or  safflower.  But  the  most  re- 
markable piece  of  fine  Linen  is  one  found  near  Memphis  which 
justifies  all  the  praise  bestowed  upon  the  manufacture  in  former 
times,  and  excites  the  admiration  of  all  who  see  it  in  the  present 
day.  To  the  touch  it  is  comparable  to  silk,  and  not  inferior  in 
texture  to  the  finest  cambric  which  has  yet  been  made.  Such 
a  fabric  well  merits  the  name  of  "fine  Linen,"  as  it  is  of  un- 
rivalled fineness  and  really  Linen.  Some  idea  may  be  given  of  its 
texture  from  the  number  of  threads  in  the  inch  which  are  540,  or 
270  double  threads  in  the  warp,  and  only  110  in  the  weft.  It  is 
also  of  a  light  brown  colour,  and  is  covered  with  small  figures 
and  hieroglyphics,  so  finely  drawn  that  here  and  there  the  lines 
are  with  difficulty  followed  by  the  eye,  and  as  there  is  no  appear- 
ance of  the  ink  having  been  run  in  any  part  of  the  cloth,  it  is 
evident  that  it  had  been  previously  prepared  for  the  purpose. 
The  perfection  of  its  threads  is  equally  surprising,  as  the  knots 
and  breaks,  seen  in  the  finest  cambric,  are  not  found  in  holding 
it  to  the  light.  This  was  a  mode  of  proving  fine  cloth  known 
to,  and  practised  by  the  ancients.  It  gave  rise  to  the  beauti- 
ful Greek  expression,  signifying  "  Lmcere,"  borrowed  from  test 


EGYPTIAN   LINEN. 

•  •I'  light,  and  it  is  far  superior  to  the  Latin  Lincerus,  derive.  1 
from  honey,  Line  Cera. 

'I1!,  threads  usr.l  lor  neU  by  the  Egyptians  were  occasionally 
ivimirkable  for  their  fineness.  Pliny  says  "some  of  them  were  so 
<li -lit -ate  that  they  would  pass  through  a  man's  ring,  and  asingle 
person  could  carry  a  sufficient  number  of  them  to  surround  a 
whole  wood.  Julius  Lupus,  who  died  while  governor  of  Egypt, 
had  some  of  these  nets,  each  string  of  which  consisted  of  150 
threads ;  a  fact  perfectly  surprising  to  those  who  are  not  aware 
that  the  Khodians  preserve  to  this  day,  in  the  Temple  of  Minerva, 
(In  remains  of  a  Linen  corslet  presented  to  them  by  Amasis, 
King  of  Egypt,  the  threads  of  which  are  composed  each  of  3f>5 
fibres ;  and  in  proof  of  the  truth  of  this,  Mutianus,  who  was 
thrice  consul,  lately  affirmed  at  Rome,  that  hi  had  examined 
it ;  and  the  reason  of  so  few  fragments  remaining  was  attribut- 
able to  the  curiosity  of  those  who  had  frequently  subjected  it  to 
the  same  scrutiny." 

Herodotus  mentions  this  corslet,  and  another,  presented  by 
Amasis  to  the  Lacedaemonians,  which  had  been  carried  off  by 
the  Samians:  "It  was  of  Linen,  ornamented  with  numerous 
figures  of  animals,  worked  in  gold  and  cotton.  Each  thread 
of  the  corslet  was  worthy  of  admiration  ;  for,  though  very  fine, 
every  one  was  composed  of  360  other  threads,  all  distinct ;  the 
quality  being  similar  to  that  dedicated  to  Minerva  at  Lindus, 
by  the  same  monarch." 

Many  of  the  Egyptian  stuffs  presented  various  patterns 
worked  in  colours  by  the  loom,  independent  of  those  produced 
by  the  dyeing  or  printing  process,  and  so  richly  composed  that 
Martial  says  they  vied  with  the  Babylonian  cloth,  embroidered 
with  the  needle.  The  manner  in  which  these  tapestries  were 
worked  is  entirely  unknown,  but  it  is  very  probable  that  it  was 
by  a  process  similar  to  that  in  use  in  this  country  before  the 
in!  reduction  of  the  jacquard  machine,  the  pattern  being  produced 
by  the  aid  of  one  or  more  draw  boys,  who  raised  the  proper 
threads  of  warp  to  form  the  required  design  as  the  weaver 
progressed  with  the  cloth.  Notwithstanding  the  superiority 
whirl i  the  Egyptians  attained  in  fabricating  patterns  by  the 
loom,  the  art  of  embroidery  was  commonly  practised  there  at  a 
very  early  period,  and  long  prior  to  the  exodus  of  the  Israel ;- 


166  ANCIENT   LINEN, 

Taking  advantage  of  the  knowledge  so  acquired,  the  Hebrews 
were  enabled  to  make  the  rich  tapestries  for  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  in  the  wilderness. 

The  gold  thread  used  for  embroidered  work  is  supposed  to 
have  been  beaten  out  with  the  hammer,  and  afterwards  rounded, 
as  Moses  relates  that  "  they  did  beat  the  gold  into  thin  plates 
and  cut  it  into  wires,  to  work  in  the  blue,  and  in  the  purple, 
and  in  the  scarlet,  and  in  the  fine  Linen."  Homer  says  that 
the  delicate  net  made  by  Vulcan,  which  was  so  fine  that  the 
gods  themselves  were  unable  to  see  it,  is  represented  to  have 
been  forged  on  an  anvil  with  the  hammer.  Pliny  mentions 
cloth  woven  with  gold  threads,  sometimes  entirely  of  those 
materials,  without  any  Linen  or  woollen  ground,  as  were  the 
garment  of  Agrippina,  the  tunic  of  Heliogabalus,  and  that  worn 
by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  mentioned  by  Verrius. 

Pliny  says  "  coloured  dresses  were  worn  in  the  time  of  Homer, 
from  which  the  robes  of  triumph  were  borrowed  ;  and  from  the 
Phrygians  having  been  the  first  to  devise  the  method  of  giving 
the  same  effect  with  the  needle,  they  have  been  called  Phry- 
giones.  But  to  weave  cloth  with  gold  threads  was  the  invention 
of  an  Asiatic  king,  Attalus,  from  whom  the  name  of  Attalic  was 
derived,  and  the  Babylonians  were  most  noted  for  their  skill 
in  weaving  cloths  of  various  colours." 

It  still  remains  undecided  when  silver  thread  came  into  use, 
and  as  no  mention  of  silver  stuffs  occurs  in  the  writings  of 
ancient  authors,  it  has  been  supposed  that  its  introduction  was 
of  late  date.  Silver  wire,  however,  was  known  in  Egypt  about 
3300  years  ago,  being  found  at  Thebes  of  the  Third  Thothmes, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it  was  then  a  novelty. 
It  is  very  probable  that  it  was  known  and  used  nearly  as  soon 
as  gold  wire,  which  is  found  attached  to  rings  bearing  the  name 
of  Osirtasen  the  First,  who  lived  about  3900  years  ago. 

The  wire  is  supposed  to  have  been  beaten  out  and  rounded 
with  the  file,  and  not  drawn,  as  in  the  present  day,  through 
holes  in  metal  plates.  The  appearance  of  some  found  at  Thebes 
would,  however,  justify  the  conclusion  that  a  mode  of  drawing  it 
was  not  unknown  to  the  Egyptians.  There  is  no  representation 
of  the  process  in  the  paintings,  but  this  omission  is  no  argument 
against  it,  since  they  have  also  failed  to  introduce  the  casting  of 


EGYPTIAN  LINEN.  167 

metals  and  various  other  arts,  with  which  there  is  abundant  evi- 
<lt net  that  they  were  acquainted. 

Wire  drawing  was  first  attempted  with  the  most  ductile 
i IK- tals,  gold  and  silver  being  used  before  brass  and  iron,  be- 
cause the  wire  was  originally  employed  for  ornamental  purposes. 
Gold  thread  and  wire  were  always  made  entirely  of  metal,  even 
to  the  time  of  the  late  Roman  Emperors.  In  Egypt  there  is  no 
instance  found  of  flattened  wire  being  wound  round  silk  or 
Linen  threads,  or  of  silver  or  other  wire  gilt,  though  gilding  was 
so  common  on  vases  and  other  articles  of  bronze.  That  the  Egyp- 
tians had  arrived  at  great  perfection  in  the  art  of  making  golden 
thread,  is  evident  from  its  being  sufficiently  fine  for  weaving 
into  cloth,  and  for  embroidery ;  and  the  exceeding  delicacy  of 
the  Linen  corslet  of  Amasis,  on  which  numerous  figures  of 
animals  were  worked  in  gold,  required  a  proportionate  degree 
of  fineness  for  the  purpose. 

Mrs  Lushington  says  that  mummies  have  been  found  wrapped 
up  in  garments  curiously  wrought  with  gold  lace.  The  Psalmist 
says  "  her  clothing  is  of  wrought  gold ;"  and  as  this  is  supposed 
to  refer  to  Pharaoh's  daughter,  it  is  probable  that  this  was  one 
of  the  employments  of  high  born  dames  in  Egypt  in  ancient 
times.  At  the  present  day  ladies  of  the  highest  rank  in  Egypt 
employ  much  of  their  time  in  embroidering  Linen  and  cotton 
nVues,  particularly  veils  and  handkerchiefs,  with  threads  of 
silver  or  gold,  and  silk,  in  various  colours.  It  would  thus 
appear  that  this  custom  of  early  days  has  been  continued  in 
modern  times,  as  it  may  be  for  ages  yet  to  come.  Some  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  paintings  exhibit  beautiful  specimens  of  the 
rich  embroidered  dresses  then  in  common  use. 

The  coloured  dresses  worn  by  ladies  of  rank  and  by  the 
•  k-ities,  as  represented  in  the  Egyptian  paintings,  much  resemble 
modern  chintzes  in  the  style  of  their  patterns,  though  it  is 
I  >i  obable  that  they  were  generally  of  Linen,  instead  of  cotton  or 
calico.  Some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  worked  with  the 
,  and  others  woven  in  the  loom  with  gold  threads 

Another  very  remarkable  discovery  of  the  Egyptians  was  tin- 
use  of  mordants.  They  were  acquainted  with  the  effect  of 
acids  or  colours,  and  sul-mitti-d  the  cloth  they  dyed  to  one  of  the 
same  processes  adopted  in  modern  dyoworks  and  mauufacloi  i,- 


168  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

Although  Pliny,  in  his  account  of  the  process,  appears  to  have 
understood  very  little  of  what  he  was  describing,  yet  he  gives 
the  strongest  evidence  of  its  truth.  He  says,  "  In  Egypt  they 
stain  cloth  in  a  wonderful  manner.  They  take  them  in  their 
original  state,  quite  white,  and  imbue  them,  not  with  a  dye, 
but  with  certain  drugs  which  have  the  power  of  absorbing  and 
taking  colour.  When  this  is  done  there  is  still  no  appearance 
of  change  in  the  cloths,  bufc  so  soon  as  they  are  dipped  in  a  bath 
of  the  pigment,  which  has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose,  they 
are  taken  out  properly  coloured.  The  singular  thing  is,  that 
though  the  bath  contains  only  one  colour,  several  hues  are  im- 
parted to  the  piece,  these  changes  depending  on  the  nature  of 
the  drug  employed,  nor  can  the  colour  be  afterwards  washed 
off ;  and  surely  if  the  bath  had  many  colours  in  it,  they  must 
have  presented  a  confused  appearance  on  the  cloth."  From  this 
it  is  evident  that  the  cloth  was  prepared  before  being  steeped. 
The  momentary  effect  he  mentions  could  only  be  produced  by 
the  powerful  agency  of  mordants,  which  the  Egyptians  appear 
to  have  used,  not  only  to  make  the  cloth  take  the  colour  equally, 
but  also  to  change  the  hues. 

Whether  the  Egyptians  really  understood  the  principle  on 
which  the  salts  and  acids  of  the  mordants  acted,  or  calculated 
their  effects  solely  from  the  experience  they  had  acquired,  it  is 
difficult  to  decide.  They  were  long  used  in  Europe  before  their 
chemical  agency  was  properly  understood,  and  when  the  term 
mordant  was  first  applied  by  the  French  dyers,  they  imagined 
that  the  intention  of  passing  the  substances,  which  were  to  be 
dyed,  through  certain  saline  liquors,  was  to  corrode  something 
that  opposed  the  entering  of  the  colouring  principle,  and  so  en- 
large the  pores  of  the  substances,  the  effect  of  acids  in  chang- 
ing the  colours  being  a  later  discovery.  It  cannot  therefore, 
with  certainty,  be  proved  that  the  Egyptians  had  a  knowledge 
of  chemistry,  though  from  their  long  experience,  and  their  skill 
in  the  employment  of  the  metallic  oxides,  there  are  strong 
reasons  to  infer  it.  It  is  probable,  though  they  were  at  first 
ignorant  of  the  reason  of  such  changes,  in  process  of  time  they 
were  led  to  investigate  the  causes  by  which  they  were  effected. 

Many  discoveries  and  even  inventions  are  more  the  effect  of 
chance  than  of  studious  reflection,  and  sometimes  the  principle 


EGYPTIAN    I  IN  i  169 

is  last  to  IK-  understood.       Wlu-n  m-  n  >m  long  practice, 

observed  a  fixed  and  undeviating  result,  their  curiosity  becomes 
excited,  and  either  their  thirst  for  knowledge  or  tho  desire  of 
benefiting  by  the  discovery,  prompts  them  to  scrutin/e  the  causes 
whieh  produce  theeffect,  and,  when  this  is  thoroughly  examined 
l.y  people  at  all  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civi/rd  lit,  tiny  will 
sooner  or  later  discover  what  they  desire  to  know.  It  may 
therefore  be  supposed  that  some  general  notions  of  chemistry, 
or  at  least  of  chemical  agency,  were  known  to  the  Egyptians. 
The  beautiful  colours  they  obtained  from  copper,  the  composi- 
tion of  various  metals,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  eftects  pro- 
duced on  different  substances  by  the  salts  of  the  earth,  all  tend 
to  confirm  this  opinion. 

The  sculptures,  as  well  as  some  of  the  cloths  which  have  been 
produced,  perfectly  bear  out  Herodotus  in  his  statement  that  they 
had  tin-  custom  of  leaving  a  fringe  to  their  pieces  of  Linen,  which, 
when  the  dresses  were  made,  formed  a  border  round  the  legs,  but 
they  do  not  appear  to  have  been  universally  worn.  This  kind  of 
dress  was  called  Calasiris,  and  specimens  of  it,  found  in  the 
tombs,  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum  and  other  collections. 
When  the  fringe  was  wanting,  the  border  was  hemmed  to  pre- 
vent the  unravelling  of  the  cloth  ;  and  a  fringe  was  sometimes 
sewed  on,  as  in  many  modern  imitation  shawls.  The  Jews  wore  a 
similar  kind  of  fringed  dress,  and  Moses  commanded  the  childivn 
of  Israel  to  make  them  fringes  in  the  borders  of  their  garments, 
and  to  put  upon  the  fringe  of  the  borders  a  riband  of  blue. 

The  Egyptians  invented  the  manufacture  of  carpets  at  a  v.  TV 
early  date,  as  they  are  mentioned  by  Homer,  who  gives  them 
the  name  they  are  still  known  by,  Tapeta,  whence  (apes fry. 
They  were  used  in  houses,  and  representations  of  them  are 
painted  amongst  the  other  scenes  on  the  walls  of  the  tombs,  and 
fragments  of  them  have  been  discovered.  A  small  rug,  eleven 
inches  long  by  nine  broad,  was  brought  to  England,  which  is 
made  like  Brussels,  tapestry,  and  some  other  carpets  of  the  pre- 
sent day,  with  Flax  yarn  for  warp,  and  woollen  weft.  In  the 
centre  is  the  figure  of  a  boy  in  white,  with  a  goose  above  it,  and 
the  hieroglyphic  of  a  "child"  upon  a  green  ground;  around 
which  is  a  border  composed  of  red  and  blue  lines.  The  re- 
mainder is  a  ground  of  yellow,  with  four  white  figures  above  and 


170  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

below,  and  one  at  each  side,  with  blue  outlines  and  red  orna- 
ments. The  outer  border  is  made  up  of  red,  white,  and  blue 
lines,  with  a  fancy  device  projecting  from  it,  having  a  triangular 
summit,  which  extends  entirely  round  the  carpet.  Its  date  is 
uncertain,  but  from  the  child,  the  combination  of  colours,  and 
the  ornament  of  the  border,  Sir  J.  Wilkinson,  from  whose 
work  this  description  is  taken,  was  inclined  to  think  it  really 
Egyptian. 

The  Egyptians  made  twine  of  various  kinds,  strings,  and  the 
better  sort  of  ropes  they  used,  of  Flax,  and  their  mode  of  twisting 
the  yarn  into  a  rope  is  well  represented  in  some  of  their  ancient 
paintings.  Their  large  ropes  for  common  purposes  were  made 
of  the  fibres  of  the  date  tree,  as  in  the  present  day,  and  many 
specimens  of  this  durable  material  have  been  found  in  the  exca- 
vations both  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  Their  nets,  both  for 
fishing  and  fowling,  were  made  of  Flax  string,  and  portions  of 
them  have  been  discovered  at  Thebes.  Isaiah  mentions  "  they 
that  work  in  fine  Flax,  and  they  that  make  net  works."  Sieves 
were  often  made  of  string,  but  some  of  an  inferior  quality  were 
made  of  rushes  or  reeds. 

Herodotus  mentions  that  the  Egyptians  are  provided  with  a 
remedy  against  gnats,  of  which  there  is  a  surprising  number. 
Each  person  has  a  net  with  which  they  fish  by  day,  and  which 
they  render  useful  by  night.  They  cover  their  beds  with  their 
nets,  and  sleep  securely  beneath  them.  If  they  slept  in  their 
common  habits  or  under  Linen,  the  gnats  would  not  fail  to  tor- 
ment them,  which  they  do  not  even  attempt  through  a  net.  It 
thus  appears  that  the  idea  of  musquito  curtains,  like  very  many 
other  modern  appliances,  is  borrowed  from  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
The  netting  needles  of  the  Egyptians  were  of  wood,  split  at  each 
end,  and  between  ten  and  eleven  inches  in  length,  but  some  of 
them  were  of  bronze  with  the  point  closed. 

The  Egyptians  were  as  celebrated  for  their  manufacture 
of  paper,  as  for  the  delicate  texture  of  their  Linen.  Their  paper 
was  made  from  Papyrus,  and  not  of  Linen  as  is  now  done  in  this 
country,  that  invention,  so  far  as  known,  not  having  been  dis- 
covered until  a  comparatively  recent  date,  there  being  no  positive 
proof  that  Linen  paper  was  known  prior  to  the  eleventh  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  The  Chinese  were  acquainted  with  the 


I... \rn.\s    LINEN.  171 

secret  of  making  paper  train  vegetable  substances  long  before  it 
was  known  in  Europe,  and  ili  y  earri.d  the  manufacture  to  a 
state  of  high  perfection,  but  little  is  known  positively  on  thU 

subject 

Small  boats  wore  soinetim.-  mad.-  ..f  papyrus.      Pliny  says 

boats  were  woven  of  the  papxnis.  the  riml  beinur  made  into  sails, 

curtains,  matting,  rope-,  and  even  into  cloth.  Vessels  of  bul- 
rushes are  mentioned  by  Isaiah  ;  Lucan  alludes  to  the  mode  of 
I >in<liii^  and  sewing  them  with  papyrus;  and  Theophrastus 
notices  boats  made  of  papyrus,  and  sails 'and  ropes  of  th<  rin<l 
of  the  same  plant.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  their 
larger  Nile  ships  and  boats,  and  all  their  sea-going  vessels,  were 
made  of  wood,  strong  and  well  built,  and  able  to  endure  the 
storms  to  which  they  were  exposed  at  sea.  It  is  impossible  to 
believe  that  a  people  so  noted  for  their  Linen  manufacture,  and 
who  mad  i -and  exported  sail-cloth  to  Phoenicia  and  elsewhere 
i>  i  that  purpose,  would  themselves  have  preferred  so  imperfect 
a  substitute  as  the  rind  of  a  plant.  Herodotus  says  that  Egyp- 
tian sails  were  at  first  made  of  rush  mats  and  afterwards  of 
papyrus.  It  is  more  probable  that  they  were  formed  of  a  coarse 
Linen,  resembling  mats,  as  the  people  were  well  acquainted  with 
Flax,  and  must  have  known  that  it  was  the  strongest  and  most 
suitable  material  of  which  they  could  make  their  sails.  The 
more  natural  explanation  of  the  sails  mentioned  by  Pliny  and 
other  ancient  historians  is,  that  those  of  papyrus  may  have 
attracted  attention  from  their  curious  nature,  while  it  was 
thought  unnecessary  to  describe  the  Flax  sails,  from  their  being 
made  of  the  most  suitable  material  and  in  general  use. 

There  was  a  kind  of  Linen  cloth  made  in  Egypt  expressly  for 
-aik  which  was  bought  by  the  Tyrians  for  the  pleasure  galleys 
of  the  king  and  high  grandees.  It  was  painted  or  embroid* 
with  devices,  representing  flowers,  <fcc.,  or  it  was  adorned  with 
ehequers,  or  striped  in  various  colours.  The  ship  in  which 
Antony  and  Cleopatra  went  to  the  battle  of  Actium,  was 
distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  fleet  by  its  purple  sails, 
which  wore  the  peculiar  privilege  of  the  Admiral's  vessel  The 
of  the  large  >hip  of  Ptolemy  Philopater,  mentioned  by 
AttieiiN  \\rre  also  of  line  Linen,  ornamented  uiih  a  purple 
hordrr.  This  cu-tom  was  a  very  an<  i  ^  t  ho  most  highly 


172  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

decorated  sails  are  those  represented  in  the  tomb  of  the  third 
Eemeses  at  Thebes. 

There  was  no  established  rule  for  the  decoration  of  the  sails 
of  a  ship,  as  it  depended  on  the  fancy  of  the  owner,  and  some- 
times the  same  monarch  had  sails  of  different  patterns.  The 
cloth  of  which  the  embroidered  sails  was  formed  was  not  of  a 
very  strong  texture,  and  the  sails  were  therefore  bound  round 
with  a  strong  hem  or  border,  neatly  coloured,  to  strengthen  them 
and  keep  them  from  being  torn.  Ordinary  sails  were  of  white 
cloth,  something  like  those  in  use  at  the  present  day. 

Chemmis,  the  city  of  Pan,  retained  the  credit  it  had  acquired 
for  the  making  of  Linen  stuff  till  about  the  period  of  the  Eoman 
conquest,  and  Strabo  says  that  Panopolis  was  an  ancient  seat  of 
the  Linen  manufacture. 

Hasselquist  says  the  Linen  made  in  Egypt  in  his  time  was 
not  so  thick  as  the  European,  being  softer  and  of  a  looser  tex- 
ture, for  which  reason  it  lasts  longer  than  ours.  He  also  says 
the  common  people  in  Egypt  are  clothed  in  Linen  only,  dyed 
blue  with  indigo,  but  those  of  better  fortune  have  a  black  cloak 
over  their  Linen  shirt. 

The  coarse  Linen  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  made  of  thick 
Flax,  and  used  for  towels  and  for  sails,  and  it  was  called  by  the 
Greeks  by  a  word  which  may  be  translated  canvas  or  sail-cloth, 
but  which  was  probably  originally  Egyptian,  and  only  adopted  by 
the  Greeks.  The  same  remarks  may  apply  to  the  Greek  word 
for  Fine  Linen. 

It  is  recorded  in  the  Rosetta  Inscription,  that  Ptolemy  Epi~ 
phanes  remitted  two  parts  of  the  fine  Linen  cloths  which  were 
manufactured  in  the  Temples  for  the  king's  palace,  and  that  he 
also  remitted  a  tax  on  those  which  were  not  made  for  the  king's 
palace. 

The  Egyptians  were  not  themselves  a  commercial  people,  as 
they  long  had  a  great  aversion  to  the  sea.  They  were,  however, 
extensive  traders  and  manufacturers,  and  produced  goods  well 
worthy  of  being  exported.  Many  of  the  neighbouring  nations 
early  engaged  in  this  traffic,  and  the  Ishmaelites.  who  bought 
Joseph  and  took  him  down  to  Egypt,  traded  between  that 
country  and  Gilead  3600  years  ago.  They  carried  down  balm 
and  spices  into  Egypt,  taking  back  Linen  and  other  productions 


EGYPTIAN  LINEN.  173 

of  that  country  in  return.  The  Phoenicians  early  cultivated  tin 
K-vptiau  trade',  to  the  mutual  advantage  of  both  countries,  and 
of  'the  world  at  large. 

Notwithstanding  the  many  misfortunes  which  from  time  to 
time  befell  Egypt  arising  from  war  and  other  causes,  the  pt-npl. 
.Mill  clung  to  their  famous  Linen  trade.  According  to  tin- 
author  of  the  Periplus  of  the  Erythraan  Sea,  in  the  days  of  the 
Ptolemies,  the  merchants  of  Egypt  exported  to  Adulis  and  other 
ports  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  to  the  straits  of  Babel- 
mandeb  and  the  port  of  communication  with  Axuma,  robes 
manufactured  at  Arsinoe,  cloth  dyed  to  imitate  Tyrian  purple, 
Linens,  tYin-vd  mantles,  <fec.  At  the  same  period  they  traded 
to  Patala  on  the  Indus  ;  to  towns  up  the  Indus  ;  the  I'unjauh  ; 
the  Deccan,  Canara,  and  other  places  on  the  west  of  Hindostan, 
sending  Linen  cloth  woven  in  chequer  work,  £c.,  &c.  In  the 
days  of  the  Ctesars,  Egypt  supplied  to  Rome,  Flax,  fine  Linen, 
paper,  and  cotton  goods,  some  of  which  seem  to  have  been 
coloured  or  printed,  and  which  were  shipped  from  Alexandria. 

The  only  account  which  we  possess  of  China  and  India 
between  that  given  by  two  Mahomedan  travellers  who  visited 
these  countries  in  the  ninth  century,  and  that  given  by  the 
embassies  of  the  European  Powers  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  is  that  given  by  Benjamin,  a  Jew  of  Tudela 
in  Spain.  He  describes  many  countries  and  cities,  and  the 
trade  carried  on  by  them.  Nearly  all  the  Jews,  he  says,  in 
Thebes,  Constantinople,  Samarcand,  &c.,  wore  dyers  of  wool. 
In  Thebes  alone  there  were  2000  workers  in  scarlet  and  purple. 
After  the  conquest  of  the  northern  parts  of  Clu'na  by  Genghis 
khan,  he  fixed  upon  the  city  of  Campeon  in  Tangrit  for  the  seat 
of  a  great  inland  trade.  To  it  Linens  and  many  other  goods 
were  taken  by  the  Chinese  merchants,  who  sold  them  to  the 
Muscovites,  Persians,  and  others.  Marco  Polo  says  that  the 
Khan  of  China  got  the  tenth  of  all  Hemp,  Flax,  and  other  pro- 
duce of  the  earth,  meaning  no  doubt,  of  what  was  grown  in  his 
own  dominions.  It  is  probable,  from  this  remark,  that  the 
Chinese  had  then  grown  Flax,  manufactured  it,  and  sent  it  to 
Campeon  for  sale.  It  may  be,  however,  that  the  Linens  sold  there 
were  the  manufacture  of  Egypt,  sent  through  India,  as  a  trade 
between  Egypt  and  India  existed  many  ages  before  this  period. 


174  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

Sanuto,  a  Venetian  traveller  in  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  says  that  Egypt  was  then  celebrated,  as  of  old, 
for  the  fineness  of  its  Flax.  European  Flax  was  considered  far 
inferior  to  the  Egyptian  species  in  every  respect,  and  of  much 
less  value.  The  Egyptian  Flax  and  their  manufactures  of 
Linen,  silk,  and  Linen  and  silk  mixed,  were  then  exported  ex- 
tensively to  Turkey,  the  Black  Sea,  the  western  parts  of 
Europe,  and  to  Africa,  in  Saracen  or  Christian  vessels,  and  they 
were  much  appreciated  wherever  they  were  sent. 

After  that  period  the  Linen  trade  was  for  a  while  carried 
on  with  more  or  less  success,  but  a  time  came  when  Flax 
ceased  to  be  cultivated,  and  the  shuttle  was  still.  The  rulers, 
despotic  and  barbarous,  so  oppressed  the  people  that  they  had 
no  security  for  the  fruit  of  their  industry,  and  therefore  no 
motive  to  work.  The  people,  servile  and  ignorant,  lived  only 
for  the  day,  their  property  and  their  very  bodies  being  at  the 
command  of  their  pachas  and  governors.  Then  the  Linen 
manufacture  sprung  up  and  flourished  in  other  lands ;  in 
countries  which  were  uninhabited  or  wholly  barbarous  when 
Egypt  led  the  van  of  civilization,  and  acquired  wealth  and  fame 
from  its  fine  Linen.  Then  the  glory  and  the  pride  of  Egypt 
was  gone.  Its  fine  Linen  which  had  called  forth  the  praise  of  the 
nations  of  antiquity,  which  had  clothed  the  High  Priest  of  the 
living  God,  and  enclosed  his  sanctuary,  was  a  thing  of  the  past, 
and  to  the  present  inhabitants  not  even  "  to  memory  dear."  The 
land  was  still  there  as  of  old  ;  the  mysterious  Nile  still  over- 
flowed its  banks  at  the  appointed  season,  rendering  its  soil 
rich  and  fertile  as  in  early  ages.  The  people  were  changed  ; 
changed  in  habits,  in  feelings,  in  industry,  in  intelligence,  in 
everything  that  makes  a  people  great  or  happy ;  and  tin's  sad 
change  was  visible  in  every  acre  of  the  soil,  in  every  act  of  its 
inhabitants. 

After  ages  of  neglect,  by  the  vigorous  but  despotic  policy  of 
the  late  Mehemet  Ali,  the  culture  of  Flax  was  re-established  in 
the  land  of  its  birth,  about  thirty  years  ago,  and  since  that 
period  it  has  been  prosecuted  with  vigour,  and  once  more  be- 
come an  article  of  great  importance  to  the  country.  The  culti- 
vation of  Flax  is  entirely  in  the  hands,  or  under  the  control  of 
the  Government,  who  derive  a  large  income  from  it,  The  ancient 


EGYPTIAN   LINEN.  175 

skill  of  the  Egyptians  in  the  rearing  of  Flax  has  long  been  lost, 
and  the  present  inhabitants  are,  as  it  were,  new  to  the  business. 
The  germ  of  fine  Flax  is,  however,  in  it  still,  and  by  careful  and 
intelligent  cultivation  the  quality  might  be  greatly  improved. 
Borne  of  the  best  parcels  which  have  been  received  combine 
strength  with  fine  fibre,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  exports  are 
coarse,  and  not  of  more  value,  if  of  so  much,  as  the  average  of 
Russian  Flax.  The  high  price  which  the  best  qualities  of 
Government  dressed  Flax  commands  in  this  country,  will  no 
doubt  in  time  stimulate  the  reigning  pacha,  who  is  the  great 
producer,  to  improve  the  cultivation,  and  when  this  is  done  it 
will  be  advantageous  alike  to  grower  and  consumer. 

The  quantity  of  Flax  exported  from  Alexandria  in  1835  was 
only  eight  tons ;  but  the  quantity  gradually  increased  for  a 
number  of  years.  Latterly  it  has  decreased  again,  which  may  be 
attributed  either  to  a  diminished  cultivation,  or  to  greater  local 
consumption.  If  the  latter,  it  would  be  a  proof  that  the  social 
position  of  the  people  was  improved,  and,  as  the  report  of  one  of 
the  commercial  houses  in  Alexandria  on  the  trade  for  last  year 
says,  of  the  well-being  of  the  country. 

The  following  statement  gives  the  export  in  tons  of  Flax 
from  Alexandria  for  the  years  noted  : — 

Years.  1839  1840  1841  1842  1849  1850  1851  1852  1859  1860  1861  1862 
Tons.  305  493  770  1626  5003  6489  7185  3277  772   634  908   1094 

The  value  of  the  exports  for  the  last  four  years  was  £19,135, 
£16,442,  £23,544,  and  £29,675  respectively.  In  1858  the  value 
of  the  Flax  exported  was  £16,596,  of  wlu'ch  £14,211  were  to 
Great  Britain,  and  £6,776  to  Tuscany.  In  1859  the  value  sent 
to  Great  Britain  was  £10,714,  and  to  Tuscany,  £3,234.  Some 
tart  her  details  regarding  this  subject  are  included  in  the  gene- 
ral tables  given  in  another  part  of  the  work. 


176  ANCIENT  LINEN. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PHOENICIAN     LINEN. 

THE  Phoenicians,  according  to  the  Bible,  the  only  authentic 
history  of  this  remote  period  of  the  world,  were  among  the 
first,  if  not  the  very  first  people  who  prosecuted  commercial 
enterprise.  Their  country  was  admirably  situated  for  such  a  pur- 
pose, and  they  appear  to  have  taken  full  advantage  of  their  local 
position,  and  carried  on  an  extensive  trade,  both  by  sea  and 
land,  in  the  very  earliest  times.  Profane  writers  furnish  very 
scanty  materials  on  the  subject,  but  what  they  have  said  is 
entirely  confirmatory  of  what  is  recorded  in  sacred  history. 
They  were  not  so  much  a  manufacturing  people  as  they  were 
the  carriers  of  other  nations.  The  camel  and  the  caravan  on 
land,  and  the  ship  by  sea,  conveyed  the  productions  of  the  east 
to  western  lands,  giving  western  commodities  in  exchange  to 
the  natives  of  eastern  climes.  They  were  in  fact  the  first  mer- 
chants the  world  ever  saw,  and  they  prosecuted  their  traffic  with 
a  perseverance  worthy  of  success.  Their  maritime  enterprise 
has  commanded  the  admiration  of  the  world.  Their  civiliza- 
tion was  far  in  advance  of  the  age,  and  their  learning  was  pro- 
found. To  the  Phoenicians  we  are  indebted  for  the  gift  of 
letters.  The  art  of  making  glass  was  first  practised  by  them, 
and  it  is  said  that  mirrors  were  first  invented  in  Sidon. 

The  dealings  of  the  Phoenicians  with  the  Egyptians  (who 
though  the  most  ancient  of  manufacturers  did  not  for  a  long 
period  engage  in  commerce),  began  in  the  most  remote  times, 
and  was  carried  on  extensively  for  a  very  long  period.  The 
wealth  acquired  by  their  commerce  with  Egypt  and  other  lands 
was  so  vast,  as  well  entitled  their  traders  to  be  called  "  merchant 
princes/7  That  they  were  most  luxurious  in  their  domestic  life 
is  well  established  by  all  writers  who  have  spoken  on  the  sub- 
ject. Linens,  forming  as  they  do  one  of  the  greatest  luxuries 
as  an  article  of  clothing  in  warm  latitudes,  was  early  used  by 
them  for  this  purpose,  and  formed  one  of  their  most  important 


1'IHENICIAK  LINEN.  177 

HI  i  idles  of  merchandize.  They  bought  it  in  K_ry|.t,  not  only  for 
their  own  use,  but  also  to  export  to  other  countries,  where  it  was 
eagerly  sought,  and  as  much  appreciated  ••  it  was  by  the 
Phoenicians  themselves. 

Sidon  owed  its  foundation  to  Sidon,  the  eldest  son  of  Canaan, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  th<  world.  It  possessed 
fleets  3600  years  ago,  but  in  later  times  the  ships  of  old  Tyre, 
which  was  a  colony  of  Sidon,  gained  a  world  wide  celebrity,  and 
for  long  ages  superseded  those  of  her  ancient  mother.  More  than 
3100  years  ago  Phoenician  ships  ploughed  the  Atlantic,  and 
this  maritime  people  founded  the  colony  of  Cadi/..  Their 
vessels  also  sailed  to  Britain,  and  opened  up  the  trade  in  tin 
and  other  minerals  found  in  this  country.  England  must  thus 
have  been  peopled  at  a  very  early  period,  and  her  celebrated 
mineral  wealth  known  and  valued  in  very  remote  historic 
times.  The  Phoenicians  had  early  discovered  the  use  that 
might  be  derived  from  the  wind,  and  employed  sails  of  canvas 
to  propel  their  vessels.  For  this  purpose  large  quantities  of 
strong  Linen  cloth  was  required,  and  also  cordage  of  Flax  for 
rigging  to  their  ships.  These  articles  of  themselves  would 
necessitate  a  considerable  trade  with  Egypt,  whence  their  sup- 
plies of  such  materials  were  drawn.  No  doubt  Flax  yarn  would 
also  be  imported  to  a  large  extent,  and  manufactured  into 
Linen  by  the  Tyrians,  for  home  use  and  for  export  in  their 
trading  expeditions.  Such  a  favourite  article  as  Linen  then  was 
must  have  formed  an  important  portion  of  the  merchandize  of 
this  trading  community. 

Homer,  who  lived  900  years  before  Christ,  says  that  in  the 
Trojan  war  the  Phoenicians  were  famous  for  their  purple  stuff, 
and  furnished  other  nations  with  many  articles  of  luxury.  The 
women  of  Sidon  were  especially  celebrated  for  their  skill  in 
embroidery.  This  was  before  Tyre  had  risen  into  importance, 
as  that  city  is  not  even  mentioned  in  his  works.  According  to 
Herodotus  the  Phoenicians,  before  the  destruction  of  Old  Tyro 
circumnavigated  Africa,  having  sailed  down  the  Red  Sea  and 
returned  to  Egypt  by  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  in  the  days  of  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  who  lived 
about  2500  years  ago. 

The  Tyrians  founded  Carthage  nearly  850  years  before  the 


178  ANCIENT  LISEN. 

Christian  era,  at  which  time  their  fleets  visited  all  the  then 
known  lands.  In  the  days  of  Solomon,  more  than  150  years  be- 
fore that  period,  the  vessels  of  Tyre  traded  in  the  Ked  Sea,  and 
far  south  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa  as  well  as  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  other  parts.  In  those  voyages  an  important  part  of  the 
cargo  consisted  of  the  fine  Linen  of  Egypt,  both  in  the  natural 
state  as  produced  in  that  country,  and  also  dyed  of  various 
shades  of  colour,  particularly  of  the  Tyrian  purple,  for  which  that 
people  early  acquired  great  fame. 

Goguet  and  Heeren  respectively  collected  much  information 
regarding  the  purples  of  antiquity.  They  show  that  the  pre- 
eminence given  to  purple,  as  a  royal  robe  in  the  present  day,  is 
due  to  the  ancient  preference  given  to  that  colour  because  of 
its  superiority  in  those  days  to  all  others.  When  the  beauti- 
ful purple  of  Tyre  was  first  discovered,  the  sovereign  to  whom 
it  was  presented  appropriated  it  as  a  royal  distinction,  hence 
to  "  assume  the  purple "  became  significant  with  being  chosen 
king.  Homer  mentions  that  purple  was  only  worn  by  princes, 
and  this  limitation  of  its  use  was  common  among  other  nations. 
The  king  of  Midian,  defeated  by  Gideon,  was  clad  in  purple 
raiment.  There_were  several  shades  of  purple,  and  Pliny  mentions 
some  of  them.  The  least  esteemed  was  a  faint  red  approach- 
ing to  our  scarlet ;  another  a  deep  red  approaching  to  violet ; 
and  a  third  was  of  a  colour  compared  to  coagulated  bullock's 
blood,  the  most  esteemed  Tyrian  purple  being  of  this  colour. 

These  dyes  were  obtained  from  different  varieties  of  shell-fish 
found  in  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in  the  Atlantic. 
The  most  celebrated  were  got  from  the  coasts  of  Sicily,  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus and  Britain.  Each  fish  only  furnished  a  very  minute 
quantity  of  puce,  pressed  from  a  white  vessel  in  the  neck  of  the 
animal,  and  which  could  only  be  obtained  while  the  animal  was 
alive.  Hence  the  dyeing  matter  must  have  been  very  expensive. 
The  puce  of  this  fish  is  not  now  used  in  dyeing,  and  the  art  of 
preparing  it  is  lost,  but  modern  dyes  are  equally  good  and  pro- 
duced at  much  less  cost. 

The  Phoenicians  excelled  all  other  people  in  the  use  of  this 
colouring  matter,  hence  the  fame  which  the  purples  of  Sidon  and 
Tyre  enjoyed  in  ancient  times.  Other  countries  were  also  cele- 
brated for  their  purples,  but  none  could  equal  Phoenicia.  Linens 


PH«l.Nlri\N     I.INEN.  179 

were  largely  dyed  of  this  colour,  and  the  cloth  BO  dyed  was 
greatly  esteemed  among  all  the  neighbouring  nations,  ;m<l 
formed  an  important  item  of  the  commerce  of  Tyre. 

Another  account  of  the  world  renowned  Tyrian  purple  says  it 
was  got  from  two  little  shell-fish,  the  Bucdnum  and  Murex, 
which  were  only  found  in  perfection  along  the  rocky  coast  of 
Phoenicia.  Antiquity  unanimously  assigns  to  Tyre  the  disco 
of  the  mode  of  obtaining  two  most  beautiful  tints  of  purple  from 
these  animals,  and  of  employing  it  in  dyeing  wool  and  Linen. 
In  a  sac  behind  the  head  of  these  molluscs  is  a  very  minute 
portion  of  a  colourless  creamy  fluid  which  smells  like  garlic.  It 
was  extracted  with  a  pointed  pencil,  and  applied  to  the  Linen, 
which  was  then  exposed  to  a  bright  light,  and  became  suc- 
cessively green,  blue,  red,  deep  purple,  and  by  washing  it  in  soap 
and  water,  of  a  bright  and  permanent  crimson. 

The  first  named  fish  was  found  on  the  rocks  near  the  shore,  and 
the  other  in  deeper  water,  and  the  early  spring  was  the  best  sea- 
son for  taking  them.  Other  places  made  robes  dyed  of  the  same 
colour,  but  none  could  compare  with  the  real  Tyrian,  and  pro- 
bably its  merchants  were  possessed  of  some  chemical  secret  by 
which  the  colour  was  made  more  brilliant,  which  made  them  so 
much  more  beautiful  than  those  of  other  places.  Both  fish  were 
used,  the  murex  first  to  give  depth  and  fastness,  and  then  the 
buccinum  to  enliven  by  its  lighter  reddish  tint.  The  most 
costly  fabrics  were  twice  dyed,  which  made  it  of  so  great  beauty, 
and  so  very  durable,  that  it  brought  fabulous  prices  in  Rome  and 
other  luxurious  places. 

The  capital  of  Justinian  was  supplied  with  the  manufactures 
of  Sidon  fifteen  centuries  after  they  had  been  celebrated  in  the 
poems  of  Homer.  The  silks,  which  had  been  closely  woven  in 
China,  were  sometimes  unravelled  by  the  Phoenician  women, 
and  the  precious  materials  were  multiplied  by  a  looser  texture 
and  the  intermixture  of  Linen  threads.  Such  garments  are 
spoken  of  by  Varro  and  Publius  Syrus.  It  has  been  lately  dis- 
covered by  the  Rev.  C.  Foster,  that  the  ancient  Arabians  were 
skilled  in  the  manufacture  of  silken  textures  at  as  remote  a 
period  as  within  500  years  of  the  Flood,  and  perhaps  the  silk 
which  found  its  way  to  Syria  and  to  Europe  may  have  been 
partly  the  produce  of  Arabia. 
M  2 


180  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

It  is  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey  that  the  Phoenicians  invariably 
sent  a  factor  or  supercargo  with  their  vessels,  who  frequently 
traded  by  retail  at  the  different  ports,  often  stopping  for  months 
at  one  port  for  this  purpose,  and  the  voyage  in  this  way  extended 
over  a  long  period. 

Old  Tyre,  which  was  built  on  the  continent,  was  destroyed  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  years.  The  second  Tyre 
was  thereafter  built  on  an  island  about  a  third  of  a  mile  from 
the  shore.  This  city  never  attained  the  fame  or  importance  of  its 
predecessor,  still  it  was  powerful  enough  to  stay  the  progress  of 
Alexander's  army  for  eight  months,  being  longer  than  any  other 
place  under  the  dominion  of  the  Persians.  Long  after  this  it 
continued  to  hold  a  name  and  place  in  the  world,  but  like  many 
other  Eastern  cities  its  sun  has  long  set,  perhaps  never  to  rise 
again. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CARTHAGENIAN      LINEN. 

OF  all  the  nations  of  antiquity  Carthage,  next  to  Tyre,  was 
the  most  maritime  and  the  most  commercial.  It  was  origi- 
nally a  colony  of  Tyre,  at  that  time  the  most  renowned  city 
for  commerce  in  the  world.  The  Carthagenians  inherited  their 
trading  habits,  and  their  application  to  commerce,  from  their 
progenitors.  In  common  with  the  Tyrians,  the  Canaanites, 
and  the  Israelites,  they  spoke  the  Hebrew  tongue,  or  at  least 
a  language  derived  from  it.  The  commonwealth  was  devoted 
to  trade,  and  their  fleets,  sailing  to  all  parts  of  the  then  known 
world,  wafted  the  superfluities  of  one  nation  to  barter  them  for 
those  of  another.  The  notices  which  we  possess  regarding  the 
trade,  &c.,  of  Carthage  is  almost  all  derived  from  Aristotle. 


CARTHAQENIAN  LINEN.  181 

Among  tlu-ir  imports  were  fine  Flax,  sails  and  cables  for  ships, 
yarns  and  fine  Linen  from  Egypt,  purple  and  scarlet,  tapestry 
in  1  rich  stufls  from  Tyre  and  Phoenicia.  These  were  con- 
sumed at  home,  or  again  exported  to  the  western  parts  of  the 
th« MI  known  world,  and  other  countries  to  which  the  Cartha- 
genians traded,  where  they  were  exchanged  for  iron,  tin,  K-ad, 
copper,  and  other  products  of  these  lands.  From  this  im- 
portation of  fine  Linen  and  yarns  it  may  1><  interred  that  the 
manufacture  of  Linens  was  carried  on  to  a  large  extent  in  this 
great  city.  The  climate  was  very  similar  to  Egypt,  and  Linen 
would  no  douht  be  much  worn  by  the  Carthagenians,  and  also 
form  an  important  article  for  sending  to  foreign  lands  by  its 
im-rcliant  citizens. 

In  time  Carthage,  like  London  of  the  present  day,  rose  to  be 
the  centre  of  the  trade  of  the  world.  The  Carthagenians  were 
for  a  long  period  the  lords  of  the  sea,  and  of  that  proud  city  it 
might  then  with  propriety  have  been  said  that  "  Carthage  rules 
the  waves."  Carthage  was  founded  in  the  year  of  the  world 
3158,  when  Joash  was  king  of  Judah,  79  years  before  the  build- 
ding  of  Rome,  and  846  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Some 
writers  say  it  was  founded  1233  years  before  Christ,  but  this  is 
not  the  generally  received  opinion.  It  subsisted  for  a  period  of 
700  years,  having  been  destroyed  in  the  603d  year  of  Rome,  tho 
3859  year  of  the  world,  and  154  before  Christ.  It  was  founded 
by  Dido,  sister  of  Pygmalion,  king  of  Tyre.  Enervated  by  the 
great  wealth  acquired  by  their  commerce  and  by  the  luxurious 
habits  produced  thereby,  the  Carthagenians  at  last  became  an 
easy  prey  to  the  warlike  Romans.  Mounds  of  debris  and  the 
ruins  of  some  buildings  are  all  that  now  remain  of  that  once 
proud  city. 

The  Babylonians,  in  the  zenith  of  their  power  and  glory,  used 
considerable  quantities  of  Linen  as  articles  of  clothing.  A 
Linen  shirt  formed  a  part  of  the  dress  of  almost  all  the  people, 
and  many  of  them  had  no  other  garments  than  those  composed 
of  Linen.  Very  little  is  known  about  the  production  of  Linen 
in  Assyria  or  Babylonia,  but  when  so  much  of  it  was  consumed 
it  must  have  been  largely  manufactured  at  home.  Very  pro- 
bably, however,  the  finer  qualities  were  brought  from  Egypt, 
hat  country  was  at  that  time  the  manufacturers  of  fine 


182  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

Linen  for  the  world.  Herodotus  says  that  the  dress  of  the 
Babylonians  consisted  of  a  Linen  shirt,  hanging  down  to  the 
feet,  and  over  it  a  woollen  tunic,  while  a  small  white  mantle  or 
shawl  was  wrapped  round  the  body. 

Babylonian  garments  were  in  early  times  much  prized. 
Achan  coveted  one,  and  his  sin  wrought  much  woe  to  the 
Israelites.  Josephus  says  it  was  a  royal  garment  woven  en- 
tirely of  gold,  but  they  were  not  usually  made  of  this  costly 
material,  although  they  were  often  embroidered  with  gold.  This 
robe  was  manufactured  in  the  plain  of  Shinar,  not  neces- 
sarily in  Babylon,  as  this  city  was  not  at  that  early  period 
of  great  importance,  and  it  was  not  until  many  centuries  after- 
wards that  it  was  celebrated  for  its  manufactures.  It  is  doubt- 
ful of  what  these  famous  robes  or  mantles  were  composed,  but  it 
is  supposed  they  were  made  of  various  colours,  which  seem  to 
have  been  disposed  in  figures  resembling  those  on  Turkey  car- 
pets. From  what  the  Konian  writers  say  about  them  it  is  un- 
certain whether  they  were  painted,  woven  in  the  loom,  or  em- 
broidered by  the  needle.  These  robes  from  their  glossiness  and 
tasteful  combination  of  colours,  produced  a  very  splendid  and 
rich  effect.  They  were  very  costly,  and  considered  in  the 
highest  degree  luxurious.  Plutarch  relates  that  Cato,  on  re- 
ceiving one  of  them  by  inheritance,  commanded  it  to  be  im- 
mediately sold,  because  he  thought  it  too  costly  for  a  conscien- 
tious Koman  to  wear,  thus  showing  his  enmity  to  luxury.  One  of 
Nero's  dining  rooms  was  hung  with  Babylonian  cloth  at  an  ex- 
pense, as  mentioned  by  Pliny,  of  4,000,000  sisterces,  or  upwards 
of  £32,300  sterling.  It  is  likely  that  gold  and  silver  had  entered 
largely  into  the  composition  of  textures  so  extravagantly  costly. 

The  Komans  got  their  silks  from  Babylon  in  the  days  of 
Pliny.  It  is  supposed  that  the  Babylonians  got  them  from  the 
Indians,  who  in  turn  received  them  from  China.  China  would 
thus  appear  to  have  been  the  early  seat  of  the  silk  manufacture. 
Perhaps  the  Babylonian  mantles  may  latterly  have  been 
formed  of  silk,  but  they  were  more  likely  to  have  made  of  Linen 
or  woollen  in  these  early  times,  as  there  is  no  certain  proof  that 
silk  was  then  known  in  the  western  world.  It  is  related  that 
the  Babylonian  gods  were  arrayed  in  robes  of  purple,  and  very 
probably  these  were  made  of  Linen.  Strabo  speaks  of  the  same 


COLCH1CAN   LINEN.  183 

three  articles  of  dress  as  worn  by  the  Babylonian*  that  arc  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus,  and  shows  where  they  were  chiefly  made. 
II.-  says  that  Borsippa,  a  city  of  Babylonia,  sacred  to  Apollo 
and  Diana,  was  a  great  place  for  the  manufacture  of  Linen. 

There  is  no  doubt  therefore  that  Flax  was  extensively  culti 
vated  in  Babylonia,  and  that  Linen  was  an  article  of  very  large 
ron sumption  there.       The  growth  of  Flax  in  the  region  of  tin 
Kuphrates  may  also  be  inferred  from  the   use  of  the   Lin.  n 
thorax,  as  attested  by  Xenophon. 

It  is  supposed,  on  good  grounds,  that  large  weaving  cstaMMi-- 
i  muts,  approaching  in  many  particulars  to  the  cloth  factories  of 
the  present  day,  were  scattered  throughout  the  whole  of  th»« 
provinces  of  Babylonia.  Nineveh,  and  indeed  all  the  cities  which 
studded  the  banks  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  were  famous  for 
rh.-ir  woollen  and  Linen  manufactures,  and  had  been  so  in  all 
likelihood  from  the  time  of  the  dispersion  at  BabeL 

Now  Babylon  is  not ;  Nineveh  and  the  other  great  cities  of 
that  region,  which  formerly  played  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  his- 
tory have  perished,  and  even  the  sites  of  some  of  them  are  un- 
known or  only  guessed  at.  With  their  fall  trade  and  commerce 
in  those  once  fair  and  fertile  countries  were  extinguished,  and 
Babylonian  Linen  and  even  the  gorgeous  Babylonian  mantles 
now  only  historically  exist. 


CHAPTER  V. 

COLCHICAN     LINEN. 

ACCORDING  to  Diodorus,  Herodotus  and  other  historians,  the 
Egyptian  King  Sesostrin,  who  lived  3500  years  ago,  had  fleets 
both  in  the  Red  Sea  and  in  the  Mediterranean.  Gibbon  affirms 
that  Sesostris,  who  carried  on  extensive  wars,  and  extended  his 


184  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

conquests  to  distant  countries,  planted  a  colony  at  Colchis  on 
the  banks  of  the  Phasis,  a  river  flowing  into  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Pontus  Euxinus  or  Black  Sea.  The  sailors  employed  by 
Sesostris  were  probably  Phoenicians,  because  his  own  people  were 
not  then  navigators,  and  their  antipathy  to  the  sea  existed  for 
many  ages  after  this  period. 

It  is  certain  that  whether  or  not  Colchis  was  a  colony  of 
Egypt,  the  people  prepared  their  Flax  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Egyptians,  and  in  a  way  not  practised  by  any  other  nation. 
They  manufactured  Linen  on  an  extensive  scale,  built  navies, 
and  invented  geographical  maps.  Phineus,  king  of  Colchis, 
told  the  Argonauts  of  the  maps,  and  exhibited  them  to  the 
leaders  of  the  Greeks. 

Xenophon  directs  that  nets  should  be  made  of  Flax  from  the 
Phasis  or  from  Carthage.  Strabo  testifies  to  the  celebrity  of 
Colchis  for  the  growth  and  manufacture  of  Flax,  and  says  that 
the  Linen  of  this  country  was  exported  to  distant  places. 

Hemp  as  well  as  Flax  was  grown  extensively  in  Colchis,  and 
they  were  exported  to  the  ports  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  by  the 
lonians,  who  traded  largely  with  the  eastern  and  northern 
coasts  of  the  Euxine,  through  the  medium  of  their  Milesian 
colonies. 

The  productions  of  Colchis,  especially  Flax,  Hemp,  and  fine 
Linen,  formed  an  important  article  of  import  into  Rome  in  the 
days  of  Augustas,  showing  that  the  trade  had  been  long  and 
successfully  carried  on.  Herodotus  says  that  the  Linen  of 
Colchis  was  by  the  Greeks  called  Sardonian,  and  the  Linen  of 
Egypt  Egyptian.  This  would  imply  that  there  was  a  difference 
between  the  manufactures  of  the  two  countries,  as  there  would 
have  been  no  occasion  to  give  them  distinguishing  names  had 
they  been  of  a  like  quality. 

For  a  long  period  after  the  reign  of  Augustus  the  country 
appears  to  have  maintained  its  ancient  pre-eminence  for  Linens. 
Larcher  refers  to  Chardin  as  saying  that  the  Prince  of  Mingre- 
lia,  a  part  of  the  ancient  Colchis,  paid  in  his  time  an  annual 
tribute  of  Linen  to  the  Turks. 

Although  Imeretia  has  long  since  lost  her  ancient  and  famous 
Linen  trade,  Flax  and  Hemp  are  yet  grown  abundantly  in  the 
country.  The  crops  of  Flax  are  in  the  present  day  described  as 


ORE<  I\N    II  185 

U-iug  rich  and  luxuriant,  but  the  plant  is  now  grown  for  its  oil 
alone,  and  the  stalks  are  burned  as  soon  as  the  seeds  are  gathered 
This  destruction  of  valuable  fibre  is  to  be  regretted,  as  it  mi^ht 
yet  be  made  what  it  was  in  ancient  times,  an  important  article 
of  export,  profitable  alike  to  the  growers  and  to  the  countries 
which  import  it.  The  subject  is  worthy  of  the  attention  of 
Turkish  and  other  merchants  trading  to  this  part  of  the  Black 
Bet, 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GRECIAN      LINEN. 

THE  physical  contour  of  a  country  influences  to  a  great  ex- 
tent the  particular  kind  of  industry,  and  perhaps  the  very  cha- 
racter, of  the  people.  Egypt  first,  and  Germany  subsequently, 
were  the  great  Linen  producing  countries  of  ancient  times,  be- 
cause in  these  had  been  placed  the  splendid  alluvial  plains  of  the 
Nile  and  the  Rhine.  The  Egyptian  and  German  people  were,  as 
a  rule,  peace-loving  and  industrious.  On  the  other  hand,  the  in- 
habitants of  mountainous  districts  were  generally  more  noted  for 
woollen  manufactures,  because  their  flocks  yielded  a  ready  supply 
of  the  raw  material.  They  were  also  of  a  more  turbulent  and 
warlike  disposition  than  the  people  who  inhabited  the  neigh- 
bouring plains.  Such  was  Greece  in  the  earliest  times.  It  had 
famous  mountains  and  numerous  hills,  but  it  had  no  large 
rivers,  and  few  great  plains.  It  had  its  petty  tribes,  rugged  as 
the  country  in  which  they  dwelt,  but  war  was  more  congenial  to 
their  tastes  than  industrial  pursuits,  and  of  trade  and  commerce 
it  had  none. 

In  some  of  the  beautiful  Islands  which  abound  in  the  Grecian 
Seas,  and  which  almost  surround  the  mainland  as  it  were  with 


186  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

bright  and  lovely  gems,  a  spirit  of  peaceful  enterprise  was  early 
created.  Their  own  little  world  at  home  being  too  small  for 
their  support  or  their  ambition,  they  sallied  forth  in  quest  of 
fortune,  and  opened  up  a  trade  with  distant  lands.  The 
lonians  had  colonies  at  a  very  early  period,  and  colonies  imply 
interchange  of  commodities.  Through  their  instrumentality 
the  produce  of  distant  countries  was  brought  to  Greece,  and  this 
gradually  changed  the  tastes  and  habits  of  the  people.  Originally 
they  were  indifferent  about  dress,  and  content  with  the  produce  of 
their  flocks,  woven  in  native  looms.  As  refinement  progressed 
Linen  would  come  into  use,  and  the  famous  products  of  the  looms 
of  Egypt,  of  Phoenicia,  of  Babylonia,  or  of  Colchis,  would  be 
more  and  more  prized.  The  manners  and  customs  of  a  people  are 
not  changed  in  a  day,  and  in  Greece  these  changes  were  progres- 
sive. This  is  borne  out  by  the  following  account  of  the  employ- 
ment, dress,  and  habits  of  the  people,  especially  with  reference 
to  the  state  of  the  Linen  manufacture  among  them. 

Greece  was  not  a  Flax  growing  country  ;  indeed,  being  inter- 
sected in  every  part  by  mountainous  ridges,  and  possessed  of  no 
rivers  or  alluvial  plains  of  any  importance,  it  was  not  by  nature 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  only  part  where 
it  is  recorded  to  have  been  grown  in  ancient  times  was  Elis,  a  low 
lying  plain  on  the  extreme  west  of  the  Peloponnesus,  watered  by 
the  rivers  Alpheus  and  Igliaco.  Pliny  affirms  that  it  was  pro- 
duced in  that  country.  Pausanius  speaks  of  the  district  of  Elis 
as  well  adapted  for  growing  the  Byssus.  He  remarks  that  all  the 
people  whose  land  is  adapted  for  it  sow  Hemp,  Flax,  and  Byssus. 
In  a  third  passage  he  says  that  the  Byssus  of  Elis  is  not  in- 
ferior to  that  of  the  Hebrews  in  fineness,  but  it  is  not  so  yellow. 
This  Byssus  of  the  Hebrews  may  have  been  so  called  because  it 
was  imported  into  Greece  by  them,  and  not  because  it  grew  in 
Palestine.  It  is  well  known,  ho  vvever,  that  Flax  was  grown  ex- 
tensively there,  and  that  there  was  a  manufacture  of  Byssus  in 
Judah,  and  it  may  therefore  have  been  veritably  Byssus  of  the 
Hebrews. 

If  Flax  was  not  extensively  grown  in  Greece  it  must  have  been 
largely  imported,  as  it  was  an  article  of  great  consumption  from 
comparatively  early  times.  In  Greece  weaving  was  a  distinct  trade, 
carried  on  by  a  separate  class  of  persons ;  but,  in  addition  to  this, 


OBEriAN    1. 1 SEN.  187 

every  considerable  domestic  establishment,  especially  in  the 
country,  contained  a  loom,  with  the  other  necessary  apparatus  for 
making  cloth.  The  spinning  of  yarn  was  a  common  employ- 
ment of  the  women,  and  the  most  noble  in  tin'  hind  did  not 
think  it  beneath  them  to  jo  in  in  the  labour.  When  the  farm- 
house or  the  palace  was  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  it,  a  sepa- 
rate portion  was  devoted  to  this  purpose.  The  work  was  princi- 
pally carried  on  by  female  slaves,  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  mistress  of  the  house  These  occupations  were  all  supposed 
to  be  carried  on  under  the  protection  of  Athena  or  some  other 
goddess. 

A  lady  in  the  Homeric  age  is  described  in  the  Odyssey  as  pos- 
sessed  of  various  articles  of  costly  manufacture  :  "  Her  lyre  had 
a  silver  frame,  her  basket  is  silver,  and  her  distaff  gold." 
Saffron  was  used  as  a  spindle  by  the  women  of  remote  antiquity. 

Homer  mentions  a  distaff  of  gold  given  to  Spartan  Helen  by 
Alexandra,  the  wife  of  Polybus,  who  lived  in  Thebes  in  Egypt, 
which  he  thus  describes : — 

And  that  rich  vase,  with  living  sculpture  wrought, 
Which,  heaped  with  wool,  the  beauteous  Philo  brought 

Theocritus  presented  a  distaff  of  ivory  to  Theugenis,  the  wife  of 
his  friend  Nicias,  the  Milesian  physician  ;  and  he  has  given  a  very 
striking  proof  of  the  pleasure  which  the  women  of  Miletus  took  in 
UK  ir  employment  in  the  verses  which  accompanied  the  gift. 
Among  both  the  Grecian  and  Roman  ladies  the  distaff  and 
spindle  were  always  of  beautiful  workmanship,  and  sometimes  of 
costly  materials.  In  addition  to  these  articles  they  had  also  a 
basket  for  holding  the  wool  or  Flax,  called  a  calaihus  or  qualm. 
It  was  generally  composed  of  wicker-work. 

Catullus,  in  his  description  of  the  marriage  of  Peleus  and 
Thetis,  says : — 

The  softest  fleeces,  white  as  driven  snow, 
Beside  their  feet,  in  osier  baskets,  glow. 

Sidonian  artists  were  most  expert  in  the  fabrication  of  em- 
broidered works,  but  the  high-  born  ladies  of  the  court  were 
apparently  no  mean  proficients.  Helen  wcaved  a  representation 


188  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

of  a  battle  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Trojans.  Andromache 
copied  flowers  in  a  veil.  The  web  of  Penelope  is  proverbially 
known — that  funeral  offering  for  Laertes  from  the  hand  of  filial 
affection ;  while  another,  which  she  presents  to  an  unknown 
guest,  is  beautifully  described  by  Pope. 

In  spinning  and  weaving  the  ancients  evidently  rivalled  the 
present  age,  though  without  the  aid  of  machinery.  As  far  in- 
deed as  spinning  is  concerned  no  machinery  can  rival  the  human 
hand,  which,  from  its  slight  oily  exudation  is  enabled  to  com- 
municate superior  strength  and  evenness  to  the  finest  threads. 
Thus  in  Hindoostan  muslins  were  formerly  produced  which, 
laid  on  the  grass  and  wetted  by  dew,  became  invisible,  and 
there  is  no  room  for  doubting  that  the  produce  of  the  ancient 
Greek  looms  rivalled  those  of  Dacca.  The  fabrics  of  Cos  and 
Tarentum  appear,  in  fact,  from  the  testimony  of  the  ancients,  to 
have  floated  like  a  snowy  mist  around  the  female  form,  dis- 
closing its  whole  contour  like  a  gauze  veil.  It  is  related  that 
the  ambassador  of  Shah  Sefi,  on  his  return  from  India,  presented 
his  master  with  a  cocoa  nut  set  with  jewels,  containing  a  muslin 
turban,  thirty  English  yards  in  length,  so  exquisitely  fine,  that 
it  could  scarcely  be  felt  by  the  touch. 

The  employments  of  women  in  the  Homeric  times  included 
the  labour  of  the  loom,  to  excel  in  which  was  considered  one 
of  their  chief  accomplishments,  and  most  necessary  duties. 
Carding  and  spinning  also  entered  into  the  list  of  occupations.  A 
Homeric  princess  thought  nothing  beneath  her  which  could  con- 
tribute to  the  comfort  or  elegant  adornment  of  those  she  loved. 
Constant  practice,  and  the  delight  which  familiar  and  voluntary 
labour  inspires,  had  already,  in  the  heroic  ages,  enabled  the 
Grecian  ladies  to  throw  much  splendour  and  richness  of  inven- 
tion into  their  fabrics.  Probably  the  desire  of  excelling  the 
ladies  of  Sidon  in  works  of  this  kind  gave  an  additional  im- 
pulse to  their  industry  and  skill.  At  all  events  Homer  makes  it 
abundantly  clear  that  they  understood  how  to  employ  with 
singular  felicity  the  arts  of  design,  and  to  represent  in  varied 
colours,  cities,  landscapes,  human  figures,  and  all  the  com- 
plicated movements  of  war.  No  doubt  allowance  must  be  made 
for  the  poet's  unrivalled  skill  in  painting,  but  even  then,  enough 
remains  to  prove  that  at  the  period  of  the  Trojan  war,  Greece 


GRECIAN   LINEN.  189 

had  made  remarkable  progress  in  every  art  which  tends  to 
ameliorate  and  embellish  human  life. 

In  these  occupations  high-born  ladies  took  refuge  from  anxiety 
and  sorrow.  To  them  Hector,  as  Homer  relates  in  the  Iliad,  with 
rough  tenderness,  urged  his  beloved  wife  to  have  recourse,  when 
her  affection  would  withdraw  him  from  his  post.  Telemachus, 
as  told  in  the  Odyssey,  in  a  tone  perhaps  somewhat  too  authori- 
tative, recommends  the  same  course  to  his  mother.  The  wife 
of  Odysseus,  famed  for  her  household  virtues,  sat  at  her  own 
door  spinning  the  purple  thread.  Arete,  queen  of  Phceacia,  is 
likewise  depicted  sitting  at  the  fire,  distaff  in  hand,  encircled  by 
her  maids.  Even  Helen,  though  frail  as  fair,  is  as  laborious  as 
Penelope,  plying  her  shuttle  or  her  golden  distaff,  and  sur- 
rounded habitually  by  a  troop  of  maidens  —the  she-manufac- 
turers of  the  period. 

The  Greeks  were  famous  for  the  beautiful  patterns  woven  in 
their  cloths,  which  were  variegated  with  stripes,  lozenges,  the 
figures  of  birds  and  other  animals,  sprigs,  flowers,  and  stars, 
interwoven  into  their  texture,  of  the  most  brilliant  and  beauti- 
ful colours.  Others  were  richly  embroidered.  Even  napkins  in 
Egypt  were  embroidered  with  golden  flowers,  as  both  these  and 
all  kinds  of  handkerchiefs  still  are  throughout  the  East.  In 
that  age  the  warrior  was  to  some  extent  indebted  to  the 
labours  of  the  needle  and  the  loom.  Wild  animals  or  other 
figures,  the  trophies  of  his  dexterity  in  the  chase,  or  his  prowess 
in  the  fight,  were  embroidered  in  his  belt.  More  ample 
robes  were  either  received  as  the  pledge  of  courteous  hospitality, 
or  worn  as  the  prize  of  valour.  In  Greece  the  fine  soft  vests 
which  warriors  wore  beneath  their  shirts  of  mail  were  usually 
figured  with  rich  embroidery  by  the  females  of  their  family. 
Such  occupations  suited  the  secluded  life  and  habits  of  oriental 
females,  and  the  articles  so  wrought  are  graphically  described 
by  the  mother  of  Sisera.  Such  garments  were  stored  in  the 
treasury  of  Priam. 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary  productions  of  the  Grecian 
loom  seems  to  have  been  that  magnificent  chlamys  which  was 
weaving  for  king  Demetrius  at  the  period  of  his  overthrow.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  a  long  time  in  hand,  and  represented  in 
one  vast  picture,  both  the  face  of  the  earth  and  heaven  with  all 


190  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

its  constellations.  But  it  never  was  completed,  none  of  the 
succeeding  sovereigns  of  Macedon  possessing  the  gorgeous  taste 
of  the  son  of  Antigonus. 

It  appears  to  be  generally  supposed  that  silver  threads  were 
not  employed  until  a  very  recent  period,  either  in  weaving  or 
embroidery.  Mention,  however,  is  made  in  Philo  Sudseus  of 
purple  coverlets  inwrought  with  silver  and  gold.  At  length  the 
love  of  show  and  magnificence  rose  to  such  a  height,  that  robes 
were  woven  entirely  of  threads  of  gold. 

In  the  Homeric  ages  it  is  probable  that  the  dresses  of  the 
Greeks  had  been  almost  entirely  composed  of  woollen  cloth, 
Linen  being  little  used,  and,  if  manufactured  at  all,  only  to  a 
small  extent  at  that  early  date.  As  refinement  increased  the 
articles  of  dress  became  more  varied  and  costly,  and  Linen  came 
to  be  generally  worn,  at  least  as  underclothing,  especially  among 
the  ladies  of  Attica. 

It  is  probable,  from  the  Greek  word  used  for  Linen  in  two 
passages  in  the  Iliad,  that  the  Linen  was  procured  from  Egypt, 
the  term  appearing  to  have  been  originally  Egyptian  and 
adopted  by  the  Greeks.  In  the  time  of  Homer  the  use  of 
Linen  cloth  was  certainly  rare  among  the  Greeks,  and  the 
manufacture  of  it  was  perhaps  as  yet  unknown  to  them. 

In  a  list  of  ladies  tradesmen  given  in  Plautus,  mention  is  made 
of  Linen  weavers. 

Being  ignorant  who  was  the  inventor  of  weaving,  the  Grecians 
attributed  the  honour  to  Athena.  She  imparted  a  knowledge 
of  it  to  Arachne,  a  virgin  of  Masonia,  afterwards  changed  into  a 
spider.  But  spiders  were  not  long  the  only  weavers  among  the 
Hellenes,  as  they  speedily  invented  the  upright  and  horizontal 
looms,  which,  in  after  times  at  least,  were  constructed  from  the 
wood  of  the  Andrachne. 

The  traditions  of  many  ancient  nations  refer  the  invention  of 
the  art  of  weaving  cloth  to  a  very  remote  antiquity.  According 
to  Pliny,  Semiramis  the  Assyrian  queen,  was  believed  to  have 
been  the  inventress  of  this  art.  Minerva  is  in  some  of  the 
ancient  statues  represented  with  a  distaff,  to  intimate  that  she 
taught  the  art  of  spinning.  This  honour  is  given  by  the 
Egyptians  to  Isis ;  by  the  Mahomedans  to  a  son  of  Japhet ;  by 
the  Chinese  to  the  consort  of  their  Emperor  Yas  ;  and  by  the 


GRECIAN   LINEN.  191 

Pi  iiivians  to  Mamoella,  wife  of  Manco-capac,  their  first  sove- 
reign. A  decided  majority  ol  these  names  are  those  of  ladies, 
thus  associating  women  with  the  establishment  of  the  useful  arts 
in  countries  far  apart  and  in  very  remote  times.  These  tradi- 
tions, says  Yates  in  his  "  'IVxtriimra  Antiquorum,"  serve  only  to 
carry  the  invaluable  art  of  spinning  and  weaving  up  to  an  ex- 
tivmely  remote  period,  long  prior  to  that  of  authentic  history. 

The  same  learned  author  has  published  a  curious  map  designed 
to  indicate  the  divisions  of  the  ancient  world,  as  determined  by 
tlu»  raw  materials  produced,  and  employed  in  them  for  weaving. 
In  China  the  chief  manufacture  has  been  from  time  immemorial 
silk  ;  in  India,  cotton ;  in  Egypt,  Colchis  in  the  Euxine,  and 
the  delta  of  the  Rhine,  flax ;  in  Western  Asia  and  Southern 
Europe,  wool ;  and  in  Northern  Europe,  hemp, 

In  Persia  and  other  Eastern  countries  the  taste  for  ladies  to 
spin,  weave,  and  make  embroidered  garments  prevailed  down  to 
a  later  age.  When  Sisygambis,  the  captive  Persian  Queen,  was 
presented  by  Alexander  with  purple  and  wool,  she  said,  in  an 
agony  of  grief  and  tears,  they  reminded  her  of  happier  days.  The 
conqueror,  misunderstanding  her  feelings,  and  desiring  to  remove 
thr  notion  that  he  was  imposing  any  servile  task,  observed: — 
"  This  garment,  mother,  which  you  see  me  wear,  is  not  merely 
the  gift,  but  the  work  also,  of  my  sisters."  Similar  presents 
passed  between  near  relations  in  Persia,  for  it  is  related  by 
Herodotus  that  Amestris,  the  queen  of  Xerxes,  conferred  upon 
her  husband,  as  a  gift  of  price,  a  rich,  variegated,  and  ample 
pelisse,  which  the  labours  of  her  own  fair  hands  had  rendered 
valuable. 

The  Dorian  style  of  dress  formed  the  point  of  transition  from 
the  simple  elegance  of  the  Homeric  period  to  the  elaborate 
splendour  of  the  historic  age  at  Athens.  Wealthy  and  fond  of 
show  they  delighted  in  a  style  of  dress  curious  and  magnificent, 
appearing  abroad  in  flowing  robes  of  the  finest  Linen,  dyed  with 
purple  and  other  brilliant  colours. 

As  much  dignity  is  supposed  to  belong  to  ample  drapery,  the 
cit  ixen  ladies  in  some  of  the  districts  of  Greece  took  care  not  to 
be  sparing  of  their  stuff,  their  dresses  trailing  on  the  ground, 
and  displaying  numerous  folds  produced  purposely  at  the  extre- 
mity, by  a  band  passing  round  the  edge.  These  garments  were 


192  ANCIENT   LINEN, 

generally  of  Linen.    Snow  white  slippers  of  fine  Linen,  flowered 
with  needle-work,  were  occasionally  worn. 

The  dress  of  the  men  included  many  of  the  garments  worn  by 
women,  for  example  the  chiton,  of  which  there  were  several 
kinds,  some  with  and  some  without  sleeves,  were  worn  by  both 
sexes  in  some  parts  of  Greece. 

According  to  Julius  Pollux,  the  Athenians  and  lonians  wore 
a  Linen  shirt  reaching  to  the  feet.  The  lonians  cultivated 
Flax  in  their  own  country,  as  well  as  in  colonies  they  had  in 
the  Euxine  Sea,  and  on  this  account,  as  well  as  in  consequence 
of  the  general  elegance  and  refinement  of  their  manners,  for 
which  they  were  proverbial,  it  is  probable  that  they  adopted  this 
article  of  clothing  long  before  the  Athenians.  Indeed  it  appears 
probable  that  the  Linen  first  used  by  the  Athenians  was  imported. 
Herodotus  remarks  that  the  Linen  shift  worn  by  the  Athenian 
women  was  originally  Carian. 

Athena  was  considered  to  be  the  goddess  who  presided  over 
spinning  and  weaving.  A  bride  at  the  altar  of  Athena  always 
presented  one  of  her  tresses  cut  off  and  twined  round  a  spindle 
as  a  marriage  offering. 

The  Athenian  ladies  wore  a  white  tunic  reaching  to  the 
ground  (answering  to  the  modern  chemise),  in  some  instances 
sleeveless  and  fastened  on  the  shoulders  with  buttons  ;  in  others 
furnished  with  loose  hanging  sleeves  descending  to  the  wrist, 
and  brought  together  at  intervals  upon  the  arm  by  silver  or 
golden  agraffes.  It  was  gathered  into  close  folds  under  the 
bosom  by  a  girdle  or  ribband,  sometimes  fastened  in  front  by  a 
knot,  and  sometimes  by  a  clasp.  This  inner  robei  made  in  the 
earlier  ages  of  fine  Linen  manufactured  in  Attica,  or  imported 
from  Egypt,  Tyre,  or  Sidon,  came  in  after  times  to  be  of 
muslin  from  Tarentum,  or  woven  at  home  from  Egyptian 
cotton.  The  use  of  fine  Linen,  however,  for  this  purpose  was 
not  wholly  superseded  by  either  of  these  fabrics. 

Pliny  says  that  among  the  finest  and  most  elegant  fabrics  of 
Greece  were  those  manufactured  in  the  Achaean  city  of  Patree, 
where  the  women,  being  twice  as  numerous  as  the  men,  would 
alone  appear  to  have  worked  in  the  factories,  from  which  the 
greater  number  of  the  inhabitants  doubtless  derived  their  liveli- 
hood. The  Flax  from  which  the  fine  Linen  and  head  nets  of 


GRECIAN    1  IN  EN. 

this  town  were  made,  was  not  grown  in  thr  n,iulil">ui  hood,  but 
in  the  plains  of  Elis,  where  alone  in  Greece  the  plant  attained 
tin-  highest  degree  of  perfection ;  not  yielding  in  fineness  to  tin- 
best  produced  elsewhere,  while  it  was  possessed  of  sui>erior 
whiteness.  The  fine  cloths  manufactured  from  it  sold  fur  tin  ii 
weight  in  gold. 

A  very  beautiful  kiml  from  the  Island  of  Amorgos,  one  of  the 
Cyclades,  was  often  substituted,  down  to  a  very  late  period,  in 
place  of  the  byssus  or  fine  Linen  of  Egypt.     This  insular  fabric, 
whether  snow  white  or  purple,  would  have  rivalled  the  finest 
cambric,  being  of  the  most  delicate  texture,  and  semi-trans- 
parent, like  the  Tarentine  and  Coan  vests  of  the  Roman  ladio 
the  Sandyx-coloured  Lydian  robe,  or  the  silken  chemises  of  the 
Turkish  sultanas  described  by  Lady  Montague.      It  ia  in  a 
tunic  of  this  Linen  that  Lysistrata  in  Aristophanes  advises  th« 
Athenian  ladies  to  appear  before  their  husbands,  in  order  to  § 
full  effect  to  the  splendour  of  their  charms. 

In  imitation  of  the  Egyptians  they  wove  a  sort  of  fine  napkins, 
which  were  evidently  used  in  the  same  manner  as  modern 
pocket  handkerchiefs  (for  which,  according  to  Aristophanes,  the 
old  men  substituted  a  fox's  tail.)  The  Flax  from  which  these 
beautiful  Linens  was  made  was  cultivated  in  the  Island,  and- it 
was  of  remarkably  fine  quality. 

Because  the  Amorginean  Linen  was  often,  perhaps  commonly, 
dyed  purple,  the  word  amorgis  has  sometimes  been  supposed 
to  denote  purple  stuff,  and  it  has  been  inferred  that  none  purely 
white  was  produced ;  but  this,  as  Bochart  observes,  is  probably  a 
mistake,  indeed  it  is  believed  that  the  fabrics  of  the  Island  were 
as  often  white  as  dyed.  At  all  events,  it  was  of  extraordinary 
fineness,  surjferior,  in  the  opinion  of  Lindas,  even  to  the  byssus 
and  carbasos  or  lawn  of  Cyprus,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  of  a 
thin  gauze-like  texture,  like  the  drapery  of  "  woven  air,"  which 
Petronius  throws  around  his  female  characters. 

Over  the  chiton  was  worn  a  shorter  robe  not  reaching  below 
the  knee,  and  confined  above  the  loins  by  a  broad  ribband. 
This  was  also  in  some  instances  furnished  with  sleeves,  and  of 
a  rich  purple  or  saffron  colour,  generally  ornamented  like  the 
chiton  with  a  broad  border  of  variegated  embroidery.  To  these, 
in  order  to  complete  the  walking  dress,  was  added  a  magnify 


194  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

cent  mantle,  generally  of  purple  embroidered  with  gold,  which 
being  thrown  negligently  over  the  shoulders,  floated  airily  about 
the  person,  discovering  the  under  garments,  exquisitely  disposed 
for  the  purpose  of  displaying  all  the  contours  of  the  form,  par- 
ticularly of  the  waist  and  bosom. 

Diogenes  Laertius  tells  a  story  respecting  the  philosopher 
Crates,  which  shows  that  at  Athens  it  was  not  deemed  proper 
for  a  man  to  wear  Linen  as  an  outer  garment,  but  that  persons 
were  enveloped  in  it  under  the  hands  of  the  hairdresser.  The 
Athenian  police  officer  having  charged  him  with  wearing  a 
Linen  sheet  for  his  outer  garment,  he  said  I  will  shew  you 
Theophrastus  himself  habited  in  that  manner,  and,  when  they 
doubted  the  fact,  he  took  them  to  see  Theophrastus  at  the  hair- 
dresser's. Alciphron  tells  of  the  barber  putting  on  him  a  Linen 
cloth  in  order  to  shave  him,  and  Phaneas,  in  an  epigram,  says 
the  cloth  used  in  shaving  is  Linen. 

Herodotus  says  that,  before  an  incident  which  he  relates, 
"  the  women  of  Athens  wore  the  Doric  vest,  which  resembles 
the  Corinthian  ;  that  they  might  have  no  occasion  for  clasps 
they  obliged  them  to  wear  Linen  tunics/' 

According  to  the  same  author,  Xerxes  provided  cordage  made 
of  the  bark  of  the  biblos,  and  of  white  Flax,  for  constructing 
the  bridges  over  the  Hellespont.  He  says  the  Phoenicians  used 
a  cordage  made  of  Linen,  the  Egyptians  the  bark  of  the  biblos. 
In  the  second  bridge  the  cables,  he  says,  were  made  as  follows : 
"For  this  purpose  they  did  not  employ  a  number  of  separate 
cables,  but  united  two  of  white  Flax  with  four  of  biblos.  These 
were  alike  in  thickness  and  apparently  so  in  goodness,  but  those 
of  Flax  were  in  proportion  much  the  more  solid,  weighing  not 
less  than  a  talent  to  every  cubit." 

Among  the  articles  of  armour  enumerated  by  the  poet 
Alcaeus,  as  hung  round  his  room,  are  "  cuirasses  of  Linen, 
baldricks,  and  the  short  vest,  which  we  wear  beneath  our 
armour,  and  a  short  Linen  chiton  descending  to  the  middle  of 
the  thigh." 

When  a  gentlemen  first  commenced  housekeeping,  or  got  a 
new  set  of  domestics,  he  delivered  unto  the  care  of  the  proper 
individuals  his  kneading  troughs,  his  kitchen  utensils,  his  cards, 
looms,  spinning  wheels,  &c.,  and  pointed  out  the  place  where 


•  ,i;i:<  IAN    1. 1  SEN.  19.") 

each  should  be  placed  when  not  in  use.  Indeed,  the  imple- 
ments of  war,  looms,  spinning  wheels,  embroidering  frames,  <fec., 
were  mixed  up  together  in  Greek  houses,  just  as  Homer  de- 
scribes them  in  the  Thalamos  of  Paris  at  Troy. 

Greece  was  not  a  manufacturing  country,  and  although  some 
<  >f  the  states  made  their  own  clothing  and  even  exported  a  little, 
others  were  indebted  for  it  to  neighbouring  countries,  and  none 
«f  them  exported  textile  fabrics  to  any  great  extent.  At  one 
IH  riod,  and  it  continued  for  a  long  time,  the  Island  of  Delos  was 
tin  ^rand  mart,  not  only  of  Athens,  but  of  all  Greece,  and  of 
other  countries  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  was  the  emporium 
for  the  then  known  world,  just  as  Britain  is  at  the  present  day. 
Neighbouring  nations  sent  the  products  of  their  industry  there 
to  sell,  taking  back  such  necessaries  or  luxuries  as  their  own 
country  did  not  produce.  It  was  an  island  of  merchants,  a 
depot  for  the  goods  of  the  world.  Among  other  things  it  im- 
ported scarlet  Linen  tunics  manufactured  on  the  Island  of 
Amorgos,  and  the  rich  purple  stuff  of  Cos.  Colchis  traded 
with  it,  sending  its  Flax  and  tine  Linen,  and  taking  in  return 
the  products  of  other  lands.  The  Egyptians,  the  Tynans,  the 
Romans,  and  many  other  nations  and  countries  trafficked  with 
the  merchants  of  Delos,  and  Linens  formed  a  very  important 
article  of  the  trade  of  the  place.  The  war  of  Mithridates  put 
an  end  to  the  trade  of  commercial  Delos. 

According  to  Thucydides,  papyrus  and  sail  cloth  from  Egypt, 
and  carpets  from  Carthage,  were  among  the  importations  of 
Corinth. 

It  is  recorded  that  Alexander  the  Great  took  the  turban  from 
his  head  to  bind  up  the  wound  of  Lysimachus,  showing  conclu- 
sively that  it  was  made  of  fine  Linen.  Turbans  of  fine  Linen, 
with  an  encircling  or  front  ornament  of  gold  or  precious  stones, 
was  the  usual  diadem  of  ancient  kings. 

Sails  were  manufactured  from  a  variety  of  materials.  In 
Egypt  they  sometimes  consisted  of  numbers  of  hides  sewed  to- 
gether, sometimes  they  were  made  of  papyrus,  and  sometimes  of 
Flax.  In  various  countries  they  were  plaited,  as  now  in  China, 
from  reeds  or  rushes.  But  the  sail-cloth  of  the  Greeks  was 
generally  woven  from  Hemp,  like  some  made  in  Britain  at  the 
present  day. 

N2 


1«)G  ANCIENT   LINEN. 

In  ancient  times  the  Greeks  made  very  superior  cloth  from 
Hemp,  and  the  Thracians,  in  whose  country  it  was  found  both 
in  a  cultivated  and  wild  state,  used  it  extensively.  It  differed 
little  from  Flax,  except  in  its  superior  height  and  thickness, 
and  the  fabrics  manufactured  were  not  to  be  distinguished  from 
Linen,  save  by  the  most  experienced  judges. 

Among  the  exports  of  Athens  are  enumerated  soft  fine  wool, 
Linen,  and  woollen  cloths,  &c.  Elis  exported  FJax.  Achaia  ex- 
ported all  kinds  of  fine  Linen  manufactured  at  Patra3.  Corinth 
exported  Linen  tunics.  The  Lacedaemonians  distinguished 
themselves  in  dyeing  and  weaving,  and  their  mantles  and 
woollen  garments  were  in  much  esteem  throughout  Greece. 
Linen,  white  and  dyed,  was  brought  from  the  Island  of 
Amorgos  to  the  various  countries  of  Greece.  Flax  was  im- 
ported from  Egypt,  and  also  paper,  sails,  curiously  wrought 
Linen  breastplates,  Linen,  &c.  Purple  and  broidered  work  and 
fine  Linen  was  imported  from  Syria  ;  in  the  most  ancient  times 
from  Sidori,  and  later  from  Tyre  and  other  places. 

After  the  rise  of  the  Koman  power  Greece  gradually  sank  to 
a  subordinate  rank,  and  finally  its  States  became  provinces  of 
Rome.  Less  account  was  then  made  of  its  manufactures  and 
trade  than  when  it  was  an  independent  power,  and  much  is  left 
to  hypothesis  and  surmise.  During  that  period  the  Linen 
manufacture  held  a  place  in  some  districts,  and  was  prosecuted 
with  greater  or  less  success.  Apart  from  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment and  power,  and  away  from  the  anxiety  and  ruin  which 
latterly  overwhelmed  Eome,  they  long  followed  their  peaceful 
industry  with  comparatively  little  molestation. 

Gibbon  says  that  after  the  age  of  Justinian  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire began  to  decay,  and  but  for  its  trade  and  manufactures  it 
would  have  sunk  faster  than  it  did.  In  the  province  of  Pelo- 
ponnesus, mariners  and  the  workers  in  parchment  and  purple 
were  exempted  from  all  personal  taxes,  which  did  much  to 
encourage  industry.  Under  this  denomination  may  be  fairly 
included  the  manufacture  of  Linen,  woollen,  and  silk,  the  two 
former  of  which  had  flourished  in  Greece  from  about  the  days  of 
Homer.  These  arts,  which  were  exercised  at  Corinth,  Thebes, 
and  Argos,  afforded  good  occupation  to  a  numerous  people,  and 
the  men,  women,  and  children  were  distributed  according  to 


HUMAN    LUT1  I ''7 

tlu-ir  ages  and  strength,  and  to  each  was  assigned  work  suit 
(MI  tli.-ir  abilities. 

The  gifts  which  a  rich  and  generous  matron  of  Peloponnesus 
presented  to  the  Emperor  Basil,  her  adopted  son,  were  doubt- 
less fabricated  in  the  Grecian  looms.  Danielis  bestowed  on 
him  a  carpet  of  fine  wool,  of  a  pattern  which  imitated  the  spots 
of  a  peacock's  tail,  and  of  a  magnitude  to  overspread  the  floor  of  a 
church.  She  gave  600  pieces  of  silk,  and  Linen  of  various 
denominations.  The  silk  was  dyed  with  the  Tyrian  dye,  and 
a.!.. rued  by  the  labour  of  fair  hands  with  the  needle,  and  the 
Linen  was  so  exquisitely  fine  that  an  entire  piece  might  be  rolled 
in  the-  hollow  of  a  cane. 

For  centuries  after  this  period  the  manufacture  of  Linen, 
silk,  <fec.,  was  carried  on  in  Greece,  but  it  gradually  decreased 
and  finally  became  extinct  as  the  country  fell  under  Mahome- 
dan  sway.  In  modern  times  it  possesses  no  Liuen  manufactures 
that  really  deserve  the  name,  and  what  Linens  are  required  are, 
as  they  were  in  the  very  earliest  times,  imported  from  foreign 
countries. 

When  Colonel  Leake  was  at  Gastuni,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Peneus  in  Elis,  after  describing  the  mode  of  cultivating  and 
preparing  Flax,  which  he  says,  is  one  of  the  chief  tilings  pro- 
duced there,  he  remarks,  ct  contiary  to  its  ancient  reputation,  the 
flax  of  Gastuni  is  not  very  fine.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
neighbouring  islands  by  the  peasantry,  who  weave  it  into  cloth 
ti-r  tlu-ir  own  use." 

The  imports  of  Linen  manufactures  into  Greece  for  the  years 
1857  to  1860  were  as  follows  :— 

1857       1858      1859       1860 

Ton.,    65        85        143 

Value,    £15,416          £12.134          £13,882  £18,774 

In  1857  nearly  five-eighths  of  the  value  was  from  Austria, 
thf  I'liit.-d  Kingdom  supplying  little  more  than  one-sixth,  and 
1'iaiKv  U  t  ween-  one-fourth  and  one-fifth  of  the  total.  In  I860 
tlu-  I'mud  Killed. mi  Mipplied  more  than  the  half,  both  in 
(juantity  and  valur,  Austria  one-third  and  France  one-tt-nth. 


198  ANCIENT    LINEN. 


CHAPTEB  VII. 

ROMAN      LINEN. 

THE  great  desire  of  the  Romans  was  the  extension  of  their 
dominions,  the  aggrandisement  of  the  state,  and  the  consoli- 
dation of  their  power.  At  a  very  early  period  of  their  his- 
tory they  had  colonies  and  dependencies  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  whence  they  drew  supplies  of  many  of 
the  necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life.  On  this  account  it  was 
not  imperative  on  them  to  become  a  manufacturing  people, 
as  the  labour  of  their  colonies,  and  of  tributary  nations,  pro- 
vided them  with  the  bulk  of  the  textile  fabrics  they  required. 
This  the  better  enabled  the  Romans  to  devote  themselves  to 
military  duty,  and  to  seek  martial  glory,  which  was  the  great 
business  of  their  life.  Some  of  the  subjugated  countries  and 
colonies  were  famous  for  one  species  of  manufacture,  and  others 
for  another,  and  all  of  them  furnished  their  quota  for  the  supply 
of  the  army,  the  navy,  and  the  luxurious  citizens  of  mighty  Rome. 

In  the  ancient  history  of  the  republic  the  Romans  were  almost 
entirely  clothed  in  woollen  garments,  differing  in  quality  and 
texture  with  the  circumstances  of  the  wearer  and  the  seasons  of 
the  year,  and  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  the  Emperors  that 
Linen  came  into  extensive  use.  The  Roman  priests  began  to 
wear  Linen  garments  at  an  early  period,  and  in  this  they  no 
doubt  followed  the  example  set  them  by  the  priesthood  in  Israel 
and  in  Egypt,  who,  from  the  earliest  times,  wore  Linen  clothing. 
Ovid  and  Juvenal  call  the  Roman  priests  "  Linen  wearing," 
from  the  texture  of  the  garments  they  wore.  As  greater  refine- 
ment of  manners  began  to  prevail,  and  more  luxurious  tastes 
arose,  woollen  cloth  failed  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  the  wealthy 
Romans,  and  Linen  fabrics  came  gradually  into  use  among  them. 
Some  of  these,  for  every-day  use,  were  no  doubt  of  a  common 
quality,  but  Linen  of  the  most  beautiful  texture  was  largely 
consumed. 


ROMAN   LINEN.  199 

Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Babylonia,  Colchis,  and  Greece,  all  sent 
the  marvellous  productions  of  their  looms  to  Rome,  and  found 
a  ready  market  for  them  there.  Spain,  Gaul,  Germany,  and 
other  countries  famous  for  their  Linens,  also  contributed  tln-ir 
man u I'M. -tuns  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  seven  hilled  city. 
Several  districts  in  Italy  were  early  distinguished  for  tli<  ir 
Linens,  and,  as  the  consumption  became  more  general,  the  pro- 
duction partook  much  of  a  domestic  character,  and  many  families 
span  their  Flax  end  weaved  the  Linen  for  their  own  use,  after 
satisfying  which,  the  superabundant  production  was  bartered  or 
sold. 

An  account  of  the  Linen  manufacture  in  some  of  the  count ri ••< 
which  supplied  Imperial  Rome  has  already  been  given,  but  it 
will  not  be  out  of  place  to  advert  to  one  or  two  of  the  Linen 
producing  nations  here.  Their  manufactures  were,  no  doubt, 
to  some  extent  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  but 
many  of  their  most  costly  productions  were  specially  made  for 
Rome.  The  wealth  and  luxury  of  many  of  its  noble  citizens 
gave  great  encouragement  to  the  fabrication  of  the  very  finest 
Linens.  This  stimulated  the  manufacturers  to  exert  them- 
selves, and  great  excellence  was  attained,  the  beauty  of  many  of 
the  Linens  produced  being  proverbial. 

In  ancient  times  some  of  the  cities  of  Spain  were  highly  cele- 
brated for  their  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  and  of  these 
Linen  was  one  of  the  most  important.  Strabo  says  there  was 
a  manufacture  of  Linen  at  Emporium  in  Spain,  which  lay  in 
the  Miditerranean  not  far  from  the  Pyrenees.  Tarraco  (Tar- 
ragona) was  famous  for  its  fine  Linen,  which  was  remarkable  for 
its  shining  whiteness,  and  the  wonderful  thinness  of  its  fabric. 
Pliny,  the  natural  historian,  says  that  remarkably  beautiful  Flax 
was  produced  in  Hispania  Citerior,  near  Tarraco.  He  ascribes 
its  splendour  to  the  virtues  of  the  river  water  flowing  near  Tar- 
raco, in  which  the  Flax  was  steeped  and  prepared.  This  is 
very  likely  to  have  been  the  case,  as  it  is  well  known  that  the 
water  in  which  the  Flax  is  steeped  has  considerable  influence 
on  the  quality  of  the  fibre.  On  this  account  the  Lys  in  Belgium 
li  i>  acquired  a  name  and  fame,  and  it  has  become  the  most  cele- 
l.ra'ed  river  in  modern  times,  for  the  valuable  properties  it  im- 
parts to  the  Flax  steeped  in  it. 


200  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

Catullus,  Pliny,  and  other  authors  say  that  Setabis,  the 
modern  Xativa,  southward  from  Tarraco,  but  on  the  same 
coast,  was  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  Linen,  and  especially 
for  Linen  sudaria  or  handkerchiefs.  Pliny  also  mentions  a  kind 
of  Flax  called  Zoelicum,  from  a  place  in  Gallicia.  Spain  and 
Portugal  at  an  early  period  manufacture  dsuperior  Linen  for 
export.  The  Linens  of  Emporiae  and  of  the  Saltioeti  long  con- 
tinued to  be  famous.  The  Spartium  or  Spanish  broom,  princi- 
pally used  in  the  manufacture  of  cables,  grew  chiefly  along  the 
high  arid  plains  of  Valentia  and  Catalonia,  through  which  passed 
the  great  high  road  to  Italy. 

Pliny  relates  that  Flax  was  woven  into  sailcloth  in  all  parts 
of  Gaul ;  and  that  in  some  of  the  countries  beyond  the  Rhine 
the  most  beautiful  apparel  of  the  ladies  was  Linen.  Tacitus 
states  that  the  women  of  Germany  wore  Linen  sheets  over  their 
other  clothing,  that  the  dress  of  the  men  and  women  differed 
little  excepting  that  the  women  wore  more  Linen  than  the  men, 
and  that  the  sleeves  of  their  tunics  were  short,  which  left  their 
arms  bare,  and  also  some  part  of  their  bosoms. 

In  the  most  inclement  winter  the  hardy  German  was  satisfied 
with  a  scanty  garment  made  of  the  skin  of  some  animal.  The 
natives  who  dwelt  towards  the  north  clothed  themselves  with 
furs,  and  the  women  manufactured  for  their  own  use  a  coarse 
kind  of  Linen.  Pliny  speaks  with  ill-concealed  contempt  of  the 
German  ladies  "  who  cannot  desire  to  go  more  rich  and  costly 
in  their  apparel  than  to  wear  Linen."  He  mentions  that  the 
Germans  wove  their  Linens  in  dwellings  under  the  ground,  and 
that  a  similar  practice  prevailed  in  some  parts  of  Italy.  It  is 
well  known  that  Flax  does  not  spin  or  weave  so  well  in  a  very 
dry  place,  as  in  one  where  the  atmosphere  is  moist  and  cool,  and 
it  would  appear  that  this  had  been  known  to,  and  taken  advan- 
tage of  by  the  Germans,  and  those  of  Italy,  of  whom  mention  is 
made. 

It  is  mentioned  by  Paulus  Diaconus,  in  the  history  of  the 
Longobards,  that  the  German  ancestors  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
wore  loose  and  flowing  garments,  chiefly  made  of  Linen,  adorned 
with  broad  borders,  woven  or  embroidered  with  various  colours. 
This  must  refer  chiefly  to  the  women,  as  it  is  hardly  possible  that 
all  the  garments  of  the  men,  especially  the  upper  ones,  would 


ROM\N    I  IN'KN. 

be  made  of  Liucn,  seeing  that  they  were  so  much  exposed  to 
storms,  and  so  oitcn  engaged  in  military  expeditions,  in  a 
country  where  warm  clothing,  in  the  winter  season,  is  absolutely 
necessary. 

Gibbon  says  that  in  A.D.  590  the  Lombards  of  the  4th  gene- 
ra: ion  surveyed  with  curiosity  and  affright  the  portraits  of  their 
savage  forefathers.  Their  dress  consisted  of  loose  Linen  gar- 
ments, after  the  fashion  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  which  was  deco- 
rated with  broad  stripes  of  variegated  colours. 

The  following  passage  from  Equihart's  life  of  Charlemagne, 
shows  that  iluring  several  succeeding  centuries  sitter  the  Roman 
age,  the  Franks  wore  Linen  for  their  under  garments: — 
11  Charles  drest  after  the  manner  of  his  countrymen  the  Franks. 
Next  to  the  skin  he  wore  a  shirt  and  drawers  of  Linen,  over 
t  lirse  he  wore  a  tunic  bordered  with  silk,  and  breeches."  In  the 
n«  >tes  on  this  passage  it  is  said  that  the  Lombards  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  wore  principally  Linen  garments. 

From  time  immemorial  some  parts  of  Italy  have  been  famous 
t-  -r  their  Flax.  Pliny  mentions  various  kinds  of  Flax  which  were 
produced  in  the  plains  of  the  Po  and  Ticino,  in  the  country  of 
the  Peligni  (in  Picenum),  and  about  Cumae  in  Campania.  No 
Flax,  he  says,  was  whiter  or  more  like  wool  than  that  of  the 
Peligni.  Professor  Miiller  says  "  Flax  was  grown  and  manu- 
factured in  Southern  Etruria  from  ancient  times,  and  thus  the 
Tarquinii  were  enabled  to  furnish  sailcloth  for  the  fleet  of 
Scipio.  Yarn  for  making  nets  was  produced  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tiber,  and  fine  Linen  for  clothing  in  Falerii."  This 
agrees  with  the  views  of  those  historians  who  maintain  the 
Egyptian  origin  of  the  Etrurians. 

Not  only  was  Flax  raised  largely  in  Italy,  but  Spain,  Gaul, 
and  other  provinces  of  ancient  Rome  were  celebrated  for  the 
superior  quality  of  what  they  produced,  and  Egypt  contributed 
a  lull  share  of  its  famous  Flax  to  supply  the  extensive  wants  of 
the  Roman  people. 

The  warlike  Roman  disdained  to  occupy  himself  in  tasks 
which  lie  was  accustomed  to  look  upon  as  effeminate  drudgery. 
His  attention  was  more  directed  to  the  cultivation  of  the  science 
<>f  war  than  to  the  hnmhler  hut  more  useful  industrial  arts. 
To  the  women  chietly  were  assigned  the  labours  «»f 


202  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

and  weaving,  especially  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  Common- 
wealth. 

Like  Greece,  Rome  had  its  regular  weaving  establishments, 
conducted  by  a  distinct  class  of  people,  and  hired  women  used 
to  weave  in  the  open  air  at  Eome.  Men  were  also  so 
employed  at  times.  It  also  had  its  domestic  manufacture,  in 
which  the  mistress  and  her  maidens  both  performed  their  part. 
Spinning  and  weaving  were  then  considered  honourable  in  them- 
selves, and  formed  the  chief  occupation  of  females  in  every  rank. 
The  family  loom  long  stood  in  the  Atrium,  the  public  apartment 
of  the  mansion,  and  there  the  lady  of  the  house  sat  and  toiled, 
surrounded  by  her  maidens.  No  doubt  as  wool  long  formed  the 
chief  article  of  clothing  of  both  sexes,  it  would  be  the  material 
spun  and  weaved,  but  towards  the  end  of  the  Republic,  and 
under  the  Empire,  Linen  came  more  extensively  into  use,  and 
mixed  fabrics  with  either  the  warp  or  weft  of  Flax  became 
general. 

Although  Flax  was  employed  for  many  domestic  purposes  in 
Rome,  it  was  not  generally  used  until  a  late  epoch  for  articles 
of  dress,  and  the  priests  of  Isis,  who  were  always  robed  in 
Linen,  were  from  this  circumstance  marked  out  to  the  eye  as  a 
distinct  class.  When  it  first  began  to  be  introduced  it  was 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  women,  but  gradually  the  men 
also  adopted  it,  and  at  last  Linen  articles  of  clothing  became 
common  to  both  sexes. 

Pliny  has  given  some  curious  particulars  as  to  the  culti- 
vation and  preparation  of  Flax  and  the  manufacture  of  Linen 
in  his  day.  He  appears  to  have  looked  upon  it  as  an  effemi- 
nate and  even  dangerous  innovation,  and  to  have  considered 
that  it  would  have  been  better  to  have  retained  the  woollen 
clothing  of  former  times.  The  arts  of  dressing  and  weaving 
Flax  had  been  long  practised  in  the  east  before  they  made  their 
way  into  Italy  and  were  practised  in  that  country.  Some  of 
the  great  families  among  the  old  Romans  boasted  that  they 
made  no  use  of  Linen  in  their  houses  or  about  their  persons,  and 
the  use  of  it  was  long  considered  a  mark  of  effeminacy  and  a 
piece  of  criminal  luxury  by  that  brave  and  hardy  people.  By 
slow  degrees,  however,  the  use  of  Linen  extended  not  only  over 
all  Italy,  but  also  into  Spain,  Gaul,  Germany,  and  Britain. 


M\N     I.IN-  203 

Muiitt'anrnn.  tVmii  IMiny,  says  thai  tin-  Kmnans  lia.l  bedcover- 
ings  from  Gaul  (called  Cadurcum,  from  the  country  whence 
t  In -y  were  made),  of  Linen  as  white  as  wool.  If  sheets  are  to 
IM  understood  by  stramenta,  which  in  one  sense  signified  nnder- 
bed-clothes,  sheets  of  this  kind  were  used  in  Italy  hi  the  time  of 
1'lii iv.  Norrius  defines  plagae  by  sheets. 

Fu*us,  the  spindle,  was  always,  when  in  use,  accompanied  by 
the  coins  or  distaff,  as  an  indispensible  part  of  the  same  ap- 
paratus. The  Flax  or  oth»  i  material  having  been  prepared  for 
spinning,  was  rolled  into  a  ball  (glomus),  sufficiently  loose  to 
allow  the  fibres  to  be  easily  drawn  out  by  the  hand  of  the  sj 'in- 
ner. The  upper  part  of  the  distaff  was  then  inserted  into  the 
ball,  and  the  lower  part  was  held  under  the  arm  in  such  a  posi- 
tion as  was  most  convenient  for  conducting  the  operation.  The 
fibres  were  drawn  out,  and  at  the  same  time  spirally  twisted, 
chiefly  by  the  use  of  the  fore-finger  and  thumb  of  the  right 
hand,  and  the  thread  (Jilum)  so  produced  was  wound  upon  the 
^.indle.  The  spindle  differed  little  from  that  used  in  Egypt. 
Its  lower  extremity  was  inserted  into  a  small  wheel  called  the 
whorl  (vorticellum) .  of  wood  or  other  material,  to  keep  the 
spindle  more  steady  and  to  promote  its  rotation. 

The  distaff,  spindle,  balls  of  flax,  and  the  bobbins  spun,  were 
usually  held  in  a  basket,  called  calathus.  The  distaff  and 
spindle,  with  the  wool  or  Flax  and  thread  upon  them,  were 
carried  in  bridal  processions.  Without  the  yarn  and  material 
they  were  often  suspended  by  females  as  offerings  of  religious 
gratitude,  especially  in  old  age,  or  in  relinquishing  the  use  of 
them.  They  were  most  frequently  dedicated  to  Pallas,  the  pat- 
roness of  spinning  and  of  the  arts  connected  with  it.  They 
were  exhibited  in  the  representations  of  the  Three  Fates,  who 
were  conceived  by  their  spinning  to  determine  the  life  of  every 
man. 

The  method  of  spinning  then  in  use  was  very  similar  to  the 
mode  practised  in  this  country  at  no  very  remote  period,  and  more 
fully  detailed  in  the  chapter  on  Flax  spinning.  It  is  still  conducted 
in  the  same  way  almost  universally  throughout  Southern  Italy 
in  the  present  day.  A  most  graphic  and  charming  description 
of  the  process  will  be  found  in  Catullus,  when  he  represents  the 
Fates  plying  their  task  at  the  nuptials  «•!'  IVleus  and  Thetis. 


204  ANCIENT    LINEN. 

The  different  parts  of  the  loom  arid  of  the  web  are  in  like 
manner  enumerated  by  Ovid,  when  describing  the  struggle  of 
Arachne  with  the  goddess  Minerva,  and  they  are  frequently  alluded 
to  in  the  classics.  The  frame  of  the  loom,  which  was  generally 
placed  vertically,  and  not  horizontally,  was  called  jugum,  the 
web  tela,  the  loops  or  holders  were  the  Ucia,  the  warp  stamen, 
the  woof  trama  or  subtemen,  the  reed  arundo,  the  shuttle 
radius,  and  the  lay  or  lath  pecten.  The  warp  was  named 
stamen  on  account  of  its  erect  position  in  the  loom.  A  trans- 
verse rod  was  passed  through  the  threads  of  warp  to  divide  it 
into  two  portions,  the  threads  on  one  side  of  the  rod  alternating 
with  those  on  the  other  side  throughout  the  entire  breadth  of 
the  warp.  The  warp  was  also  divided  into  a  number  of  par- 
cels, a  stone  being  suspended  from  each  to  keep  the  threads  in 
a  perpendicular  position.  The  web  as  the  work  advanced  was 
wound  on  a  roller,  turned  by  a  handle.  The  warp  was  of 
strong,  well  twisted  yarn.  The  weft  was  put  on  a  spindle  or 
a  bobbin,  and  passed  through  the  warp  without  any  other  contri- 
vance ;  or  it  was  made  to  revolve  in  a  shuttle,  made  of  box 
brought  from  the  shores  of  the  Euxine,  and  pointed  at  both 
ends,  that  it  might  easily  force  its  way  through  the  warp.  The 
Ucia  or  heddles  were  threads  fastened  at  one  end  to  a  straight 
rod,  and  having  a  loop  at  the  other  through  which  a  thread  of 
warp  was  passed.  The  warp  was  divided  by  the  arundo  into 
two  sets  of  threads,  which  were  passed  through  the  loops  of  the 
corresponding  set  of  leashes.  For  a  plain  web  two  rods  with 
the  leashes  attached  were  necessary,  and  the  number  of  sets  of 
leashes  was  increased  according  to  the  complexity  of  the  pattern, 
which  was  called  bilix  or  trilex,  according  as  the  number  was, 
two,  three,  or  more. 

The  warp  was  drawn  through  the  heddles  by  two  women, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  at  present.  In  weaving,  the  warp  was 
decussated  by  drawing  forward  the  proper  rod  with  one  set  of 
the  threads  of  the  warp,  the  woof  was  then  shot  across,  the 
other  set  of  the  warp  were  then  drawn  forward,  another  shot  of 
woof  passed  through,  and  so  on,  the  continual  repetition  of  this 
process  interlacing  the  warp  and  weft.  After  the  woof  was  con- 
veyed by  the  shuttle  through  the  warp,  it  was  driven  sometimes 
downwards,  but  more  commonly  upwards.  Two  different  in- 


ROMAN   UM 

fit  niments  were  used  for  this  purpose.  The  simplest  and  pro- 
bably the  most  ancient  was  a  large  wooden  sword,  spat  Jut, 
but  the  most  common  was  the  comb,  pecten,  the  teeth  of 
\vliich  were  inserted  between  the  threads  of  the  warp,  and  thus 
made  by  a  forcible  impulse  to  drive  the  threads  of  the  woof  close 
top-tiler,  so  as  to  make  compact  or  firm  cloth. 

Although  Linon  appears  to  have  been  originally  characteristic 
of  the  Egyptian  and  German  nations,  it  came  by  degrees  into 
general  use  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  was  em- 
ployed not  only  for  articles  of  dress,  especially  those  worn  by 
women,  and  for  sheets  to  lie  upon,  but  also  for  table  covers,  and 
for  napkins  to  wipe  the  hands,  an  application  which  was  the 
more  necessary  on  account  of  the  want  of  knives,  forks,  and 
spoons.  It  was  also  used  by  those  who  waited  at  table,  they 
being  girt  with  towels,  lintels.  Linen  towels  were  used  at  the 
baths  for  drying  those  who  had  bathed. 

The  Roman  Emperors  were  at  great  pains  to  discover  and 
procure  the  most  excellent  artificers  of  all  kinds,  particularly  the 
best  manufacturers  of  woollen  and  Linen  cloth.  These  they 
formed  into  colleges  or  corporations,  with  various  privileges, 
under  certain  officers  and  regulations,  and  settled  in  the  most 
convenient  places  of  the  several  provinces  of  the  empire.  In 
these  Imperial  colleges  or  manufactories,  all  kinds  of  woollen 
and  Linen  cloths  were  made  for  the  use  of  the  Emperor's  family 
and  court,  and  of  the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Roman  armies. 
All  these  colleges  were  under  the  direction  of  that  great  officer 
of  the  empire,  who  was  called  the  Court  of  the  Sacred  Largesses, 
and  every  particular  college  or  gyneeceum  was  governed  by  a 
Procurator.  From  the  vast  extent  of  the  Roman  dominions 
useful  and  ornamental  arts  would  be  practised  in  one  province 
which  were  quite  unknown  in  others,  and  these  colleges  were 
the  means  of  collecting,  perfecting,  and  disseminating  them  over 
the  mighty  empire.  By  this  means  civilization  and  industrial 
knowledge  were,  as  it  were,  carried  with  the  Roman  legions,  and 
diffused  among  the  subdued  people  in  exchange  for  their  free- 
dom. In  many  instances  they  were  perhaps  the  gainers, 
although  they  may  not  then  have  thought  so.  Such  a  system 
shows  the  wisdom  of  the  Roman  government,  and  the  fatherly 
care  of  the  Emperor  for  his  many  and  varied  peoples. 


206  ANCIENT     LINEN. 

Augustus,  even  when  all  simplicity  of  manners  had  expired 
with  the  Eepublic,  affected  still  to  bring  up  the  females  of  his 
family  upon  the  antique  model — according  to  the  fashion  iu 
Homeric  ages,  and  wore  no  garments  but  such  as  were  manu- 
factured in  his  own  house. 

Pliny  supplies  many  particulars  of  the  Eoman  trade,  and 
he  wrote  his  account  of  it  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  when 
Kome  was  in  its  most  flourishing  state.  In  the  days  of 
Agricola,  he  says,  Koman  sails  were  made  of  Flax.  About 
the  time  of  Augusta,  cloth,  whether  Linen  or  cotton  is  doubt- 
ful,  was  imported  into  Rome  from  Malta,  but  it  is  likely  to 
have  been  Linen  from  Egypt,  transhipped  from  Malta.  The 
finest  wool  was  imported  from  Colchis,  and  also  Hemp,  Flax, 
and  fine  Linens,  which  were  shipped  at  the  port  of  Phasis  in 
the  Euxine.  Egypt  supplied  Flax,  fine  Linen,  paper  and  cot- 
ton goods,  some  of  which,  as  well  as  their  Linens,  seem  to  have 
been  coloured  or  printed,  and  they  were  shipped  from  Alexan- 
dria. From  the  eastern  part  of  the  north  of  Spain  Linens,  &c,, 
were  imported.  Linens  were  also  imported  from  Gaul,  and 
they  were  shipped  from  the  port  of  Marseilles.  Cicero  and 
other  historians  confirm  Pliny's  statements. 

Coarser  Linen  was  used  in  great  quantities  for  sails,  and  also 
for  awnings  to  keep  off  the  heat  of  the  sun  from  the  Eoman 
theatres,  the  Forum,  and  other  places  of  public  resort.  Pliny 
mentions  that  Linen  awnings  were  first  used  in  the  theatre  at 
the  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  by  Catullus,  69  B.C.  ; 
that  Linen  was  used  to  cover  the  Forum  and  Via  Sacra  at  the 
gladiatorial  show  by  Julius  Csesar,  46  B.C.  ;  and  that  Linen 
awnings  were  extended  over  the  Forum  by  Marcellus,  on  31st 
July,  23  B.C. 

For  200  years  after  the  age  of  Pliny  silk  was  only  worn  by 
females,  but  about  this  time  it  began  to  be  worn  by  men,  princi- 
pally mixed  with  Linen  or  woollen.  Pliny  says  that  among  the 
Eoman  ladies  silk  and  a  fine  species  of  Linen,  called  byssimus, 
sold  for  their  weight  of  gold. 

The  Emperor  Alexander  Severus,  according  to  JElius  Lam- 
pridius,  was  a  great  admirer  of  good  Linen,  and  preferred  that 
which  was  plain  to  such  as  had  flowers  or  feathers  interwoven, 
as  practised  in  Egypt  and  in  the  neighbouring  countries.  He 


ROMAN    I  IMS  207 

took  great  delight  in  Linen,  and  prefer n  «1  it  plain.  •'  If,"  said 
he,  "  Linen  clothes  are  made  of  that  material  in  order  that  they 
may  not  be  at  all  rough,  why  mix  purple  with  them  ?"  But  to 
interweave  gold  with  Linen  he  considered  madness,  because  this 
made  it  rigid  in  addition  to  its  roughness. 

The  following  passage  from  the  life  of  the  Emperor  Carinus, 
by  the  historian  Flavius  Vopiscus,  is  remarkable  as  proving  the 
value  attached  by  the  Romans  of  that  age  to  the  Linen  imported 
from  Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  especially  to  the  transparent  and 
flowered  varieties : — "  Why  should  I  mention  the  Linen  cloths 
brought  from  Egypt,  or  those  imported  from  Tyre  and  Sidon, 
which  are  so  thin  as  to  be  transparent,  which  glow  with  purple, 
or  are  prized  on  account  of  their  laboured  embroidery." 

The  same  author,  in  his  life  of  Aurelian,  says  : — "  We  have 
lately  seen  the  consulate  of  Flavius  Placidus  celebrated  in 
the  circus  with  so  great  eagerness  for  popularity,  that  he 
seemed  to  give  not  prizes  but  patrimonies,  presenting  tunics 
of  Linens  and  silks,  pieces  of  Linen,  and  even  horses,  to  the 
great  scandal  of  all  men."  This  would  be  about  A.D.  343. 

The  barbarous  nations  who  overthrew  Rome  were  regardless 
of  dress,  and  had  no  taste  for  the  fine  arts.  Under  their 
sway  the  wealth  of  the  city  and  country  disappeared,  stern 
necessity  dispelled  luxurious  habits,  and  utility  took  the  place 
of  show.  In  the  Eastern  Empire,  as  noticed  under  Greece,  the 
peaceful  and  useful  arts  were  for  a  time  cultivated  after  they 
had  been  expelled  from  Italy,  but  there  too  they  gradually  sank 
and  died.  A  period  of  barbarism  overspread  Europe,  which  is 
appropriately  called  "  the  dark  ages,"  as  they  were  indeed  dark 
and  benighted  in  an  extraordinary  degree.  They  overshadowed  as 
with  a  black  cloud  former  civilization ;  and  during  the  middle  ages, 
those  dark  ages  which  succeeded  the  downfal  of  the  Roman  power, 
and  kept  the  world  in  their  grasp  for  several  centuries,  scarcely  a 
vestige  can  be  discovered  of  any  considerable  manufacture  of 
articles  of  common  utility,  beyond  what  the  necessities  of  the  dis- 
trict required.  Rich  men  kept  domestic  artizans  among  tlu-ir 
servants,  and  even  kings  in  the  9th  century  had  their  clothes  made 
by  the  women  upon  their  farms.  There  is  no  doubt,  however, 
that  every  town  had  its  handicraftsmen,  such  as  weavers,  smiths, 
&c.,  and  that  the  peasantry  must  have  been  supplied  with 


208  ANCIENT   LIJSEN. 

clothing  and  otlier  necessaries  by  those  who  made  them,  in  ex- 
change for  the  produce  of  their  fields. 

The  production  of  textile  fabrics  during  such  a  period  must, 
at  the  best,  have  been  insignificant,  and  scarcely  deserving  the 
name  of  a  manufacture  at  all.  This  dark  and  heavy  cloud 
overspread  the  entire  Koman  world,  and  everywhere  extin- 
guished science  and  art,  and  overthrew  trade  and  commerce. 
The  Linen  manufacture  shared  in  the  universal  chaos,  and  the 
curtain  is  thus  drawn  over  the  ancient  trade. 


POPULAR  LEOTUKI  li"'J 


SECTION    III. 

THE   LINEN  MANUFACTURES  OF  THE  OLDEN 

TIME. 


TEN  or  twelve  years  ago,  WILLIAM  MILLER,  banker,  then  of  Dundee,  now  of 
Glasgow,  devoted  considerable  time  and  research  to  the  history  of  the 
Linen  Trade,  and  collected  a  mass  of  valuable  details  and  statistics 
regarding  it,  with  the  view  of  publishing  a  work  somewhat  similar 
to  this.  The  popular  part  of  the  information  which  he  acquired  was 
then  given  in  a  series  of  lectures  in  Dundee,  and  in  other  towns 
throughout  the  district.  These  lectures  were  delivered  in  an  easy  yet 
attractive  style,  to  crowded  audiences,  and  proved  a  £reat  success. 
Although  much  of  the  matter  embraced  in  Mr  Miller's  lectures  is 
given  throughout  the  volume,  yet  from  the  graphic  manner  in  which 
the  subject  is  treated  in  them,  and  the  admirably  condensed  epitome 
« >f  the  progress  of  the  trade  which  the  Lectures  contain,  they  an. 
Mr  Miller's  consent,  given  entire,  and  this  section  is  devoted  to  them. 
Mr  Miller  having  been  prevented  carrying  out  his  design  of  publi- 
cation— maiuly  by  a  long  and  serious  illness — in  the  most  handsome 
manner,  placed  the  manuscript  containing  the  result  of  his  labours  at 
my  disposal,  and  it  has  been  of  great  assistance  to  me  in  the  compila- 
tion of  various  parts  of  this  volume.  The  chapters  on  Grecian  and 
Roman  Linen  especially  have  been  largely  supplemented  from  it : 
and  great  part  of  the  curious  and  interesting  details  and  statistics 
extracted  from  the  proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  Manu- 
factures in  Scotland  are  the  result  of  his  investigations  of  their  Trans- 
actions. 

Some  of  the  authorities  from  which  Mr  Miller  quotes  are  men- 
tioned in  the  course  of  the  Lectures,  but  to  have  named  them  in  all 
cases  would  have  cumbered  the  text,  and  they  have  generally  been 
omitted.       The  authorities  to  which  he  was  chiefly  indebted  for  his 
O 


210  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

information  are  "  Yates'  Textrimim  Antiquorum,"  "  St  John's  An- 
cient Greece,"  "Smith's  Roman  Antiquities,"  "  Anderson's  History  of 
Commerce,"  &c.,  &c. 

To  Mr  Miller  I  am  greatly  indebted  for  the  valuable  aid  he  has 
rendered  me,  and  most  cordially  do  I  thank  him  for  his  kindness. 


THE  Linen  manufacture  appears  to  have  had  its  origin 
among  the  Egyptians.  The  Flax  plant  was  indigenous  to 
Egypt,  and,  from  the  mention  made  of  it  in  the  Book  of  Exodus, 
we  may  infer  that  it  was  extensively  cultivated  in  that  country 
so  early  as  the  days  of  Moses.  "  And  the  Flax  and  the  barley 
was  smitten  (by  the  plague  of  hail)  ;  for  the  barley  was  in  the 
ear  and  the  Flax  was  boiled."  Four  hundred  years  before  this, 
however,  we  learn  from  the  same  authority,  that  Linen  cloth  of 
superior  quality  was  worn  by  at  least  the  higher  orders  of  the 
Egyptians. 

Pharaoh,  the  king,  we  are  told,  arrayed  Joseph  in  vestures  of 
fine  Linen.  This  occurred  1700  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
but  there  are  good  grounds  for  believing  that  the  art  of  Linen- 
weaving  was  practised  in  Egvpt  long  before  that  time.  Kecent 
research  has  brought  to  light  several  very  curious  grottoes  and 
tombs,  excavated  in  the  soft  limestone  rocks  which  border  on 
the  Nile — chiefly  in  Upper  Egypt — the  walls  of  which  are 
covered  with  paintings,  as  distinct  and  brilliant  as  when  first 
executed,  which  illustrate  with  remarkable  fidelity  and  minute- 
ness the  various  processes  connected  with  the  manufacture, 
from  the  pulling  of  the  Flax  to  the  weaving  and  finishing  of  the 
cloth.  These  paintings,  which  are  acknowledged  to  be  of  the 
very  highest  antiquity,  coupled  with  the  traditions  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants,  who  ascribed  the  invention  of  the  art  to  their  god 
Isis,  and  with  the  incidental  references  to  the  subject  by  the 
sacred  historian,  as  above  quoted,  serve  to  carry  back  the 
manufacture  in  Egypt  to  a  very  remote  period,  long  antecedent 
to  that  of  authentic  history. 


POP  I  •  I  -  A 1  i  1 .  KCTTRKB.  '2 1  I 

Herodotus,  who  visited  Egypt  about  the  year  460  B.C.,  makes 
frequent  reference  to  the  general  prevalence  of  the  art  there  in 
his  time.  He  would  have  us  believe,  however,  that  the  men 
alone  engaged  in  it.  "  In  this  country"  he  says,  "  the  women 
leave  to  the  men  the  management  of  the  loom  in  the  retirement 
of  the  house,  whilst  tl><  y  themselves  are  engaged  abroad  in  the 
business  of  commerce."  And  Saphocles,  very  likely  taking 
Herodotus  as  his  authority,  says  in  one  of  his  poems — 

How  like  the  unmanly  MUM  of  Egypt's  clime, 
Where  the  men  sit  inglorious  at  the  loom 
And  to  their  wives  leave  each  domestic  care." 

In  the  paintings,  on  the  other  hand,  we  see  men  and  women 
alike  employed  in  all  the  various  operations  connected  with  the 
manufacture,  and  doubtless  they  are  more  trustworthy  than 
either  the  historian  or  the  poet. 

In  spinning,  the  Egyptians  used  no  distaff — the  Flax,  after 
U-ing  pulled,  steeped,  and  scutched  (all  of  which  processes  are 
clearly  shown  in  the  paintings),  was  roughly  twisted  by  women 
into  a  long  sliver  by  means  of  rubbing  with  the  hand  on  a 
smooth  round  stone.  After  undergoing  this  process — which 
must  have  been  somewhat  equivalent  to  that  of  "  roving  "  as 
practised  in  our  mills — it  was  rolled  up  into  a  ball,  and  placed 
in  a  vessel  resembling  a  modern  flower-pot,  and  which,  probably, 
contained  water  or  some  stiffening  liquid.  From  this  vessel,  the 
spinner,  mounted  upon  a  slight  elevation  resembling  in  appear- 
ance a  block  of  wood,  brought  the  rove  over  his  or  her  shoulder, 
and  span  it  into  yarn  by  means  of  a  spindle,  exactly  resembling 
in  shape  that  used  among  ourselves  in  days  not  yet  long  gone  by. 
Sometimes  the  spinner  used  two  roves,  one  over  each  shoulder, 
and  at  other  times  so  many  even  as  four.  In  such  cases  two 
spindles  were  used,  one  in  each  hand;  and  two  roves  were 
twisted  into  one  double  thread.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  by 
what  sleight-of-hand  so  complicated  an  operation  could  have 
been  accomplished  by  a  single  person. 

Some  very  ancient  spindles  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  of 

the  kings  at  Thebes.      They  are  generally  of  wood,  the  circular 

head  or  whorl  being  of  gypsum  or  other  heavy  material,  in  order 

to  increase  their  impetus  in  revolving.      Others  are  of  a  light 

o  2 


212  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

plaited  work  made  of  rushes  or  palm  leaves,  stained  of  various 
colours,  and  furnished  with  a  loop  of  the  same  materials  for 
securing  the  thread  when  wound  up.  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson 
found  one  of  these  spindles  at  Thebes  with  some  of  the  Linen 
thread  upon  it.  It  is  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 

The  yarn,  after  being  washed,  dried,  and  beetled,  was  stretched 
as  warp  in  the  loom.  This  consisted  merely  of  four  pegs  driven 
into  the  ground,  two  at  one  end  and  two  at  the  other,  each  pair 
being  connected  by  a  cross  rod.  The  warp,  being  first  fastened 
to  the  nearest  rod,  was  passed  over  the  second,  wrought  back 
again  to  the  first,  fastened  there,  and  cut  off. 

This  peculiarity  of  the  warp  very  much  puzzled  a  gentleman 
in  Dundee,  to  whom  I  showed  a  piece  of  mummy  cloth,  procured 
for  me  by  a  friend  in  London.  He  insisted  that  the  cloth  had 
three  selvages,  two  at  the  sides  and  one  at  the  end.  A  refer- 
ence to  a  drawing  from  one  of  the  paintings  at  once  explained 
the  difficulty.  The  web  was  generally  about  six  yards  long 
only,  and  being  very  narrow,  somewhat  resembled  a  scarf.  The 
shortness  would  seem  to  be  accounted  for  by  their  being  ignor- 
ant of  the  plan  of  winding  a  long  length  of  warp  upon  a  beam 
that  would  enrol  it  as  required  ;  and  by  their  having  in  conse- 
quence to  stretch  out  the  entire  length  of  their  web  on  a  frame, 
as  is  practised  at  the  present  day  by  the  Hindoos. 

Judging  from  the  paintings,  there  appears  to  have  been  three 
modes  of  weaving  practised  among  the  Egyptians.  In  one,  a 
man  sits  upon  the  ground,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  a  dog, 
painfully  interlacing  the  weft  by  means  of  his  hands  alone,  and 
driving  it  home  by  a  long  thin  rod  running  across  the  warp. 
He  is  weaving  a  checked  pattern  of  different  colours,  probably 
sail-cloth.  In  another,  two  women  are  at  work  on  the  same 
web,  one  threads  the  weft,  and  the  other  drives  it  home.  In 
neither  of  these  is  there  any  appearance  of  a  shuttle.  In  a 
tliird  painting  the  warp  is  stretched  in  an  upright  position,  and 
a  man  interlaces  the  weft  by  means  of  a  long  netting-needle- 
looking  instrument. 

Of  the  quality  of  the  yarn  and  cloth  produced  by  these  rude 
processes,  we  have  satisfactory  evidence  in  the  mummy  cloth, 
immense  quantities  of  which  have  been  discovered  in  the  tombs. 
JBelzoni  observed  cloth  as  fine  as  our  common  muslin,  very 


LECTURES.  213 

st  rong,  and  of  an  even  texture.  Other  qualities  are  as  strong 
and  coarse  as  sail-cloth.  A  remarkable  peculiarity  of  mummy 
(1  'tii  is  that  the  warp  almost  invariably  contains  a  much 
greater  number  of  threads  than  the  weft  In  some  kinds  the 
warp  contains  twice,  in  others  thrice,  and  in  some  even  four 
times  the  number  of  threads  in  tin-  inch  that  the  weft  does. 
structure,  so  different  from  that  of  m  -  l«-rn  doth,  we  may 
suppose,  was  ..win-  t.»  tin-  diilieulty  ami  trdiuu-iu-s  uf  in>»Tting 
the  weft  by  the  hand,  as  practised  by  the  Egyptians.  The 
same  reason  may  perhaps  account  for  another  peculiarity  in  the 
Egyptian  manufacture  as  compared  with  that  of  the  modern 
loom,  viz.,  that  in  both  warp  an. I  \\vfi  the  yarn  was  double,  and 
in  some  instances  even  three  plies  are  diMinetly  visible. 

The  art  of  working  complicated  patterns  in  the  loom  seems 
to  have  been  to  giesJ  perfection  among  the  Egyptians. 

Martial  speaks  of  some  figured  cloth  woven  at  Memphis,  which 
surpassed  in  rielmess  of  execution  the  embroidery  of  Babylon. 
:  as,  speaking  of  a  remarkable  Linen  corslet  which 
had  been  given  to  the  Lacedaemonians  by  Amasis,  king  of 
Egypt,  describes  it  as  having  interwoven  in  the  piece  a  great 
number  of  animals  richly  embroidered  with  cotton  and  gold. 
1 1  was  cloth  of  this  kind  from  which  the  splendid  robes  worn 
by  Aaron  in  the  wilderness  were  made,  as  mentioned  in  Exodus. 
"And  they  did  beat  the  gold  into  thin  plates,  and  cut  it  into 
wires  to  work  it  in  the  blue,  aud  in  the  purple,  and  in  the 
scarlet,  and  in  the  fine  Lineu,  with  cunning  work  " 

Largo  quantities  of  Linen  yarn  and  cloth  were  yearly  ex- 
ported from  Egypt  to  most  of  the  countries  bordering  upon  the 
Mediterranean.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  speaks  of  the  "  embroid- 
1  I.  in  en  from  Egypt,"  which  the  Tyrians  "spread  forth  to 
be  their  sail. "  Solomon,  we  are  told,  had  Linen  yarn  brought 
out  of  Egypt;  and  lln-odotus  mentions  that  Egyptian  Linen 
was  in  high  repute  and  extensively  used  among  the  Greeks. 

The  dresses  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  whether  rich  or  poor, 
were  to  a  large  extent  composed  of  this  kind  of  cloth,  and  their 
U  dies  when  embalmed  were  uniformily  incased  in  Linen.  The 
quantity  of  cloth  used  for  this  latter  purpose  was  very  consider- 
able. The  length  of  the  bandages  round  some  of  the  mummies 
lias  been  found  to  be  from  290  to  300  yards,  and  on  one  opem  d 


214  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

at  Leeds  there  were  no  less  than  40  thicknesses  of  cloth  dis- 
covered. The  number  of  ancient  Egyptians  thus  comfortably 
swathed  must  have  been  immense.  Almost  every  museum  in 
Europe  of  any  pretensions  contains  one  or  more  of  these  high- 
dried  human  specimens  ;  and  for  many  years,  perhaps  centuries, 
the  caverns  of  Egypt  have  been  mines  of  wealth  to  the  Arabs  in 
the  neighbourhood,  the  bodies  being  used  by  them  as  fuel  for 
cooking  their  victuals,  and  the  wrappings  made  into  clothes  for 
themselves,  or  sold  for  the  purpose  of  being  made  into  paper  for 
the  use  of  the  grocers  and  spice-dealers. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  here  that  Linen  has  in  all  ages,  and 
in  every  nation,  been  regarded  as  the  only  fabric  suitable  to  be 
used  for  sacred  purposes.  The  Egyptian  priests  were  forbidden 
to  wear  anything  but  Linen  while  engaged  in  their  religious 
observances,  and  it  was  strictly  enjoined  that  no  dead  body 
should  be  buried  in  woollen.  The  Jewish  priests  were  clothed 
in  Linen  when  performing  the  most  sacred  services  of  the 
temple ;  as,  for  example,  on  the  great  day  of  Atonement,  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  given  in  Leviticus,  "  Aaron  shall  put  on 
the  holy  Linen  coat,  and  he  shall  have  the  Linen  breeches  upon 
his  flesh,  and  shall  be  girded  with  a  Linen  girdle,  and  with 
the  Linen  mitre  shall  he  be  attired — these  are  holy  garments." 
Ezekiel,  when  describing  the  temple  which  he  saw  in  his 
vision,  says,  "  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  that  when  they  enter  in 
at  the  gates  of  the  inner  court  that  they  shall  be  clothed  with 
Linen  garments,  and  no  wool  shall  come  upon  them  whiles  they 
minister  in  the  gates  of  the  inner  court  and  within."  And 
the  reason  for  this  prohibition  is  immediately  added,  "They 
shall  not  gird  themselves  with  anything  that  causeth  sweat." 
In  the  book  of  Revelation  we  are  told  that  the  seven  angels 
which  came  out  of  the  temple  were  clothed  in  pure  and  white 
Linen,  and  that  the  fine  Linen  is  the  righteousness  of  the 
Saints.  Plutarch  remarks  that  the  priests  of  Isis  wore  Linen 
on  account  of  its  purity,  and  Apuleius  argues  as  to  the  reason 
for  this  preference  after  the  following  manner:  "  Can  any  one 
impressed  with  a  sense  of  religion,  wonder  that  a  man  who  has 
been  made  acquainted  with  so  many  mysteries  of  the  gods 
should  keep  at  home  certain  sacred  emblems,  and  wrap  them 
in  a  Linen  cloth,  the  purest  covering  for  divine  objects  ?  For 


I    LA  11   I.H.'ITHES.  215 

wool,  tin-  »-\«  n-tion  of  a  sluggish  body  taken  from  sheep  was 
deemed  a  profane  attire,  even  according  to  the  early  tenets  of 
Orpheus  and  Pythagoras.  But  Flax,  that  cleanest  and  best 
production  of  the  field,  is  used  not  only  for  the  inner  and  outer 
clothing  of  the  most  holy  priests  of  the  Egyptians,  but  also  for 
covering  sacred  objects."  Tin-  lawn  of  the  bishop  and  the 
I.  i  nun  surplice  of  the  priest  give  evidence  that  a  similar  feeling 
has  all  along  prevailed  in  the  j»n -1  .it  it M!  churches  ;  and  Geneva 
hiTsrlt',  jealous  of  symbol  though  she  be,  finds  a  fitness  and  pro- 
priety in  this  fabric  for  articles  connected  with  some  of  her  most 
solemn  observances. 

The  people  of  Israel,  at  the  time  of  their  separation  from 
Egypt,  had  attained  to  a  high  perfection  in  the  manufacture  of 
various  kinds  of  cloth,  as  we  learn  from  the  very  minute  descrip- 
tions given  in  the  books  of  Moses  of  the  dresses  of  the  liUi 
priest,  and  of  the  coverings  and  hangings  of  the  tabernacle. 
This  skill  they  had  doubtless  acquired  during  their  long  resid- 
ence in  the  land  of  their  bondage.  In  Palestine  we  know  that 
Flax  was  from  the  very  earliest  times  extensively  cultivated  and 
manufactured  iuto  Linen  cloth.  The  spies  sent  by  Joshua  into 
Jericho  were  concealed  by  Rahab  beneath  "  the  stalks  of  Flax 
which  she  had  laid  in  order  upon  the  roof," — doubtless  for  the 
purpose  of  drying  them, — indeed  Josephus  expressly  mentionj 
that  she  was  "  drying  the  bundles." 

In  1  Chronicles,  iv.  and  21,  there  occurs  a  remarkable  ex- 
pression, which  Yates  supposes  to  refer  to  a  large  establishment 
for  dressing  fine  Flax.  The  literal  translation  of  the  original,  he 
says,  is — "The  families  (or  perhaps  partnerships)  of  the  manu- 
factory of  Byssus,"  Bute  or  Byssus  being  the  word  generally 
used  to  signify  fine  Flax.  In  the  common  version  the  sentence 
reads  thus — "  The  families  of  the  house  of  them  that  wrought 
fine  Linen";  and  the  prophet  Hosea  twice  mentions  Flax  as 
one  of  the  chief  materials  used  for  clothing  in  his  time. 

Among  the  Israelites  spinning  would  appear  to  have  been 
practised  cliiefly  by  females.  The  virtuous  woman  spoken  of  in 
the  book  of  Proverbs  "seeketh  Wool  and  Flax  and  worketh 
willingly  with  her  hands  ;  she  layeth  her  hands  to  the  spindle, 
and  her  hands  hold  the  distaff;  she  maketh  fine  Linen  and 
selleth  it,  amhk  Birdies  unto  the  merchant."  And  Moses, 


216  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

when  speaking  of  the  manufacture  of  the  furnishings  of  the 
tabernacle,  says : — "  And  all  the  women  that  were  wise-hearted 
did  spin  with  their  hands,  and  brought  that  which  they  had  spun 
both  of  blue,  and  of  scarlet,  and  of  fine  Linen.  And  all  the 
women  whose  hearts  stirred  them  up  in  wisdom  spun  goats' 
hair." 

The  loom  used  by  the  Egyptians  we  have  seen  was  a  very 
simple  affair,  scarcely  deserving  of  the  name.  That  in  use 
among  the  Israelites  was  of  a  somewhat  improved,  but  still  very 
rude  construction.  It  consisted,  Dr  Kitto  supposes,  merely  of 
two  upright  posts  driven  perpendicularly  into  the  ground,  and 
united  at  the  top  by  a  cross  beam,  from  which  the  warp  de- 
pended. The  references  in  the  Bible  to  the  Jewish  loom  are 
very  slight  and  uninstructive.  Job  complains  that  his  days  are 
swifter  than  a  weaver's  shuttle ;  the  staff'  of  Goliath's  spear  was 
like  a  weaver's  beam ;  and  the  locks  of  Samson's  hair  were 
woven  by  Delilah  into  the  web  and  fastened  with  the  pin  of 
the  beam.  And  this  is  almost  all  we  learn  as  to  the  mode  of 
manufacture  among  that  people  in  ancient  times. 

Passing  now  to  the  classic  regions  of  Greece  and  Italy,  we 
find  that  in  both  the  implements  used  in  spinning  were  still  the 
distaff  and  spindle.  These  were  generally  formed  of  wood,  but 
those  used  by  the  females  of  the  higher  classes  were  sometimes 
of  very  costly  materials  and  of  beautiful  workmanship.  Theo- 
critus presented  a  distaff  of  ivory  to  Theugenis,  the  wife  of  his 
friend  Nicias,  along  with  some  complimentary  verses,  of  which 
the  following  may  serve  as  a  specimen : — 

0  distaff,  friend  to  warp  and  woof, 
Minerva's  gift  in  man's  behoof, 
Whom  careful  housewives  still  retain, 
And  gather,  to  their  households'  gain, 
With  me  repair,  no  vulgar  prize, 
Where  the  famed  towers  of  Nileus  rise  ; 
Thither  would  Jove  kind  breezes  send, 

1  steer  my  course  to  meet  my  friend. 
The  ivory  distaff  I  provide, 

A  present  for  his  blooming  bride. 
With  her  thou  wilt  sweet  toil  partake, 
And  aid  her  various  vests  to  make. 

Homer  mentions  one  of  gold  which  was  given  to  Grecian 
Helen  by  Alcandra  the  wife  of  Polybus  who  lived  in  Thebes  : — 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  217 

Alcandia,  contort  of  his  high  comma: 

A  golden  distaff  guve  to  Helen',  hand  ; 

And  that  rich  vase,  with  living  sculpture  wrought. 

Which,  heaped  with  wool,  the  beauteous  Phylo  brought, 

The  silken  fleece,  empurpled  for  the  loom, 

Rivalled  the  hyacinth  in  vernal  bloom. 

<'  rich  vase  "  here  mentioned  was  a  basket  for  holding  the 
Flux  or  wool  which  was  to  be  spun.      It  was  generally  com- 

'1  of  wicker-work,  but  in  this  instance  was  of  M 
In  preparing  the  Flax  or  wool  for  spinning,  it  had  first  to  be 
carded  or  heckled,  and  was  then  wrapped  loosely  round  the  top 
of  the  distaff  in  thin  folds.  This  simple  process  would  seem  to 
have  it  i  u  i  i  •«  (I  considerable  care  and  neatness  in  the  execution  of  it, 
so  as  that  the  fibres  might  be  easily  and  evenly  drawn  out  by  the 
hand  of  the  spinner.  Arachnes'  skill  in  this  art,  no  less  than  in 
those  of  spinning  and  weaving,  excited,  according  to  Ovid,  the 
wonder  and  admiration  of  the  neighbouring  nymphs : — 

Nor  would  the  work  when  finished  please  so  much 
As  while  she  wrought,  to  view  each  graceful  touch, 
Whether  the  shapeless  wool  in  balls  she  wound, 
Or,  with  quick  motion,  turned  the  spindle  round. 

The  modus  operandi  would  seem  to  have  been  very  much  the 
same  as  that  practised  by  our  own  graudmothers.  The  distaff 
was  fastened  to  the  person  under  the  left  arm,  or  held  in  the  left 
hand,  and  the  thread  being  attached  to  the  top  of  the  spindle 
I*)  means  of  a  small  slit  or  catch,  a  gyrating  motion  was  com- 
municated to  the  latter  by  the  fair  spinster  rolling  the  upper 
end  slightly  along  her  right  knee,  and  a  slender  fibre  being  then 
drawn  out  by  the  forefinger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand,  it  was 
twisted  into  a  thread  by  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  spindle.  As 
soon  as  the  spindle  reaehed  the  ground  the  thread  was  taken  out 
of  the  slit  or  catch,  wound  quickly  on  the  under  part  of  the 
spindle,  again  fastened  in  the  slit  at  the  the  top,  and  the  spin- 
ning of  a  new  length  begun  as  before. 

Catullus,  in  his  poem  on  the  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis, 
describes  these  various  operations  very  distinctly,  thus: — 

The  loaded  distaff,  in  the  left  hand  placed, 
With  spongy  coiln  of  snow-white  wool  was  graced  ; 


218  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

From  these  the  right  hand  lengthening  fibres  drew, 
Which,  into  thread,  'neath  nimble  fingers,  grew. 
At  intervals  a  gentle  touch  was  given, 
By  which  the  twirling  whorl  was  onward  driven, 
Then,  when  the  sinking  spindle  reached  the  ground, 
The  recent  thread  around  its  spire  was  wound, 
Until  the  clasp,  within  its  nipping  cleft, 
Held  fast  the  newly  finished  length  of  weft. 

When  the  bobbin  of  the  spindle  was  sufficiently  loaded  with 
the  yarn,  it  was  taken  out  of  the  whorl,  and  placed  in  a  basket 
to  await  the  operations  of  the  weaver. 

The  Grecian  and  Koman  loom  was  a  very  much  better  instru- 
ment than  that  of  Egypt  or  Palestine,  although,  like  the  latter 
it  still  stood  erect.  The  chief  improvement  was  the  use  of 
leashes  or  treddles,  by  means  of  which  the  threads  of  the  warp 
were  decussated  or  drawn  to  either  side  alternately,  so  as  to 
allow  the  shuttle  to  pass  through  between  them  at  one  stroke, 
and  the  weft  to  be  fastened  in  its  place  by  this  reflex  movement. 

This  operation,  as  all  are  aware,  is  now  rapidly  performed  by 
means  of  treddles,  which  are  moved  by  the  feet,  the  hands  being 
thus  left  free  for  throwing  the  shultle  ;  but  among  the  ancients  it 
was  rudely,  and  of  course  slowly,  executed  by  the  hands.  The 
weft  was  driven  home  originally  by  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  called 
spatha,  which  was  inserted  into  the  opening  through  which  the 
shuttle  had  passed,  but  afterwards  by  a  reed  or  comb,  called 
pecten,  the  teeth  of  which  alternated  with  the  threads  of  the 
warp,  and  were  driven  forcibly  upwards,  much  in  the  same  way 
that  the  reed  of  the  modern  weaver  is  driven  hard  up  upon  the 
cloth  by  the  action  of  the  Jay.  When  we  consider  the  various 
operations  which  the  ancient  workman  had  to  perform  with  his 
hands  alone — the  decussating  of  the  warp,  the  throwing  of  the 
shuttle,  and  the  driving  home  of  the  weft — we  can  fancy  how- 
appropriate  would  be  the  application  to  him  of  the  Roman  pro- 
verb "  Satigit  serum  suarum" — He  has  his  hands  full  at  home. 

We  have  said  that  the  ancient  loom  stood  erect,  and  of  this 
we  have  very  satisfactory  evidence  in  the  names  given  to  its 
different  parts.  The  warp  was  called  stamen  in  Latin,  and 
a-Trjfjbwv  in  Greek,  on  account  of  its  upright  position  in  the 
loom ;  the  web  when  finished,  but  before  it  was  cut  down,  was 
called  vestis  pendens,  hanging  garment,  or  pendula  tela,  be- 


r«> IT  I.  AH  LECTURES.  -I'.l 

cuu.se  it  i  in  the  transverse  beam  or  jugum.      To  set  up 

the  loom  in  Greek  was  'urrov  (mja 0060.1, — literally  to  erect  the 
pole — being  the  same  phrase  wliich  was  used  for  setting  up  the 
mast  of  a  ship — and  so  on. 

<  )vid  has  given  us  a  very  animated  description  of  a  contest  of 
.-kill  which  he  says  took  place  between  these  famous  she~ 
weavers  —  Minerva  ami  Arachm — in  <>rdcr  to  decide  which  was 
the  most  accomplished  work-woman.  The  passage  is  interest- 
ing, as  illustrating  the  ancient  process  of  weaving. 

Straight  to  their  posts  appointed  both  repair. 

And  fix  their  threaded  looms  with  equal  care. 

Around  the  solid  beam  the  web  is 

While  hollow  canes  the  parting  warp  divide, 

Thro'  which,  with  nimble  flight,  the  shuttles  play, 

Ami  for  the  woof  prepare  a  ready  way. 

The  woof  and  warp  unite— pressed  by  the  toothy  slay ; 

Thus  both,  their  mantles  button' d  to  their  breast, 

Their  skillful  fingers  ply  with  willing  haste. 

And  work  with  pleasure,  while  they  cheer  the  eye 

With  glowing  purple  of  the  Tyrian  dye  ; 

Or,  justly  intermixing  shades  with  light, 

Their  colourings  insensibly  unite. 

Then  threads  of  gold  both  artfully  dispose, 

And  as  each  part  in  just  proportion  rose, 

Some  antique  fable  in  their  work  disclose. 

As  some  of  my  fair  hearers  may  be  anxious  to  learn  the 
result  of  this  apparently  unequal  contest,  I  may  mention  that 
Arachne  was  declared  the  victor,  which  so  enraged  the  goddess 
— who  in  this  did  not  certainly  give  proof  of  her  usual  wisdom — 
that  she  first  half  killed  the  presumptuous  maiden  by  striking 
her  with  a  box-shuttle,  and  then  repenting  somewhat  of  the 
foul  deed,  permitted  her  to  live,  but  changed  her  into  a  spider, 
and  doomed  her  to  incessant  weaving  during  the  rest  of  her 
mortal  existence,  as  a  warning  to  all  earth-born  females  who 
should  dare  to  show  themselves  more  gifted  than  their  celestial 
betters. 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  we  find  that  weaving  had 
become  a  distinct  trade,  and  wan  carried  on  by  a  separate  class 
of  persons  called,  in  Latin  Textorea  and  Textrices,  male  and 
female  weavers,  or  sometimes  Linteones.  At  the  same  time, 
however,  it  is  evident  that  almost  every  considerable  domestic 


220  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

establishment,  especially  in  the  country,  contained  a  loom  or 
looms,  with  all  the  necessary  apparatus  for  spinning  and  weav- 
ing. This  department  was  under  the  special  management  of 
the  mistress  of  the  household,  and  ladies  of  the  highest  rank  did 
not  consider  themselves  above  engaging  personally  in  this  use- 
ful occupation.  In  the  larger  houses  a  particular  apartment, 
called  icmov  or  textrinum,  was  assigned  for  this  purpose,  in 
which  the  ladies  sat,  surrounded  by  their  female  slaves,  direct- 
ing and  assisting  in  the  cheerful  toil,  and  doubtless  keeping 
their  tongues  as  busy  as  their  spindles. 

Alexander  the  Great  informed  Sisygambis,  the  captive  Queen 
of  Persia,  that  the  garments  which  he  wore  were  not  merely  the 
gift,  but  the  workmanship  also  of  his  sisters. 

Augustus  Caesar,  when  all  simplicity  of  manners  had  expired 
with  the  Republic,  affected  still  to  bring  up  his  family  on  the 
antique  model,  and  wore  no  garment  but  such  as  was  manu- 
factured in  his  own  house.  The  fair  but  frail  Helen  was  labori- 
ous as  Penelope,  plying  her  shuttle,  or  her  golden  distaff  in  the 
midst  of  a  troop  of  she-manufacturers.  Arete,  Queen  of  Phoeacia, 
is  depicted  sitting  at  the  fire,  distaff  in  hand,  encircled  by  her 
maids :  and  the  wife  of  Odysseus,  famed  for  her  household 
virtues,  is  seen  at  her  door  spinning  the  purple  thread.  "  In 
fine"  says  St  John  in  his  Ancient  Greece,  "  the  women  of  these 
ages  were  not  creatures  of  mere  luxury  or  show.  Possessing 
considerable  power  and  energy,  and  much  skill  in  the  elegant 
and  useful  arts  of  life,  they  were  deterred  by  no  false  pride  or 
ignorant  prejudices  from  converting  their  capacity  to  the  use 
of  their  families.  The  magnificence  of  their  attire,  their  costly 
ornaments,  or  the  consciousness  of  the  highest  personal  beauty, 
no  wise  interfered  with  their  thrifty  habits.  An  Homeric 
princess  even  thought  nothing  beneath  her  which  could  contri- 
bute to  the  comfort  or  elegant  adornment  of  those  she  loved." 

Alas  for  these  degenerate  days  !  The  romance  of  female  in- 
dustry has  gone,  we  fear  for  ever.  How  unlike  to  the  blooming 
maidens  of  classic  Greece  or  Kome,  twirling  the  dancing  spindle 
under  their  own  sunny  skies,  and  singing  or  chatting  merrily  as 
they  toil,  are  those  dust-besprinkled  females,  breathing  the 
noxious  atmosphere  of  steam,  and  oil,  and  smoke,  and  moving 
listlessly  about  in  the  midst  of  a  horrid  uproar  of  grating  wheels 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  221 

and  ( l.nil  IHL;  engines.  The  mighty  monster  steam,  with  his 
sinews  of  iron,  and  his  breath  <»f  fire,  has  revolutionized  the 
manufacturing  world,  has  rendered  tin-  int.  resting  appellation 
of  "spinster"  obsolete  to  all  but  session  clerks  and  musty 
and  has  driven  our  I>oauteou8  Helens,  and  our  virtuous 
Penelopes  to  eke  out  a  profitless  existence  in  the  irksome 
ill -re, (uited  labour  of  Berlin-wool  frames  and  crochet  needles. 

The  perfection  to  which  the  manufacture  of  cloth  was  brought 
in  Greece — if  we  are  to  believe  the  poets  at  least — appears  to 
have  been  truly  wonderful,  especially  when  we  consider  the 
.simplicity  and  even  rudeness  of  their  implements  as  compared 
with  modern  machinery.  The  most  heautiful  patterns  were 
woven  in  their  cloths.  Stripes,  lozenges,  the  figures  of  birds 
and  other  animals,  sprigs,  flowers  and  stars  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful and  brilliant  colours,  were  all  produced  in  the  loom.  Others 
splend idly  embroidered.  Even  the  fine  soft  vests  which 
warriors  wore  beneath  their  armour  were  usually  figured  with 
embroidery  by  the  females  of  the  family.  Homer  repre- 
sents Helen  as  weaving  a  representation  of  a  battle  between  the 
Greeks  and  Trojans.  Andromache  copies  flowers  in  a  veil ;  the 
ueb  of  Penelope  is  proverbially  known  ;  Minerva  and  Arachne 
"  some  antique  fable  in  their  work  disclose  "  ;  and  the  magnifi- 
cent chlamys  which  was  weaving  for  Demetrius  at  the  period 
of  his  overthrow,  represented  in  one  vast  picture  both  the  face  of 
tin-  earth  and  heaven  -with  all  its  constellations. 

Flax  was  not  largely  grown  in  Greece — the  mountainous 
character  of  the  country  b  er  fitted  for  sheep  husbandry. 

As  a  consequence  wool  rather  than  Flax  was  commonly  used  in 
cxtile  manufactures.  The  only  district  of  Greece  in  which 
Flax  was  cultivated  was  that  of  Elis,  a  low-lying  plain  on  the 
extreme  west  of  the  Peloponnesus,  watered  by  the  rivers  Alphens 
and  Igliaco ;  and  the  only  place  in  which  the  manufacture  of 
Linen  prevailed  to  any  extent  was  the  seacoast  town  of  Patrse 
(the  modern  Patras).  lying  upon  the  gulf  of  that  name,  and 
near  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto.  A  single  glance  at 
the  map  of  Greece  will  shew  that  that  country,  intersected  in 
i- very  part  by  mountainous  ridges,  and  possessed  of  no  rivers  or 
alluvial  plains  of  any  importance,  was  not  by  nature  adapted  for 
the  growth  of  the  Flax  plant.  Its  romantic  and  beautiful 


222  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

mountains  of  Arcadia,  on  the  other  hand,  were  covered  with 
flocks  of  sheep,  the  fineness  of  whose  fleece  was  long  proverbial. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  the  particular  kind  of  indus- 
try, and  even  perhaps  the  very  attributes  of  a  people,  are  influ- 
enced by  the  geographical  character  of  their  country.  Egypt 
and  Germany  were  the  great  Linen  producing  countries  of 
ancient  times,  because  in  them  had  been  placed  the  rich  alluvial 
plains  of  the  Nile  and  of  the  Khine  ;  whereas  Syria,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Greece,  being  mountainous  countries,  were  chiefly  noted  for 
their  woollen  manufactures.  In  our  own  Scotland,  in  the  same 
way,  it  was  in  the  basins  of  the  Tay,  of  the  Forth,  and  of  the 
Clyde,  that  the  cultivation  of  Flax,  and  the  manufacture  of 
Linen,  so  extensively  prevailed  in  former  times  ;  while  the  dis- 
tricts of  the  Grampians  and  Lammermuirs  were  equally  noted 
for  their  breeds  of  sheep,  and  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth. 
In  the  villages  and  small  towns  of  the  one  there  arose  those  in- 
dependent and  industrious  burghers  who,  hating  war  and  civil 
disturbance  as  their  and  the  state's  worst  enemies,  were  content 
to  remain  at  peace  with  their  neighbours,  and  all  the  world  be- 
sides, were  their  civil  and  religious  liberties  but  secured  to  them  ; 
and,  in  the  other,  there  was  nursed  that  brave  and  hardy,  but  in- 
dolent and  unambitious  race,  whose  character  has  ever  borne  the 
true  pastoral  type,  and  whose  memory  will  live  longer  in  the 
romantic  history  of  clan  warfare  and  border  forays,  and  in  the 
sweet  strains  of  their  pastoral  ballads,  than  in  the  records  of 
social  progress  and  industrial  advancement. 

The  Flax  grown  in  Elis  was  of  the  very  finest  quality,  and 
the  cloth  manufactured  from  it  was  sold  for  its  weight  in  gold. 
The  Linen  manufacture  of  Patrae  was  carried  on  almost  wholly 
by  women,  their  number,  according  to  Pausanias,  being  thrice  as 
great  as  that  of  the  other  sex.  The  articles  made  were  caps  or 
head-dresses  of  net-work,  and  very  fine  Linen  intended  for  the 
use  of  the  wealthier  classes  of  the  Grecian  ladies.  They  im- 
ported the  Flax  from  Elis  and  from  Egypt.  In  the  Island  of 
Amorgos,  in  the  -ZEgaean  Sea,  a  species  of  very  fine  Flax  was 
grown,  and  from  it  were  made  Linens  of  the  most  delicate  and 
beautiful  texture,  so  fine  indeed  as  to  be  semi-transparent,  and 
to  rival  the  finer  cambric  of  the  modern  loom.  It  was  some- 
times dyed  purple,  from  which  the  name  Amorgos  came  occa- 


POPULAR  LKCTUBE8. 

sionally  to  mean  a  purple  cloth,  but  it  was  also  frequently 
tinislinl  ..l  the  most  brilliant  and  snowy  whiteness.  It  is  in  a 
tunic  of  this  Linen  that  Lysistrata  in  Aristophanes,  advises  the 
At  lie-man  ladies  to  appear  befon  t  h.-ir  husbands  in  order  to  give 
lull  Hit -ft  to  the  splendour  oi  their  charms. 

In  imitation  of  the  Egyptian^,  the  inhabitants  of  Amorgofl 
wove  a  sort  of  fine  napkins,  which  were  evidently  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  our  pocket  handkerchiefs,  at  least  by  the  ladies 
and  youthful  gallants,  but  for  which,  says  Aristophanes,  the  old 
men  substituted  a  fox's  tail  ! 

Among  the  Romans  as  among  the  Greeks,  to  the  women 
chiefly  were  assigned  the  labours  of  spinning  and  weaving, 
especially  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  commonwealth ;  the  war- 
like K..MI  m  disdaining  to  occupy  himself  in  tastes  which  he 
was  accustomed  to  regard  as  effeminate  drudgery.  For  a 
similar  reason  the  wearing  of  Linen  garments  was  for  many 
centuries  wholly  confined  to  females.  Afterwards,  as  greater 
refinement  of  manners  began  to  prevail  towards  the  close  of  the 
Republic,  and  especially  under  the  Empire,  fabrics  of  Linen, 
cotton,  and  silk  were  generally  worn  by  the  wealthier  classes, 
and  by  both  sexes.  These  were  not,  however,  manufactured  at 
home,  but  were  imported  from  those  eastern  countries  to  which 
tlu-  Roman  conquests  had  by  this  time  extended.  Their  price 
was  in  consequence  very  high.  The  biographer  of  the  Emperor 
Alexander  Severus  considers  it  worthy  of  note  that  he  took 
great  delight  in  Linen,  but  preferred  it  plain  instead  of  em- 
ln-nidered,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Linen  then  imported  from 
Egypt.  "  If,"  said  he,  "  Linen  cloths  are  made  of  that  material 
in  order  that  they  may  not  be  at  all  rough,  why  mix  purple 
with  them.  And  to  interweave  gold  with  Linen  he  considered 
madness,  because  this  made  it  rigid  in  addition  to  its  rough- 
ness." From  this  we  may  conjecture  that  his  imperial  Majesty 
was  what  we  would  call  somewhat  thin-skinned,  and  would  not 
have  made  the  most  amiable  of  saints  if  clad  in  sackcloth  or 
even  in  coarse  flannel.  What  might  have  been  the  history  of 
Christendom,  we  may  profoundly  inquire,  had  the  Roman  Pontiff 
of  that  day  demanded  the  expiation  of  imperial  sin  in  a  hair- 
cloth shirt  ?  The  fineness  of  an  emperor's  epidermis  might  have 
postponed  infallibility  tor  centnri- 


224  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

Flax  was  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  various  districts 
of  Italy,  especially  in  Etruria  and  Campania,  and  in  the  fertile 
plains  of  the  Po  and  Ticino. 

It  was  manufactured  into  articles  of  dress,  sheets,  table  covers, 
table  napkins  (which  were  very  useful  among  a  people  whose 
fingers  were  at  once  knives,  and  forks,  and  spoons),  bath  towels, 
and  bakers'  aprons.  The  coarser  kinds  were  used  for  sails  and 
for  awnings  for  the  theatres,  forum,  and  other  places  of  public 
resort. 

Pliny,  the  natural  historian,  has  given  some  curious  particu- 
lars as  to  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of  Flax,  and  the 
manufacture  of  Linen  in  his  day,  but  appears  to  have  looked 
upon  it  as  an  effeminate  and  even  dangerous  innovation  upon  the 
greater  simplicity  and  purity  of  earlier  times.  He  speaks,  for 
instance,  with  ill-concealed  contempt  of  the  German  ladies,  "  who 
cannot  devise  to  go  more  rich  and  costly  in  their  apparel  than 
to  wear  Linen,"  and  unfavourably  contrasts  their  conduct  in  this 
respect  with  the  women  of  the  Serani,  who  were  to  be  highly 
commended,  he  thinks,  because  they  wore  no  Linen  garments  of 
any  kind.  He  mentions  that  the  Germans  wove  their  Linen  in 
dwellings  under  the  ground,  and  that  a  similar  practice  prevailed 
in  some  parts  of  Italy.  From  the  same  author  we  learn  that 
an  exceedingly  fine  kind  of  Flax  was  grown  in  Spain,  and  that 
Setavis,  the  modern  Xativa,  was  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its 
Linen  cloth,  especially  its  sudaria  or  pocket-handkerchiefs. 
From  these  western  nations  of  Europe  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the 
manufacture  and  the  use  of  Linen  in  dress  would  be  imported 
into  Britain. 

Let  me  pause  here,  however,  for  but  one  reflection.  At  the 
period  at  which  we  have  arrived  the  world  was  upwards  of  4000 
years  old,  and  yet  how  little  had  been  done  in  the  improvement 
of  the  industrial  arts  !  True,  in  those  arts,  such  as  sculpture, 
painting,  architecture  and  the  like,  which  appeal  merely  to  the  re- 
fined and  cultivated  taste,  or  those  others  which  seek  only  to 
gratify  the  luxurious  and  voluptuous  appetite,  great  perfection 
had  been  attained ;  but  in  those  that  provide  for  the  comfort  of 
the  multitude  and  go  to  raise  the  character  and  standing  of  a 
people,  there  had  been  a  deplorable  stagnation  and  neglect.  Take, 
for  example,  the  textile  manufacture  of  which  we  have  been 


POPULAR  LECTURES. 

attempting  to  sketch  the  history.  The  spindles  and  looms  of 
Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs  were  rude  enough,  but  they  were  not 
far  behind,  indeed  they  differed  little  from  those  used 
by  the  luxurious  Roman  of  the  days  of  Augustus,  and  neither 
are  they  unworthy  of  comparison  with  those  even  now  used  by 
the  descendants  of  the  same  haughty  conquerors  who  rejoice  to 
call  the  liberal  and  large  hearted  Pio  Nona  father.  The  Egyp- 
tian manufacturer,  who  lived  seventeen  centuries  B.C.,  employed 
in  his  trade  implements  not  much  ruder  than  those  used  by  his 
Italian  brother  tradesmen  in  the  19th  century  A.D.  How  is 
this  to  be  accounted  for  ?  The  only  answer,  I  believe,  is  that 
commerce  and  manufactures  cannot  flourish  cither  amidst  the 
turmoil  of  war,  or  under  the  deaden ii  1-4  influence  of  despotism ; 
they  are  plants  that  may  not  be  watered  with  blood,  nor  fos- 
tered beneath  the  shade  of  absolute  power.  Neither,  however, 
ought  they  to  be  forced  into  unhealthy  growth  by  artificial 
stimulants,  nor  confined  within  the  narrow  forms  framed  by  em- 
pirical and  ignorant  rulers.  Unless  they  breathe  the  pure 
air  of  freedom,  and  are  uncontrolled  in  every  twig  and  fibre,  they 
will  sicken  and  die.  And  hence  we  find  that  whenever  a  people 
are  peaceable  and  free,  they  are  industrious  and  inventive.  Im- 
provements in  the  arts,  social  advancement,  and  progress  in 
t  i\  ilization,  in  comfort,  and  in  wealth,  characterize  the  history  of 
such  a  nation,  but  where  tyranny  and  turbulence  prevail,  there 
are  also  to  be  found  barbarism,  poverty,  and  social  debasement. 
This  latter  was  the  condition,  generally  speaking,  of  the  nations 
of  antiquity — (I  speak,  of  course,  of  the  great  mass  of  the 
people), — and  hence  it  was  that  so  little  improvement  was  made 
in  the  industrial  arts  during  the  long  period  we  have  had  under 
review.  The  prodigious  advancement  which  has  since  been 
made  in  these  was  mainly  owing  to  the  peace-loving  freemen  of 
Flanders  and  Brabant — of  the  Hanseatic  cities,  and  of  the  burgh 
towns  of  England,  and  Scotland,  and  Protestant  Ireland — men 
who  loved,  and  struggled  for,  and  achieved  civil  and  religious 
liberty  for  themselves,  and  for  their  children. 

The  history  of  the  Linen  manufacture  in  this  country,  will, 
as  we  shall  find,  elucidate  the  same  truths,  and  teach  the  same 
lesson.  For  many  centuries,  tyrannical  monarchies,  and  selfish 
oligarchies,  foreign  wars,  and  intestine  disorders,  discouraged  and 


226 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 


repressed  the  onward  tendencies  of  the  people's  industry,  and 
produced  their  natural  fruits  of  monopoly  and  commercial  re- 
striction. The  abolition  of  the  Scottish  and  Irish  Linen  Boards, 
the  Reform  Bill,  and  Free  Trade,  were  the  Magna  Charta  of 
British  industry,  and  gave  freedom  and  impetus  to  British  enter- 
prise and  skill.  But  we  anticipate. 

When  the  Eomans  invaded  Britain  in  the  year  55,  they  found 
the  inhabitants,  they  say,  in  a  state  but  little  removed  from  bar- 
barism. Some  were  clothed  in  the  skins  of  animals,  but  many 
had  no  other  garment  but  a  coat  of  blue  paint.  Among  such  a 
people  the  textile  arts  could  have  made  but  little  progress,  the 
demand  for  manufactures  being  of  necessity  as  limited  as  their 
wardrobes.  It  is  believed,  however,  by  some  writers,  that  the 
arts  of  weaving  and  even  of  dyeing  in  different  colours,  coarse 
kinds  of  woollen  and  Linen  cloth,  were  known  and  practised 
among  the  more  civilized  of  the  ancient  Britons  for,  at  least,  a 
century  before  the  first  Eoman  invasion  :  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  this  event  contributed  materially  to  the  improvement 
and  more  extended  diffusion  of  those  and  many  other  useful  arts 
among  the  conquered  people.  The  Emperors  of  Rome  were 
usually  at  great  pains  to  improve  the  condition  of  their  foreign 
subjects.  They  imported,  or  sought  out  amongst  the  inhabitants 
themselves,  the  most  skilful  artificers  in  every  department, 
especially  the  best  manufacturers  of  woollen  and  Linen  cloth, 
and  formed  them  into  colleges  or  corporations,  with  various 
privileges,  and  under  certain  officers  and  regulations.  The 
chief  officer  in  each  college  was  called  the  Court  of  the  Sacred 
Largesses,  and  his  business  was  to  see  that  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  cloth,  of  various  kinds,  was  regularly  produced  for  the 
use  of  the  court,  and  of  the  army.  Such  an  imperial  manufac- 
tory was  established,  we  learn,  in  England  at  Venta  Belgarum, 
now  called  Winchester. 

The  arrival  of  the  Saxons  in  England  in  the  5th  century  had  at 
first  an  injurious  influence  upon  trade  and  manufactures,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country  which  it  produced. 
The  skilful  artizans  of  all  kinds,  dreading  the  depredations  of 
their  more  warlike  neighbours,  gradually  retired  to  the  con- 
tinent. So  soon,  however,  as  the  new  invaders  became  firmly 
established  in  their  dominion,  greater  attention  began  again  to  be 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  227 

paid  to  the  arts  of  peace.  And,  in  the  7th  century,  we  have 
( '  »•  n  I  once  that  the  art  of  weaving  had  attained  to  considerable  per- 
fect ion,  in  the  work  of  an  ecclesiastical  chronicler  of  the  period, 
who  speaks  of  "  webs  woven  with  shuttles  filled  with  threads  of 
purple  and  many  other  colours,  flying  from  side  to  side,  and 
forming  a  variety  of  figures  and  images  in  different  compart- 
ments with  admirable  art."  These  were  commonly  executed  by 
ladies  of  the  highest  rank,  and  were  designed  for  ornaments 
to  the  churches  and  vestments  for  the  clergy.  The  four 
daughters  of  Edward  the  Elder  were  highly  celebrated  for 
their  skill  in  spinning,  and  weaving,  and  needlework,  which  was 
so  far  from  spoiling  the  fortunes  of  these  royal  spinsters,  that  it 
procured  for  them  the  addresses  of  the  greatest  princes  then  in 
Europe. 

In  the  10th  century,  the  people  of  Flanders  and  Brabant  began 
to  be  famous  for  their  manufactures  of  wool  and  Flax,  in  which 
they  were  wisely  encouraged  by  Baldwin  the  Younger,  Count  of 
Flanders,  who  established  yearly  fairs  in  several  places,  free  of 
toll  or  duty,  whether  for  goods  imported  or  exported.  In  this 
century  the  town  of  Ypres  in  Flanders  was  built,  which  soon 
became  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of  Table-linen,  now  called 
Diaper  i.e.  Cloth  d  Yprea.  Several  towns  in  Germany  began 
now  also  to  rise  into  commercial  and  manufacturing  importance 
— a  position  which  they  retained  for  many  succeeding  centuries. 

The  English  had  also  by  this  time  very  much  improved  their 
textile  manufactures,  and  had  become  more  reconciled  to  the 
use  of  Linen,  which  had  previously  been  looked  upon  as  some- 
what effeminate.  For  underclothing  especially  it  was  deemed  not 
only  pleasant,  but  necessary  as  a  remedy  against  cutaneous  dis- 
ease,which  was  then  very  prevalent.  The  wearing  of  a  woollen 
sliirt  was  in  consequence  considered  doing  deep  penance  for 
great  sins.  The  ladies  of  this  era,  we  are  told,  wore  loose  and 
flowing  garments,  chiefly  made  of  Linen,  adorned  with  broad 
borders,  woven  or  embroidered  with  various  colours ;  and  persons 
of  distinction  began  for  the  first  time  to  wear  a  kind  of  stockings, 
which  consisted  of  strips  of  woollen  or  Linen  cloth  wrapped 
round  the  leg  like  bandages. 

The  conquest  of  England  by  William  of  Normandy,  (A.D. 
1066,)  gave  a  very  considerable  impulse  to  the  manufactures  of 
P2 


228  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

that  country.  Great  numbers  of  weavers  came  over  in  his 
army,  and  others  followed  on  the  invitation  of  the  king,  who 
promised  them  protection  for  their  goods  and  persons.  This 
immigration  was  soon  afterwards  greatly  increased  by  a  remark- 
able overflowing  of  the  sea,  which  permanently  inundated  a 
large  portion  of  Flanders,  and  forced  many  of  the  poor  Flemings 
to  take  shelter  in  England.  The  skill  of  that  people  in  weaving 
was  then  so  great  that  an  ancient  historian  remarks  that  "  it 
seemed  to  be  a  peculiar  gift  bestowed  on  them  by  nature."  In 
this  reign  the  weavers  in  all  the  great  towns  of  England  were 
incorporated  into  guilds,  and  had  certain  privileges  conferred 
on  them  by  royal  charters,  in  return  for  which  they  paid  cer- 
tain fines  into  the  exchequer.  The  Linen  made  in  England, 
however,  was  still  very  coarse — all  the  fine  kinds  being  then, 
and  for  long  after,  imported  from  the  continent. 

David,  king  of  Scotland,  (12th  century),  who  had  passed  his 
early  youth  at  the  Court  of  England,  was  the  first  to  introduce 
the  manufactures  of  that  country  into  his  own  less  favoured  land. 
He  brought  English  artizans  with  him  into  Scotland,  and  settled 
them  in  the  burghs  and  towns  to  instruct  the  Scotch,  who  had  as 
yet  barely  emerged  from  barbarism.  From  this  date,  however, 
their  progress  in  the  textile  arts,  at  least,  must  have  been  consi- 
derable, for  we  learn  that  in  the  year  1410  Sir  Eobert  Umfra- 
ville,  Vice-Admiral  of  England,  entered  the  Frith  of  Forth  with 
ten  ships  of  war,  and  carried  off  plunder  of  woollen  and  Linen 
cloth  in  such  quantities,  that  the  sale  of  them  in  England  lowered 
the  prices  there  very  considerably ;  and  hence  Umfraville  got  the 
name  of  "  Bobin  Mend-market." 

The  12th  century  is  famous  for  the  origin  of  the  Hanseatic 
League  in  Germany,  which  for  long  afterwards  exerted  so  great 
an  influence  in  the  improvement  of  manufactures  both  on  the 
continent  and  in  England. 

It  would  appear  that  the  English  of  the  14th  century  dressed 
better  than  their  neighbours  of  France  ;  for  Sir  John  Fortesque 
remarks  that  "  The  French  weryn  no  woollyn,  but  if  it  be  a  pore 
cote  under  their  uttermost  garment  made  of  grete  canvas,  and 
call  it  a  frok.  Their  hosyn  be  of  like  canvas  and  passin  not 
their  knee,  wherefor  they  be  gartened  and  their  thyghs  bare. 
But  the  English  wear  fine  wollyn  cloth  in  all  their  apparell." 


POPULAR  LEOTUBE8.  229 

Th<«  \\.Mi,  hnwcvd,  were  not  BO  well  off,  and  their  dress  had 
apparently  more  of  the  French  than  of  the  English  fashion,  as 
we  learn  from  Barbour,  in  his  Life  of  Bruce,  where  describing 
the  flight  from  Bannockburn,  he  says  of  Sir  Maurice  Barclay's 
tliat 


Wheree'r  they  yied  men  might  them  ken, 
For  they  well  near  nil  naked  were, 
Or  linen  olothii  hod  but 


From  all  this  we  may  gather  that  coarse  Linen,  worn  as  upper 
garments,  was  at  that  time  a  sign  of  poverty. 

By  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  the  Netherlands  had 
attained  to  a  high  state  of  commercial  and  manufacturing  pros- 
perity. Antwerp,  the  chief  town,  was  perhaps  the  most  opulent 
city  in  Western  Europe,  and  exported  to  all  the  neighbouring 
countries  vast  quantities  of  Linen  both  coarse  and  fine.  It  was 
manufactured  there,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bois-le-duc, 
Nivelle,  Cambray  (from  which  came  the  name  "cambric"), 
Courtray,  Tiel,  and  Ghent.  But  this  prosperity  was  not  destined 
to  be  of  long  continuance.  The  religious  persecution  instituted 
against  the  industrious  inhabitants  by  orders  of  the  bigoted 
Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain,  to  whom  the  country  then  belonged, 
and  the  horrible  sacking  of  the  town  of  Antwerp  by  the  Duke  of 
Alva,  the  regent,  had  the  effect  of  driving  into  England  great 
numbers  of  skilled  weavers,  who  contributed  largely  to  the  pro- 
gress and  improvement  of  the  manufactures  of  that  country. 
"  So  great  an  antipathy,"  says  Sir  Win.  Temple,  "  there  ever 
appears  between  merchants  and  soldiers."  Might  he  not  have 
added — So  blind  has  religious  bigotry  ever  been  to  its  truest 
interests ;  and  so  hostile  to  all  useful  arts  and  social  advance- 
ment have  all  false  religions  ever  shown  themselves. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  century  Russia  was  not  known  to 
any  Europeans,  except  a  few  Flemings,  who  kept  their  own 
secret.  In  1553  it  was  accidentally  stumbled  upon  by  an 
English  ship,  one  of  an  expedition  sent  out  from  Gravesend  in 
search  of  a  north-east  passage  to  China.  This  important  dis- 
covery, so  strangely  made,  led  to  the  formation  of  a  company  of 
merchants  for  trading  with  that  country,  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  for  sometime  afterwards  the  only  connection  which  the 


230  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

traffic  thus  opened  had  with  the  Linen  trade  of  England,  was  that 
coarse  Linens  were  exported  to  Kussia,  the  only  imports  from 
thence  being  hides  and  furs. 

The  lights  which  fall  upon  the  state  of  manufactures  in  Scot- 
land at  this  period  are  very  faint.  The  use  of  Linen,  it  is 
believed,  was  chiefly  confined  to  the  nobles,  and  perhaps,  as  the 
following  incident  would  suggest,  the  priests.  In  one  monas- 
try  in  Perth,  where  only  eight  monks  resided,  the  followers  of 
Knox  discovered  eight  puncheons  of  salt  beef,  with  wine  and  beer 
in  proportion,  besides  abundance  of  bedclothes,  and  table  Linen  of 
singularly  delicate  texture,  but  whether  home-made  or  imported 
the  record  sayeth  not. 

In  England,  however,  Linen  cloth  was  not  so  much  of  a 
rarity,  as  is  evident  from  a  curious  publication  of  the  time, 
which  relates  the  case  of  a  man,  who  had  been  cited  for  offend- 
ing against  a  law,  then  in  force,  to  prevent  the  wearing  of  wide 
breeches,  and  who  pleaded  in  defence  the  exceeding  utility  of  this 
extravagant  fashion  In  proof  whereof  he  produced  in  open 
court  from  the  proscribed  garments,  a  number  of  sheets,  two 
table  cloths,  ten  napkins,  four  shirts,  and  other  Linen  articles, 
and  was  proceeding  with  the  extraction  of  more,  when  the  judge, 
amidst  much  laughter,  stopped  and  dismissed  him. 

Shirts  were  then  made  of  the  finest  Linen  from  Holland,  and 
were  sometimes  so  elaborately  embroidered  and  otherwise 
adorned,  as  to  cost  so  much  as  £10  a  piece,  a  pretty  fair 
price  for  a  shirt  it  must  be  allowed,  especially  considering  the 
value  of  money  in  those  days.  In  the  old  ballad  of  "  Lord 
Thomas  and  fair  Annie,"  that  lady  says 

My  maids  gang  to  my  dressing  room, 

And  dress  me  to  my  sark ; 
The  one  half  is  o'  the  Holland  fine, 

The  other  o'  needle-wark. 

While  quoting  ballads  I  may  extract  a  stanza,  appropriate 
to  my  subject,  from  one  written  about  this  time,  referring  to  the 
forays  which  were  so  common  in  the  border  counties  ot  England 
and  Scotland  before  the  accession  of  James  VI.  to  the  throne  of 
England  (in  1603)  :— 

They  spuilzie  puir  men  of  their  pakis  (packs,  goods), 
They  leve  them  nocht  on  bed  or  bakis, 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  231 

lUith  hen  and  oock,  with  reel  and  rok,  the  "  Laudia  Jok," 
All  with  him  takU. 

They  leif  not  ipendil,  ipone,  nor  spit, 
Bed,  boUter,  blanket,  aark,  nor  •belt, 

"John  of  the  Parke  "  rypu  ky«t  and  arke— for  all  sik  warko, 
He  ia  richt  meit 

Tho  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1685  drove  vast 
numbers  of  weavers  and  other  skilled  workmen  (who  were 
chiefly  Protestants),  out  of  France.  Many  of  these  settled  in 
England,  and  brought  with  them  their  industrious,  peaceful 
habits,  and  t  heir  skill  in  manufactures.  Thus  again  did  England 
benefit  by  the  injury  inflicted  on  foreign  countries  by  the  igno- 
rant bigotry  of  their  Popish  rulers. 

The  17th  century  was  prolific  in  acts  of  Parliament  having  for 
their  object  the  encouraging  the  growth  of  Flax,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  Linen,  both  in  England  and  Ireland.  With  this 
view  the  importation  of  these  articles  from  France  was  strictly 
prohibited,  and  at  one  time  the  wearing  of  French  cambric  was 
punishable  with  heavy  penalties,  the  reason  assigned  by  the 
House  of  Commons  being,  that  the  trade  with  France  was  detri- 
mental to  this  kingdom !  Anderson,  in  his  History  of  Com- 
merce, speaking  of  this  prohibition,  sagely  remarks — "  It  was 
indeed  more  than  time  for  England  to  interpose  and  save  the 
almost  expiring  liberties  of  Europe  "  !  ! 

This  magnanimous  and  summary  extinction  of  the  rising  for- 
tunes of  their  Gallic  neighbours  did  not  long  satisfy  the  intelli- 
gent politicid  economists  of  England  of  that  day.  They  began 
to  be  equally  jealous  of  the  upstart  pretensions  of  their  brethren 
in  Ireland  to  compete  with  them  in  the  race  of  industry.  The 
woollen  trade  of  that  country  had  of  late  risen  into  alarming 
importance,  and  threatened,  by  rivalling  that  of  England,  to 
overthrow,  according  to  Mr  Anderson's  reasoning,  the  British 
constitution.  The  English  Houses  of  Parliament  accordingly 
in  the  year  1698,  memorialised  the  King  (William  IIL)  "  to 
induce  the  people  of  Ireland  to  cultivate  the  joint-interest  of 
both  nations,"  as  they  said,  by  putting  down  the  woollen  manu- 
facture in  that  country,  and  restricting  themselves  to  the  pro- 
duction of  Linen  cloth.  The  King  replied, "  I  shall  do  all  that 
in  me  lies  to  discourage  the  woollen  manufacture  in  Ireland 


232  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

and  to  encourage  the  Linen  manufacture,  and  to  promote  the 
trade  of  England."  Strange  to  say,  the  Irish  legislature  agreed 
to  the  compact,  and  immediately  imposed  heavy  duties  upon  the 
export  of  all  woollen  cloth.  The  consequence  was,  that  this 
manufacture  was  completely  ruined;  many  thousand  families 
left  the  country ;  some  of  the  southern  and  western  districts 
were  almost  depopulated  ;  and  the  whole  kingdom  was  reduced 
to  the  utmost  poverty  and  distress.  On  the  other  hand,  and  for 
the  carrying  fully  out  of  this  strange  compact,  an  act  was 
passed  in  the  following  year,  1699,  for  the  special  encourage- 
ment of  the  Irish  Linen  trade.  A  Board  was  established  in 
Dublin,  called  "  The  Trustees  for  the  Linen  and  Hempen  Manu- 
factures," and  certain  yearly  revenues  were  assigned  to  them, 
according  to  the  custom  which  then  obtained  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  imperial  finance  These  revenues  at  first  amounted 
to  about  £6000  per  annum,  but  soon  rose  to  £20,000,  at  which 
latter  sum  the  yearly  fund  at  the  disposal  of  the  Board  was 
fixed  during  a  long  subsequent  period.  The  business  of  this 
Board  was  to  encourage  the  Linen  trade  of  the  North  of  Ire- 
land in  every  conceivable  way — such  as  the  awarding  of  pre- 
miums for  the  growth  and  importation  of  Flax  seed ;  for  the 
cultivation  and  preparation  of  the  largest  quantity  of  Flax 
fibre  ;  for  tho  invention  and  distribution  of  new  and  unproved  im- 
plements ;  for  the  erection  of  scutch  mills  ;  and  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  best  qualities  of  yarn  and  cloth.  Inspectors,  seal- 
masters,  and  superintendents  were  appointed  and  paid  by  the 
Board  in  the  various  localities  where  the  trade  was  carried  on : 
and  inducements  were  held  out  to  skilled  weavers  and  Flax- 
dressers  of  foreign  countries  to  settle  in  Ireland,  for  the  purpose 
of  instructing  the  native  population  in  the  mysteries  of  their 
art.  This  Board  continued  to  hold  the  absolute  control  of  every 
department  of  the  Linen  manufacture  till  the  year  1828,  when 
it  was  for  ever  swept  away,  with  all  its  grievous  restrictions  and 
monopolies.  That  it  accomplished  much  good  in  the  infancy  of 
the  trade,  when  the  want  of  skill  and  capital  among  the  manu- 
facturers rendered  them  very  much  dependent  upon  legislative 
aid  and  encouragement,  cannot  be  doubted  ;  but  its  cumbersome 
regulations  and  irritating  inquisitorial  interferences  were  not 
suited  to  the  genius  of  the  19th  century,  and  so  "  The  Board  of 


POPULAR  LECTURES. 

Manufactures  for  Ireland "  was  numbered  with  the  many  other 
antiquated  barbarisms  of  an  unenlightened  age,  which  the  supe- 
rior knowledge  of  the  last  fifty  years  has  "  decently  interred." 
.  The  spirit  which  dictated  its  original  appointment  cannot  be 
commended.  We  have  seen  that  a  short-sighted  selfishness  had 
much  to  do  in  the  matter,  but  a  worse  feature  remains,  I  fear, 
to  be  noticed.  The  Linen  trade  of  Ireland  had  its  chief  seat 
among  the  Protestants  of  Ulster,  while  the  woollen  trade  was 
mainly  carried  on  in  the  Popish  districts  of  the  south  and  west, 
and  there  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  the  suicidal  com- 
pact of  which  I  have  already  spoken,  and  which  produced  on 
the  one  hand  the  destruction  of  the  woollen,  and  on  the  other 
tin-  undue  fostering  of  the  Linen  manufacture,  had,  in  part  at 
least,  its  secret  origin  in  religious  prejudice  and  bigotry. 

Were  other  proof  wanting,  the  records  of  the  British  Parlia- 
ment itself  would  supply  the  deficiency :  for  in  an  Act,  passed 
in  the  year  1704,  the  preamble  commences  in  these  words: — 
"  Forasmuch  as  the  Protestant  interest  in  Ireland  ought  to  be 
supported  by  giving  the  utmost  encouragement  to  the  Linen 
manufacture  of  that  kingdom — be  it  therefore  enacted,"  &c. 
If  the  Popish  governors  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and  the 
'ted  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  are  to  be  condemned  for  their 
foolish  and  wicked  expulsion  of  their  most  peaceful  and  indus- 
trious subjects,  justice  demands  that  we  should  equally  repro- 
bate the  cruel  and  impolitic  enactments  of  the  British  and  Irish 
Legislatures  of  William  and  of  Anne. 

A  Board  of  Manufactures  for  Scotland,  similar  to  that  for  Ire- 
land, was  established  in  the  year  1727.  There  was  this  differ- 
ence, however,  between  the  two,  that  whereas  the  one  was  given, 
as  we  have  seen,  partly  to  appease  the  selfish  jealousy  of  the 
English  nation,  and  partly  to  gratify  the  sectarian  ambition  of 
the  northern  Irish ;  the  other  was  granted  in  fulfilment  of  a 
fair  and  open  compact  between  two  independent  nations,  and  in 
satisfaction  of  what  was  then  generally  thought  to  be  the  just 
rights  of  one  of  the  contracting  parties.  Both  were  undoubtedly 
economical  blunders,  but  only  one  can  be  said  to  have  been  a 
political  crime.  By  the  Treaty  of  Union  between  England  and 
Scotland  (signed  22d  July,  1706),  it  was  stipulated  that  certain 
annuities  should  be  paid  out  of  the  imperial  purse,  and  applied 


234  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

specially  for  the  benefit  of  the  latter  country,  as  equivalent  for 
the  greater  advantages  which,  it  was  supposed,  would  accrue  to 
the  former  by  that  treaty.  The  establishment  of  the  Scottish 
Board  of  Manufactures  was  the  tardy  carrying  out  of  that  sti- 
pulation. 

In  the  act  or  order  in  Council  appointing  the  Board,  and 
which  was  entituled  "  His  Majesty's  patent  for  improving 
Fisheries  and  Manufactures  in  Scotland,"  we  accordingly  find  the 
preamble  running  thus  : — "  Considering  that,  by  the  15th  Act  of 
the  Treaty  of  Union,  it  is  provided  that  an  annuity  of  £2000 
per  annum  be  appropriated  for  seven  years  for  promoting  manu- 
factures of  Coarse  Wool :  Considering  that,  by  Act  5th  Greo.  I., 
an  annuity  of  £2000  per  annum  be  payable  out  of  the  revenues 
of  Scotland  in  lieu  of  the  equivalent  claimed  by  Scotland  under 
th«  Treaty  of  Union,  to  be  applied  to  the  encouragement  of  the 
Fisheries  and  Manufactures  of  Scotland/'  and  so  on. 

The  Board  was  to  consist  of  twenty-one  commissioners  ap- 
pointed by  the  king.  Their  business  was  to  take  charge  of  the 
revenues  and  annuities  granted  for  the  purposes  of  the  Act,  to 
submit  to  the  king  in  council  a  triennial  plan  for  the  apportion- 
ment of  these  revenues,  and  to  frame  regulations  for  the  manage- 
ment and  control  of  the  different  interests  entrusted  to  their 
charge.  The  funds  at  their  disposal  were  very  considerable,  but 
varied,  of  course,  according  to  the  produce  of  the  revenues  from 
which  they  were  derived.  The  first  triennial  plan  of  distribu- 
tion, which  was  for  three  years  from  Christmas  1727,  provided 
for  the  payment  of  £6000  yearly  in  the  following  proportions, 
viz:— . 

For  the  Herring  Fisheries,  ....          £2650 

For  the  Linen  Trade,  .....  2650 

For  the  Spinning  and  Maufacturing  of  Coarse  Tarred  Wool,        700 


£0000 


The  particular  plan  for  the  distribution  of  the  £2650  allotted 
to  the  Linen  trade,  embraces  the  following  items  of  expendi- 
ture:— 


Premiums  for  the  growing  of  Lint  and  Hemp  Seed  at  15s 

per  acre,     .  .  .  £1500 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  235 

For  encouraging  Spinning  Schools  for  teaching  Children  to 

•pin  Lint  and  Hemp, 

For  Prices  for  Housewives  who  shall  make  tho  best  place 

of  Linen  Cloth 200 

For  Salaries  to  the  General  Riding  Officers  at  £125  each,    .  ii.10 

For  Salaries  to  40  Lappers  and  Stamp  master*  at  £10  each,  400 

For  expenses  of  Prosecution!,  .  .  .  100 

For  procuring  models  of  the  best  looms  and  other  instru- 
ments,     .......  60 


There  are  many  curious  facts,  illustrative  at  once  of  the  state 
of  trade,  and  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people  in 
the  time  of  our  great  grandmothers,  to  he  gathered  from  the 
perusal  of  the  records  of  this  Board.  Perhaps  the  one  which 
will  sound  strangest  in  our  ears,  deafened  as  they  now  are  by 
the  constant  whir  of  many  thousands  of  steam-impelled  spindles, 
is  that  one  of  the  very  first  acts  of  the  trustees  was  to  give 
orders  for  the  establishment  all  over  the  country,  but  especially 
in  tho  Highlands,  of  schools  for  teaching  the  polite  art  of  spin- 
ning at  the  wheel.  The  sum  of  £10  per  annum  was  allotted  as 
the  endowment  of  each  seminary,  of  which  the  mistress  received 
as  salary  £5 ;  £4  Is  8d  was  allowed  for  the  providing  of  14  wheels 
for  the  use  of  the  scholars,  at  the  rate  of  5s  lOd  each  ;  5s  was 
awarded  for  the  "  sustaining  of  pirns,  bands,"  £c. ;  and  the  re- 
maining 13s  4d  was  to  defray  the  cost  of  coal  and  candle  for 
the  whole  session,  which  extended  from  13th  October  to  15th 
April,  inclusive. 

In  a  report  on  the  industrial  condition  of  the  Highlands,  pre- 
sented to  the  Board  by  one  of  their  inspectors,  in  the  year  1754, 
it  is  mentioned  that  Henrietta  Mackenzie,  daughter  of  Sir 
Alexander  Mackenzie  had  applied  to  be  appointed  one  of  the 
spinning-school  mistresses  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the 
people  to  come  to  school.  The  inspector  recommends  that  her 
application  be  granted,  and  thinks  that  her  "  being  named  in 
that  capacity  will  have  a  very  good  effect."  In  the  year  1729, 
a  spinning-school  was  offered  to  the  town  of  Dundee,  but  was 
iv  fused,  the  Town  Council  considering  that  they  had  no  funds 
to  appropriate  for  such  a  purpose. 

Immediately  after  the  appointment  of  the  Board,  the  trustees 
made  proposals  to  Nicholas  D'Assaville  of  St  Quentin,  cambric 
weaver,  to  bring  over  to  Scotland  ten  experienced  men,  weavers 


236  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

of  cambric,  with  their  families,  in  order  to  teach  their  art  to 
others.  These  proposals  were  ultimately  accepted,  and,  in  the 
year  1730,  the  Trustees  bought  from  the  Governors  of  Heriot's 
Hospital  a  piece  of  ground  on  which  to  build  houses  for  the 
French  weavers.  A  committee  had  been  appointed  to  inspect 
the  ground  with  a  view  to  its  purchase,  and  reported  that  they 
were  well  pleased  with  it,  because  of  its  nearness  to  the  city  and 
the  villages  of  Broughtown  and  Coaltown,  from  all  which  they 
expected  apprentices  and  spinners ;  and  because  they  could 
procure  stones  out  of  the  ground,  or  from  the  quarry  of  Brough- 
town, for  building  the  houses.  The  extent  of  ground  was  five 
acres,  and  was  purchased  by  the  Trustees  for  the  capital  sum  of 
£273,  being  the  estimated  value  of  the  yearly  feu-duty  of  £10 
18s  5d.  It  was  sold  in  1803  to  Mr  Burn,  architect,  for  £12,000. 
The  name  of  the  place  was  changed,  shortly  after  the  purchase  in 
1730,  from  Broughton  Loan  to  Little  Piccardy,  in  honour  of 
the  native  country  of  the  French  weavers.  It  now  wears  the 
more  genteel  appellation  of  Piccardy  Place. 

In  the  year  1745,  the  Trustees  enter  in  their  records  that  "  a 
most  wicked  rebellion"  had  prevented  their  assembling  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  year,  and  also  from  making  their  usual  re- 
port at  Christmas,  as  the  Patent  directed,  but  express  them- 
selves agreeably  surprised  to  find  that  the  quantity  of  cloth 
stamped  during  the  year  had  exceeded  that  of  the  previous  year 
by  56,198-J  yards,  which  they  argue  "  is  some  evidence  that  the 
manufacturers  had  not  quitted  their  work  to  dance  after  the 
Highland  pipes/'  This  minute,  curiously  enough,  is  signed  by 
"  Duncan  Forbes,  of  Culloden,  President." 

From  the  Report  on  the  state  of  the  Highlands  in  1754,  al- 
ready referred  to,  we  learn  that  the  inhabitants  were  very  idle, 
and  frequently  to  be  seen  "  lying  by  dozens  on  the  sides  of  the 
hills  conversing  and  basking  themselves  in  the  sun  beams."  And 
again,  "the  people  of  the  country  have  no  employment  but 
caring  for  their  cattle  or  labouring  their  ground.  They  are  for 
the  most  part  idly  inclined,  and  sleep  away  the  half  of  their 
time/'  "  In  ,some  places  they  live  the  whole  summer  on  milk 
and  the  blood  of  their  cattle,  but  have  no  meal  nor  grain  of  any 
kind."  "  Their  clothing  is  poor  like  their  food,  their  bodies 
being  seldom  all  covered,  and  what  clothes  they  have  are  never 


POPULAR  LKCTUBB8.  237 

changed  till  worn  into  rags."  Their  houses  are  described  as 
t  remely  mean,  especially  those  of  the  lower  sort,  which  are 
so  little  that  a  man  must  almost  creep  on  his  hands  and  feet  to 
get  in  at  tho  door,  and  even  after  having  got  in  he  will  scarcely 
be  able  to  stand  upright  under  the  roof  where  the  house  is 
highest.  In  these  houses  they  have  no  furniture,  excepting  one 
pot  or  pan,  and  a  wooden  dish.  Their  fire  is  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  house,  around  which  they  put  large  trees  or 
branches,  and  behind  these  they  lay  heath  for  beds,  where  the 
family  sleep  promiscuously,  few  of  them  having  any  other  cover- 
ing than  their  body  clothes." 

I  have  not  been  able  to  learn  when  the  spinning  wheel  was  first 
introduced  into  Scotland,  but  it  is  clear,  from  the  establishment 
of  the  Spinning  Schools  by  the  Board  in  1727,  that  it  was  little 
known,  or  at  least,  little  used,  at  that  period  in  many  districts  of 
the  country.  And  we  do  know  that  the  good  old  fashioned 
rock  and  spindle  had  not  been  wholly  superseded  even  so  late  as 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  Many  can  doubtless  testify 
to  this  fact.  I  myself — although  the  century  was  a  round 
dozen  of  years  old  at  least  ere  I  appeared  upon  its  eventful 
stage — have  frequently  witnessed  these  implements  at  work  in  the 
hands  of  a  certain  old  wife,  who  lived  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
my  paternal  home.  The  wheels  of  1727  were  single-handed,  for 
the  double-handed  wheel  was  not  invented  till  about  the  year 
1764.  It  is  spoken  of  as  "A  great  improvement  in  the  spin- 
ning-wheel, whereby  a  child  can  spin  twice  as  much  as  a  grown 
person  can  do  with  the  common  wheel." 

At  the  date  of  the  establishment  of  the  Board,  the  returns  of 
Linen  stamped  in  the  different  counties  shew  that  the  manufac- 
ture was  pretty  generally  prevalent  over  the  whole  of  Scotland. 
Its  chief  localities,  however,  were  in  those  counties  lying  in  the 
great  valley  which  extends  from  Lanarkshire  in  the  west  to 
Forfarshire  in  the  east, — our  own  county  (Forfarshire)  being 
even  then  far  ahead  of  all  the  others.  Out  of  2,183,000  yards 
stamped  in  Scotland  in  1727,  Forfarshire  had  596,000 ;  Perth- 
shire, 477,000  ;  Fifeshire,  362,000  ;  and  Lanarkshire,  272,000. 
Soon  after  this  the  manufacture  began  gradually  to  creep  east- 
ward, especially  after  the  introduction  of  the  cotton  manufacture 
into  the  western  counties  about  the  end  of  last  century  ;  the  testi- 


238  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

mony  of  the  Board  being  that  wherever  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton was  established,  that  of  Linen  sensibly  declined ;  until,  in  1822, 
the  last  year  in  which  the  returns  were  made,  out  of  36,268,000 
yards — to  which  quantity  the  trade  had  increased  from  2,183,000 
yards  in  1727— Forfar shire  had  22,629,000  yards ;  Fifeshire, 
7,923,000;  Perthshire,  1,605,000;  and  Lanarkshire,  22,869. 
All  the  other  counties,  with  the  exception  of  Aberdeenshire, 
which  had  2,500,000  yards,  having  only  a  few  thousand  yards 
each,  and  in  some  the  manufacture  had  entirely  disappeared. 

The  Board  continued  to  exercise  its  functions  with  great 
vigour  till  the  year  1823,  when  it  also  had  to  demit  its 
authority,  as  far  at  least  as  the  Linen  Trade  was  concerned,  at 
the  indignant  and  oft  repeated  demands  of  the  manufacturers 
themselves — a  bill  for  that  purpose  having  been  brought  in 
by  the  late  Mr  Huskisson,  and  passed  by  the  Legislature,  not- 
withstanding the  most  strenuous  opposition  of  the  Board,  who 
urged  that  it  was  fraught  with  danger  to  all  but  a  few  capital- 
ists, "  who  are  probably  aiming  at  obtaining  a  monopoly  of  the 
manufacture  to  themselves  "  !  And  thus  passed  away — let  us 
hope  for  ever — all  legislative  interference  with  the  Linen  Trade 
of  Scotland. 

On  the  5th  July,  1746,  the  King's  charter  passed  for  estab- 
lishing the  British  Linen  Co.  at  Edinburgh,  capital  £100,000. 
One  of  the  chief  purposes  intended  to  be  served  by  this  com- 
pany was  to  supply  the  British  merchants  trading  to  Africa  and 
the  plantations  in  America  with  such  kinds  of  Linen  cloth  as 
they  hitherto  were  obliged  to  purchase  from  foreign  nations, 
whereby  it  was  hoped  much  money  would  be  saved  to  the  na- 
tion. This  highly  respectable  company,  I  need  hardly  remind 
you,  still  exists,  and  continues  as  before  to  supply  British  mer- 
chants with  Linens  of  its  own  making.  The  process  of  manu- 
facture is,  however,  slightly  different  from  that  of  former  times. 
The  Linen  is  now  torn  up  and  beaten  into  pulp,  on  which, 
when  dried  and  stiffened,  a  very  pretty  and  promising  pattern  is 
stamped,  which  gives  it  so  extraordinary  a  value  in  the  eyes  of 
the  merchants,  that  they  believe  it  to  be  worth  its  weight  in 
gold. 

The  first  mill  for  the  spinning  of  yarn  by  machinery  in  Scotland 
was  erected  in  Brigton  near  Glammis,  in  1790,  by  Messrs  James 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  239 

Ivory  and  Co.,  relatives,  I  believe  of  the  present  Lord  Ivory. 
These  gentlemen  presented  a  petition  to  the  Board  of  Manufac- 
tures in  November  of  that  year,  setting  forth  "  that  they  have 
erected  one  of  the  patent  machines  tor  spinning  Linen  yarn,  to 
go  by  water,  having  purchased  a  license  for  that  purpose  from 
John  Kindrew  &  Co.  of  Darlington,  the  patentees,  which,  with 
the  expense  of  the  machinery  and  of  a  water  mill,  has  cost  them 
about  £1000,  and  they  pray  that  the  Board  will  patronise  and 
encourage  them  in  the  ioresaid  undertaking."  The  Board  re- 
solved by  a  majority,  that  "  as  this  is  the  first  undertaking  of  the 
kind  which  has  been  set  on  foot  in  Scotland,  and  as  the  under- 
takers have  incurred  a  large  expense  in  it,  they  shall  be  allowed 
a  premium  of  £300,  payable  in  three  moities  of  £100  per 
annum."  Closely  following  this  experiment,  water  mills  were 
erected  on  the  Dighty  near  Dundee,  at  Kirkland  in  Fife,  and 
other  places.  In  June,  1794,  Alexander  Aberdein  &  Co.  of 
Arbroath,  presented  a  petition  to  the  Board  praying  "  for  aid  to 
erect  a  mill-house  for  holding  machinery  for  spinning  Linen 
yarn  by  water,  which  they  propose  erecting  on  the  Brothock,  the 
machinery  to  be  constructed  upon  original  principles  of  their 
own."  I  could  not,  however,  find  that  their  request  was  granted. 
The  first  mill  erected  in  Blairgowrie  was  the  Meikle  Mill,  or 
Blairgowrie  Mill,  in  1798. 

At  first  spinning  mills,  being  driven  by  water  only,  were 
erected,  not  in  the  towns,  but  in  the  country,  on  some  river  or 
burn  where  a  good  fall  could  be  obtained.  The  introduction  of 
steam  power  has  now  numbered  these  with  the  things  that  were, 
or  at  least  is  fast  doing  so,  except  in  localities  such  as  Blair- 
gowrie, where  the  water  power  is  sufficiently  great  and  con- 
tinuous to  enable  it  still  to  cope  successfully  with  its  more  for- 
midable rival. 

I  have  in  my  possession  a  curious  list  of  the  spinning  mills 
which  existed  in  Dundee  and  its  neighbourhood  in  the  year 
1822.  They  were  fifty-one  in  all,  of  which  eighteen  were  in  the 
town  and  thirty- three  in  the  country,  containing  in  all  15,102 
spindles,  the  average  number  of  spindles  per  mill  being — in 
the  town,  451,  and  in  the  country,  21 1J,  or  over  all  296. 
Of  these  fifty-one,  twenty  are  marked  as  "newly  erected." 
Deducting  these  there  remains  thirty-one,  of  which  six  only  were 


240 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 


in  the  town  and  twenty-five  in  the  country,  some  of  the  latter 
having  only  about  ninety  spindles  each.  I  have  also  been  able 
to  procure  a  correct  list  of  all  the  spinning  mills  existing  in 
Dundee  and  Lochee  in  the  year  1851.  They  are  in  number 
forty-three,  driving  on  the  whole  109 ,000  spindles,  and  averaging 
2500  spindles  per  mill.  In  Blairgowrie  in  1851  there  were 
thirteen  mills,  driving  13,000  spindles,  or  an  average  of  1000 
spindles  per  mill. 

THE  QUANTITY  OF  FLAX  IMPOKTED  INTO  DUNDEE 


In  1745  was 

1791  „ 

1814  „ 

1830  „ 

1843  „ 

1853  „ 

In  1853  was 
In  1853  was 


Tow. 
JUTE. 


74  Tons. 

2,444 

3,000 
15,000 
32,000 
34,052 

10,820  Tons 
16,590  Tons 


Such  details  as  these  are  perhaps  uninteresting  to  my  non- 
professional  hearers,  but  they  come  strikingly  to  mark  the  rapid 
progress  in  this  seven-league-booted  century.  What  was  a 
marvellous  novelty  yesterday  is  commonplace  to-day,  and  will 
become  a  genuine  relic  of  antiquity  to-morrow.  Water  spin- 
ning mills  were  thought  a  wonderful  invention  in  1792,  were 
thick  as  blackberries  in  1822,  and  were  set  aside  as  old-fashioned 
in  1852.  A  few  decades  now-a-days  bring  about  greater  changes 
than  centuries  did  before.  The  rock  and  spindle  of  our  great 
grandmothers  had  held  their  place  undisturbed  since  the  days 
of  the  Pharaohs,  but  James  Watt  and  his  tea-kettles  have  now 
transferred  them  to  the  museum  of  the  antiquary,  and  our  chil- 
dren will  regard  them  with  much  the  same  wondering  as  we 
do  the  mummies  of  Egypt. 


Let  me  now,  in  conclusion,  attempt  to  give  a  rapid  sketch  of 
the  manners  and  industry  of  our  Scottish  peasantry  of  last  cen- 
tury. 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  ~  1 1 

tenants  of  BO  many  "  Ploughgates"  or  farms,  built  tin  ir 
houses  and  farm  offices  in  one  group,  called  a  "  Toon/1  hence 
the  phrase  still  common  "  a  farm  toon."  A  few  acres  were  all 
that  each  possessed.  The  land  was  divided  into  two  portions 
called  "  infield"  and  <' outfield."  The  first  which  lay  nearest  the 
toon  got  all  the  manure  and  was  constantly  under  crop,  hence  it 
was  sometimes  called  the  "  croft,"  i.e.  the  cropped  land.  The 
other  was  pastured  for  several  years  in  succession,  and  wln-n 
thought  to  be  sufficiently  mauured  by  the  droppings  of  the 
cattle,  was  broken  up,  cropped  for  two  or  three  years  with  oats, 
and  then,  without  the  sowing  of  grass  seeds,  which  had  not  \  a 
been  introduced,  the  farmer  trusted  to  the  spontaneous  produc- 
tion of  nature  for  the  pasture  of  the  ensuing  seasons.  The  in- 
field was  all  in  "  run-rigg,"  i.e.  the  lands  of  one  farmer  inter- 
mixed with  those  of  another ;  and  the  riggs  were  universally 
crooked,  the  result  of  ploughing  so  much  with  oxen.  Every 
field  contained  a  number  of  "  balks,"  or  waste  places  between 
tin'  ridges,  full  of  stones  and  bushes.  The  plough  used  was  the 
old  Scottish  plough  with  wooden  mould-boards,  and  was  drawn 
by  six,  eight,  ten,  and  sometimes  so  many  as  twelve  oxen ;  or  by 
oxen  and  horses  together,  or  sometimes  by  oxen,  cows,  and 
horses,  in  one  united  team. 

Bauldy,  in  the  "  Gentle  Shepherd,"  sings — 

I  hae  gowd  and  gear,  I  hae  land  enough, 
I  hae  sax  guid  owsen  ganging  in  a  plough  ; 
Ganging  in  a  plough,  and  linkiu'  o'er  the  lea, 
And  gin  ye  winna  tak'  me,  I  can  let  ye  be. 

In  some  places  the  plough  was  drawn  by  four  horses 
yoked  abreast,  the  halters  being  fastened  to  a  long  stick  in 
front,  which  the  driver  held  in  both  hands,  walking  back- 
wards, and  guiding  them  so  as  to  make  them  pull  steadily 
together.  Few  carts  were  used  at  this  time,  the  manure 
being  carried  out  to  the  field  in  creels  (curraghs)  on  the  backs 
of  horses,  and  the  peats  and  corn  brought  home  in  the  same 
manner.  Carts  when  first  introduced  were  merely  small  wooden 
frames,  placed  on  low  wheels  of  solid  wood.  The  farm  house 
was  the  low  turf-walled,  thatch-roofed  erection  still  common  in 
Q 


242  ANCIENT  AND  MODEKN  LINEN. 

the  Highlands,  a  byre  and  barn  at  one  end,  and  a  peat  stack  at 
the  other. 


A  snug  thatch-house,  before  the  door  a  green, 
Hens  on  the  midden,  ducks  in  dubs  are  seen ; 
On  this  side  stands  a  barn,  on  that  a  byre, 
A  peat-stack  joins,  and  forms  a  rural  square  ; 
The  house  is  Glaud's— there  you  may  see  him  lean, 
And  to  his  divot  seat  invite  his  frien. 


The  front  wall  of  the  house  was  usually  graced  during  the 
day  by  a  row  of  clean  beech  cogs  and  luggies,  used  in  dairy 
operations.  Inside  was  the  "  but"  and  "  ben,"  the  "  ben"  being 
drawing-room  and  best  bed-room  in  one  ;  the  "  but"  or  "  hallan'' 
being  kitchen,  parlour,  and  dining-room.  In  this  last  the 
household  lived  and  dined  without  distinction  of  caste  between 
master  and  servant,  and  here  the  females  span  and  reeled  when 
not  engaged  in  cooking  or  cleaning. 

Every  farmer  in  those  days  grew  an  acre  or  two  of  Lint,  and 
it  is  worth  mentioning,  as  illustrative  of  the  manners  of  the  age, 
that  the  wages  of  farm  servants,  whether  male  or  female,  con- 
sisted in  part  of  so  much  ground  for  sowing  Flax  for  their  own 
use.  In  the  parish  of  Fowlis  for  instance,  the  first  Statistical 
Account  remarks,  that  the  wages  of  a  maid  servant  were  at  that 
time  £3,  including  bounties,  such  as  two  yards  of  Linen  cloth, 
an  apron,  and  as  much  ground  as  would  sow  two  lippies  of  Lint 
seed. 

The  Lint  when  ripe  was  pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  rippled  on 
the  field  to  separate  the  straw  from  the  bolls  or  seed,  then 
steeped  or  "  bogged,"  dried,  beetled,  scutched  and  hackled,  and  it 
was  then  ready  for  spinning,  all  which  operations  are  so  familiar  to 
most  of  my  hearers  that  I  need  not  stay  to  describe  them.  At  the 
time  of  which  I  speak  it  was  customary  for  all  unmarried  females 
(gentle  and  semple  alike)  to  occupy  their  whole  leisure  time  in 
spinning,  thus  providing  in  the  first  place  for  the  necessities  of 
the  household,  and  then  for  their  own  outfit  in  life  when  they 
came  to  be  married.  And  she  would  have  been  considered  a 
poorly-tochered  bride  indeed,  whatever  her  rank,  who  had  not  a 
well-filled  "kist"  of  snaw-white  Linen,  in  table  cloths,  shirts 


I'LAR  LECTURES. 

-lir.'tin^,  of  her  own  spinning  an  1  I.I  .-ai  -hin^.  to  bring  home 
on  the  marriage  day.  Hence  arose,  I  douU  n«.t,  the  name  of 
"spin-t.-r  "  still  applied  to  unmarried  women;  and  hence  also  the 
practice,  still  prevalent  when  a  young  couple  are  married 
the  lady  to  provide  the  "  napery."  In  confirmation  of  this  I 
have  been  informed  by  a  near  female  relative  of  my  own,  that 
not  only  did  she  and  all  her  sisters  spend  a  large  portion  of 
their  youth  in  "birrin"  at  the  wheel;  but  also  that  the  daugh- 
ters of  a  noble  Earl  who  lived  in  their  neighbourhood,  and 
whose  family  is,  and  has  long  been,  one  of  the  first  in  So  »t  land, 
spent  much  of  their  time  in  the  same  delightful  and  intellectual 
employment 

Another  tiu-t  worth  noticing  in  connection  with  this  subject  is, 
that  the  spinning  engines  of  these  days  were  locomotive,  that  is 
to  say,  the  country  lasses,  when  visiting  their  friends  would 
generally  carry  with  them  their  rock  and  spindle  or  wheel,  as 

,ise  might  be,  much  in  the  same  way,  I  fancy,  as  the  ladies 
of  the  present  day  put  their  crochet  needle  or  fine  seam  in  their 
work-bag  or  box  when  they  go  to  have  an  hour's  chat  with  some 
friendly  gossip.  Burns*  refers  to  this  old  fashion  in  one  of  his 
songs : — 

There  was  a  lass  they  ca'd  her  Meg, 

And  she  gaed  o'er  the  nmir  to  spin  ; 
There  was  a  lad  that  followed  her, 

They  ca'd  him  Duncan  Davison. 

That  Meg  carried  her  wheel  with  her  we  learn  from  the  subse- 
quent verses,  thus : — 

The  muir  was  dreigh  and  Meg  was  skeigh, 

Her  favour  Duncan  couldna  win, 
For  wi'  her  rock  she  would  him  knock, 

And  aye  she  shook  the  "temper  pin." 


*  In  making  the  following  quotations  from  the  lyric  poetry  of  Scotland,  I  beg  to 
explain  that  I  do  so  merely  for  the  illustration  of  my  subject,  my  own  feeling  being 
that  it  is  exceedingly  interesting  to  be  able  to  trace  out  the  manners  and  customs  of 
a  bygone  generation  in  these  old  songs,  which,  whatever  their  other  merits  or  de- 
merits, were  undoubtedly  a  faithful  impress  of  the  age  in  which  they  wore  written  : 
just  as  it  is  so  interesting  to  read  the  history  of  a  prc-adamic  world  in  the  frag- 
ments of  fossil  plants  and  animals  which  we  find  embedded  in  the  rocks. 

Q  2 


244  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

The  "  temper  pin,"  I  may  explain  for  the  satisfaction  of  the 
uninitiated,  was  the  wooden  screw  or  pin  which  adjusted  or 
"  tempered "  the  bands  of  the  wheel.  This  pin  Meg  would 
appear  to  have  taken  out  and  used  in  the  most  unkind  and 
unlady-like  manner  as  a  weapon  of  defence,  or  perhaps  offence, 
against  the  loving  Duncan,  a  treatment  very  likely,  I  should 
think,  to  shake  his  temper.  My  only  wonder  is  that  he 
should  have  persisted  in  his  suit  to  such  a  virago  as  she  must 
have  appeared,  brandishing  in  one  hand  the  rock  and  in  the 
other  this  "  temper  pin,"  and  "  knocking  "  him  considerably  with 
both. 

The  phraseology  of  this  song,  can  only  be  explained  on  the 
supposition  that  Meg  was  on  her  way  to  some  spinning  party 
such  as  I  have  mentioned.  These  re-unions  were  generally 
very  merry  affairs.  The  lasses  would  come  early,  bringing  their 
rocks  and  spindles  or  wheels,  as  the  case  might  be,  in  order  to 
have  an  hour  or  two's  gossip  among  themselves ;  but  as  gloamin' 
fell  the  lads  would  drop  in  and  range  themselves  along  one  side 
of  the  spacious  hallan,  or  perhaps,  according  to  the  discretion  of 
the  guidwife,  interspersed  among  the  lasses,  weaving  stockings 
and  mitts,  which  was  their  branch  of  the  domestic  economy. 
Sometimes  instead  of  the  hallan,  the  barn,  well  swept  for  the 
occasion,  would  be  the  place  of  rendezvous.  By  and  bye  the 
wheels  and  stockings  would  be  laid  aside,  and  blind  man's  buff, 
story-telling,  singing,  dancing,  and  other  amusements  would 
succeed  until  it  was  time  to  go  home.  And  then,  of  course,  the 
gentlemen  must  convoy  the  ladies  "  o'er  the  muir  "  again,  under 
the  plausible  pretext,  doubtless,  that  they  would  need  some  one 
to  carry  their  spinning  graith  for  them.  Such  meetings  were 
called  "  rockins/'  the  term  having  originated  evidently  in  the 
days  of  the  rock  and  spindle.  Burns  hits  off  the  scene  capi- 
tally :— 

On  Fastern  e'en  we  had  a  rockin, 

To  ca'  the  crack  and  weave  the  stockin', 

And  there  was  muckle  fun  and  jokin' 

Ye  needna'  doot, 
And  syne  we  had  a  hearty  yokin' 

At  sang  aboct. 

Indeed  the  whole  of  ancient  Scottish  song  has  frequent  reference 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  245 

to  the  spinning  wheel.     Another  of  Burns',  called  "  Bessie  and 

In T Sj.ii mi n£  Wheel,"  begins  thus: — 

0  leeie  roe  on  my  spinning  wheel. 
And  leeie  me  on  my  rook  *nd  reel, 
Frae  Up  to  Ue  that  deeds  me  bien. 
And  haps  ue  fiel  and  warm  at  e'en. 

And  again  : — 

1  bought  my  wife  a  itane  o'  lint, 
As  gude  as  e'er  did  grow. 

And  a'  that  -ha  has  made  o'  that 
Is  ae  pair  paod  o1  tow. 

The  weary  pund,  the  weary  pund, 

The  weary  pund  o'  tow, 
I  think  ray  wife  will  end  her  life 

Before  she  spin  her  tow. 

The  "  rock"  comes  in  here  again  as  a  lethal  weapon,  for  on  the 
poor  man  remonstrating  with  his  thriftless  wife  to  "gae  spin 
her  tap  o'  tow," 

She  took  the  rock,  and  wi'  a  knock, 
She  brak  it  o'er  his  pow. 

In  Allan  Ramsay's  beautiful  pastoral  we  are  introduced  to 
Mause  in  the  following  prologue : — 

A  green  kail-yard — a  little  fount, 

Where  water  poplin,  springs, 
There  sits  a  wife  wi'  wrinkled  front, 

And  yet  she  spins  and  sings. 

And  in  the  tussle  which  ensued  between  Madge  and  Bauldy,  the 
lady's  rock  played  a  prominent  part : — 

Ye'll  gar  me  stand  ?  ye  shovelling-gabbit  bruk, 
Speak  that  again,  and  trembling  dread  my  rook. 

From  all  this  we  learn  that  the  rock,  whether  in  the  hands  of 
coy  maiden  or  irrate  old  wife,  was  at  once  an  implement  of 
industry  and  a  formidable  weapon  of  war. 


246  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  LINEN. 

I  have  said  that  spinning  was  chiefly  practised  by  the 
younger  females  of  the  family,  but  we  have  seen  that  it  was  not 
wholly  confined  to  them.  The  married  women,  after  passing 
through  the  middle  period  of  mothers  and  housewives,  and 
arriving  at  the  venerable  stage  of  "  grannies/'  reverted  to  the  less 
toilsome  occupation  of  their  youth  : — 

There  was  an  auld  wife  had  a  wi'  pickle  tow, 

And  she  but  gae  try  the  spinnin'  o't, 
She  linted  her  down  and  the  tow  gaed  a  low, 

And  that  was  a  bad  beginnin'  o't. 

The  yarn  when  spun,  if  intended  for  home  use,  was  sent  to 
the  household  weaver,  who  gave  back  the  web  when  finished, 
charging  so  much  per  yard  for  weaving.  It  then  underwent  a 
mysterious  process  called  "  bookin',"  which  I  shall  not  attempt 
to  describe  ;  and  after  being  bleached  by  some  bonnie  burn  side, 
the  attendant  nymph  keeping  the  claith  wet  by  means  of  a 
wooden  ;'  scupe,"  as  I  have  myself  often  witnessed,  was  stored  in 
the  napery-kist  for  future  use.  An  aunt  of  my  own,  now  a  grey- 
headed woman,  of  three-score  and  ten  at  least,  informs  me  that 
when  she  was  a  girl  she  was  long  in  very  delicate  health,  and 
that,  in  consequence,  to  her  was  mainly  assigned  the  care  of  the 
bleaching  Linen,  the  general  belief  then  being  that  the  smell  of 
wet  Linen  cloth  was  beneficial  to  consumptive  patients. 

The  yarn  made  for  sale  was  disposed  of  in  small  quantities  of 
one  or  two  spindles  each  to  the  yarn  merchant,  who  attended 
the  country  markets  for  the  purpose.  These  men  again  sold 
their  parcels  in  the  larger  towns  to  the  weavers  and  manu- 
facturers. 

In  the  same  way  the  cloth  when  manufactured  was  brought 
into  the  country  market-towns  and  villages,  web  by  web,  on  the 
back  of  the  weaver,  ("hand-webs"  these  were  called),  where  it 
was  purchased  by  the  hawker  or  agent,  who  again  brought  his 
lots  into  the  larger  towns,  such  as  Dundee,  on  the  weekly  market 
days,  where,  after  undergoing  the  careful  inspection  and  stamp- 
ing of  the  stamp-master,  they  were  sold  to  the  "green -cloth  "mer- 
chant, who  finally  packed  and  exported  them  to  England,  or  to 
the  Plantations  of  America,  as  the  United  States  were  then 
called. 


POPULAR  LECTURES.  247 

An  interesting  description  of  these  old  times  is  given  in  a 
curious  poem,  or  collection  of  poems,  called  the  Piper  of  PeebJes. 
It  is  as  follows : — 

Twa  bander  year  and  mair  tin  syne 

When  fashions  wer*na  near  sae  fine, 

When  common  folk  had  scrimper  skill, 

And  gentles  scarce  had  wealth  at  will. 

When  nane  but  meadow  girse  was  mawn. 

And  nane  bit  ham  it  lint-seed  sawn, 

When  lint  was  beaten  by  the  mell, 

And  ilk  ane  swingl't  till  himsel', 

When  sarks  were  stark  and  no  that  saf  t, 

And  lennel  worn  wi'  washin's  aft, 

And  some  had  ane  and  some  had  twa, 

Any  mony  ane  had  nane  ava, 

When  wives  wi'  rooks  aad  spindles  span, 

And  braweat  lasses  used  nae  can, 

When  lasses  wi'  their  rocks  gaed  out 

To  ane  anither  nicht  about, 

A  full  lang  mile  o'  grund  and  mair, 

Sometimes  no  very  free  o'  fear. 

Lang  e'en  o'  nichts  they  countit  half, 

When  spinnels  cuist  their  whorles  aff 

Aye  and  upwards  near  the  tap, 

They  liked  aye  a  bulky  knap, 

Wi'  threads  cross-breadth'd  aye  to  defend 

The  rest  frae  ravelin'  o'er  the  end ; 

On  hand  reels  syne  they  reeled  the  yarn 

Before  the  use  of  wheel  or  pirn, 

Wi*  double  down  comes,  gig  and  whap, 

And  scores,  and  so  forth,  as  exact 

As  reels  can  count  that's  made  to  chuck. 

When  knocked  bear  was  Sunday's  kail, 

And  folk  in  pots  brewed  buthel  (burial)  ale. 

When  men  wi*  greyheads  played  billie  bracks 

Wi'  younkers  round  about  the  stacks. 

Mix't  men,  wives,  lads,  and  lasses  too, 

And  herds,  had  neither  hose  nor  shoe. 

But  a*  thing  has  a  time  atweel, 

A  time  to  flourish,  time  to  fail, 

So  to  the  end  of  my  Old  Tale. 


(     248     ) 


SECTION     IV. 


MODERN    LINEN. 


PART      I. 

CONTINENTAL    LINEN. 

THE  overthrow  of  the  Koman  Empire  in  the  fifth  century  com- 
pletely destroyed  all  trade  and  commerce  in  the  west  of  Europe. 
The  new  monarchies  which  sprang  up  from  its  ruins  were 
founded  in  blood,  and  war  was  both  work  and  pastime  to  their 
hardy  sons.  The  necessaries  of  life  were  all  they  sought,  luxu- 
ries, and  even  comforts  being  uncared  for  or  unknown.  For  a 
time  the  Eastern  Empire  retained  a  considerable  amount  of 
civilization,  and  in  some  of  the  countries  under  the  sway  of  the 
Emperors  manufactures  were  encouraged — that  of  Linen,  as  ha 
been  shown,  flourishing  for  ages  in  Greece,  where  the  trade  was 
not  wholly  extinct  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  The 
enlightened  policy  of  the  Christian  sovereigns  of  Byzantium 
had  no  influence  on  the  warlike  tribes  in  the  west.  There  dark- 
ness the  most  complete  reigned  for  centuries,  and  during  that 
period  there  was  no  Linen  manufacture  to  describe,  no  progress 
to  record. 

The  Great  States,  pre-occupied  by  war,  left  trade  and  com- 
merce, the  arts  and  sciences,  to  Petty  States,  or  whoever  chose  to 
prosecute  them.  The  free  cities  in  Italy  were  the  first  to  show 


CONTINENTAL  LINEN.  249 

signs  of  returning  life.  Those  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  tin- 
Manse  Towns  afterwards  sprang  into  existence,  and  they  were 
mainly  inMiumental  in  spreading  a  knowledge  of  manufacturing 
industry  throughout  Europe.  Venice,  Pisa,  Genoa,  and  other 
Italian  cities  became  the  medium  of  communication  between 
the  nations  of  the  East  and  of  Western  Europe.  They  im- 
I>orted  the  precious  productions  of  India,  Egypt,  and  the  various 
countries  of  the  East,  including  silks,  Linens,  <fec.,  and  exchanged 
them  with  the  Germans,  Franks,  English,  and  other  western 
nations,  for  the  mineral  wealth  or  the  produce  of  the  fields  and 
forests  of  those  lands.  •  By  this  means  these  cities  acquired  vast 
wealth  and  political  importance,  far  beyond  what  the  limited 
extent  of  their  territories  would  otherwise  have  commanded. 
Sometimes  one  city  was  predominant  in  power  and  then  another, 
and  sometimes  they  rivalled  each  other  in  greatness,  and,  striv- 
ing for  pre-eminence,  weakened  each  other,  and  rendered  them- 
selves an  easy  prey  to  the  common  enemy. 

Charlemagne,  who  ascended  the  throne  of  France  in  768, 
by  an  enlightened  and  liberal  policy  did  much  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  manufactures  in  Germany  and  France,  and  for 
the  extension  of  civilization  and  the  arts  among  his  people. 
He  introduced  Christianity,  founded  Hamburg  (in  804),  and 
other  cities  which  afterwards  rose  to  great  commercial  im- 
portance, and  encouraged  trade  as  far  as  the  genius  of  his 
age  would  permit.  The  city  of  Bruges,  founded  in  760, 
afterwards  became  famous  in  the  manufactures  of  Flanders. 
Other  maritime  or  manufacturing  towns  gradually  rose  up  in 
Brabant,  Flanders,  &c.,  which  in  time  procured  privileges 
from  their  feudal  lords,  especially  the  guidance  of  their  own 
affairs,  and  pre-emption  from  arbitrary  assessment  by  their 
feudal  superior,  and  from  following  him  in  his  wars.  This 
freedom  and  these  privileges  were  then  of  great  avail  in  fos- 
tering commerce  and  manufactures  while  in  their  infancy. 
Now  that  trade  has  attained  mature  strength,  exclusive  pri- 
vileges and  national  aid  are  only  hindrances,  which  ought  all  to 
be  swept  away. 

Baldwin,  the  younger  (III.),  Count  or  Earl  of  Flanders,  was 
an  enlightened  prince,  far  in  advance  of  his  age.  The  Flemings 
were  the  first  who  began  to  earn  their  living  by  weaving,  and, 


250  MODERN  LINEN. 

lying  near  France,  says  the  Pensionary  De  Witt,  they  "  sold  the 
cloth  to  that  fruitful  land,  where  the  inhabitants  were  not  only 
able  to  feed  themselves,  but  also  by  the  superfluous  growth  of 
their  country,  could  put  themselves  into  good  apparel."  Baldwin, 
seeing  the  advantage  to  be  derived  from  trade,  both  by  himself  and 
his  people,  set  up  annual  Fairs,  without  tolls  or  duties,  in  several 
towns.  The  Flemish  historians  say  that ' '  he  fortified  several  cities, 
and  then  invited  into  the  country  all  manner  of  handicraftsmen  for 
making  of  all  manner  of  manufactures,  to  whom  he  granted 
great  privileges,  and  established  fairs  at  Bruges,  Courtray,  Tor- 
bout,  Mount  Cassel,"  &c.,  &c.  Through  his  instrumentality 
manufactures  both  of  wool  and  Flax  made  rapid  progress  in 
Flanders,  and  from  his  enlightened  policy  much  permanent  good 
has  flowed  to  all  the  nations  of  the  world. 

In  Anderson's  Commercial  History  it  is  said  that  "  the  woollen 
manufacture  in  all  probability  preceded  the  Linen,  the  former 
being  in  a  manner  absolutely  requisite  for  preserving  men  from 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  the  latter  being  a  species  of 
luxury,  many  barbarous  nations  at  this  time  living  without  any 
Linen  at  all.  As  men  fell  into  commerce,  and  consequently  grew 
richer  and  more  elegant,  they  gave  the  greater  encouragement  to 
so  cleanly  and  desirable  a  wear  as  Linen  next  their  bodies.  The 
Linen  manufacture  came  first  from  Egypt  into  Greece  and  Italy, 
and  thence  travelled  westward  into  France  and  Flanders,  next 
probably  into  Germany  and  England,  before  it  grew  in  the  more 
northern  and  north-eastern  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  has  since 
prospered  very  much.  Others  think  that  the  Carthagenians 
first  introduced  it  into  Europe." 

Whether  the  Linen  manufacture  came  by  way  of  Carthage,  or 
direct  from  Egypt  to  Greece  or  Home,  it  is  certain  that  it  ori- 
ginated in  Egypt,  and  thence  found  its  way  into  Europe. 
During  the  dark  ages  that  succeeded  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
power  it  lay  dormant,  but  it  was  again  vivified  and  restored  in 
the  dawn  of  the  new  born  civilization  which  gradually  threw 
light  over  western  Europe.  The  spread  of  Christianity  tended 
much  to  withdraw  the  veil  which  had  overspread  the  western 
world,  and  to  introduce  a  relish  for  Linen  as  an  article  of 
apparel,  and  for  household  and  sacred  purposes. 

According  to  Voltaire,  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  there  were 


CONTINENTAL  LINEN.  1'     1 

manufactures  of  woollen  stuff,  but  Linen  was  uncommon.  In 
proof  of  this  he  relates  that  "  St  Boniface,  in  a  letter  to  a  Ger- 
man bishop,  desires  him  to  send  him  cloth  with  a  large  nap  for 
him  to  make  use  of  in  washing  his  feet — probably,"  adds  Vol- 
taire,  "  this  want  of  Linen  was  the  cause  of  all  the  diseases  in 
the  skin  known  by  the  name  of  leprosy,  at  that  time  so  general." 

If  Linen  was  uncommon  in  Europe  at  that  period,  the  value 
of  it  very  -jut -dily  became  widely  known,  and  its  use  general  in 
many  countries.  The  progress  of  the  Linen  manufacture  in 
some  of  the  nations  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  where  the  trade 
is  carried  on  extensively  will  now  be  given. 

In  some  of  the  European  States  the  Linen  trade  is  not  in 
modern  times  of  much  consequence,  it  being  wholly  of  a  domes- 
tic character,  and  the  Flax  grown  is  spun  by  hand,  and  weaved  at 
home  for  family  use.  In  others  recent  details  have  not  been  got  to 
so  complete  an  extent  as  was  or  is  desirable,  in  some  cases  because 
statistical  accounts  are  not  made  up,  and  in  others  because  access 
t«>  them  were  not  available. 

Many  of  the  statistics  given  are  taken  from  the  published  re- 
ports by  the  Secretaries  of  Legation  at  the  different  courts,  and 
from  those  of  the  Consuls  at  the  various  ports.  Several  of  these 
reports  are  got  up  with  great  care,  and  contain  much  useful 
information,  but  others  are  very  meagre  and  of  little  use.  Un- 
fortunately there  are  some  Secretaries  and  many  Consuls  who  do 
not  appear  to  send  in  reports  at  all,  and  this  is  much  to  be 
regretted,  as  these  parties  have  the  means  of  acquiring  a  know- 
e  "i1  the  trade  and  manufactures  of  the  respective  countries 
and  ports  not  available  to  others.  For  easy  reference  the  monies 
and  weights  and  measures  given  in  these  reports  have  generally 
been  calculated  into  British  standards,  and  are  so  given.  The 
letter-press  has  been  collected  from  a  great  variety  of  sources, 
and  it  is  as  full  as,  from  the  nature  of  the  work,  could  conve- 
niently be  given, 


252  MODERN  LINEN. 


CHAPTER  T. 

ITALIAN      LINEN. 

THE  rude  and  barbarous  nations  who  overthrew  the  Roman 
power  in  Western  Europe  manufactured  little  and  traded  less. 
They  came  from  lands  where  the  necessaries  of  life  alone  were 
sought,  where  the  gratification  of  their  passions  was  their  chief 
desire,  and  where  might  was  right.  The  people,  steeped  in 
poverty  and  ignorance,  felt  few  of  the  wants  of  civilized  life,  and 
despised  its  luxuries.  Even  with  their  leaders  works  of  art  were 
valueless,  and  luxurious  habits  and  cultivated  taste  were  looked 
upon  as  crimes.  The  normal  condition  of  such  nations  was 
more  allied  to  the  savage  than  to  the  civilized  state,  and  rude- 
ness and  barbarity  were  natural  to  them.  When  such  was  the 
social  state  of  the  dominant  race,  it  is  not  surprising  that  their 
laws  should  have  been  arbitrary  and  cruel,  calculated  alike  to 
oppress  the  body  and  deaden  the  soul ;  or  that  their  govern- 
ment should  have  been  despotic  and  tyrannical,  extinguishing 
everywhere  the  light  of  civilization,  and  so  producing  universal 
gloom. 

After  centuries  of  darkness,  benighted  Italy  was  the  first  to 
re-open  her  eyes  and  usher  in  the  dawn  of  brighter  and  better 
days.  Her  cities,  grown  independent  and  great,  became  marts  of 
commerce,  her  citizens  merchant  princes.  They  opened  up  the 
trade  with  India  through  Constantinople,  Trebizond,  and  Persia, 
and  were  for  many  ages  the  medium  of  communication  between 
the  warlike  nations  of  Europe,  and  the  luxurious  and  enervated 
inhabitants  of  the  East.  Venice,  Genoa,  and  other  Italian  cities 
had  vast  fleets,  with  which  they  traded  to  all  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  the  Mediterranean  and  Euxine  Seas,  to  Western 
Europe,  and  to  the  Moorish  cities  on  the  Atlantic.  Flax  was 
imported  from  Egypt  and  other  countries,  or  raised  at  home,  and 
the  Linen  trade  formed  an  important  part  of  their  domestic  in- 


ITALIAN  LIN  I 

With  the  fall  ol'thr  pr-nnl  iv|»uhlii"in  cities  the  manu- 
factures of  Italy  languished  ami  did,  hut  in  modern  times  it  lias 
somewhat  revived,  and  the  new  regime  may,  by  and  bye,  conso- 
lidate and  extend  it. 

In  various  parts  of  Italy,  Flax  and  Hemp  are  largely  culti- 
vated, not  only  for  the  native  manufactures  of  the  country,  but 
also  for  export.  Many  of  the  districts  of  that  beautiful  country, 
a  land  of  sunny  skies  and  fertile  soil,  are  admirably  adapted  for 
the  growth  of  these  textile  fibres,  and  some  of  them  produce  both 
Flax  and  Hemp  of  the  very  finest  quality.  The  Hemp  of  Bo- 
logna, of  Ferrara,  of  Cesena,  of  Ascoli,  and  of  Naples,  is  highly 
esteemed.  Not  less  so  is  the  Flax  of  the  provinces  of  Cremona, 
of  Lodi,  and  of  Brescia  in  Lombardy,  and  of  other  places.  At 
Solerno,  and  in  some  other  districts,  the  cultivation  of  Flax  is  of 
recent  date,  but  it  is  making  some  progress.  In  the  mountain- 
ous regions  of  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  Flax  and  Hemp  are 
grown  chiefly  for  native  use,  but  a  little  of  both,  and  also  some 
cloth,  are  exchanged  with  the  Milanese  and  other  low  countries 
for  the  produce  and  fabrics  of  these  places. 

According  to  the  Italian  Statistical  Annual  for  1857,  the  pro- 
duction of  raw  Hemp  had  risen  in  Italy,  in  round  number,  to 
40,000,000  kilogrammes,  which  at  £2  17s  the  100  kilogrammes 
gives  an  annual  value  of  £1,120,000,  one-half  of  which  applies 
to  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and  Cesena.  Some  competent  valuers  esti- 
mate the  total  quantity  raised  at  50,000,000  kilogrammes, 
allowing  to  Piedmont  and  the  Neapolitan  Provinces  about 
10,000,000  more  than  is  given  in  the  report.  It  would  thus 
appear  that  the  total  quantity  annually  raised  in  Italy  is  close  upon 
50,000tons.  About  16,000  tons  are  exported  to  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many, France,  Great  Britain,  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  remainder 
being  required  to  supply  the  inland  consumption. 

The  culture  of  Hemp,  in  order  to  be  productive,  requires 
numerous  special  conditions  as  regards  soil,  water  courses,  &c., 
which  very  much  restricts  its  limits,  and  localizes  it  in  particular 
places,  sometimes  very  remote  from  each  other.  The  provinces 
of  Bologna  and  Ferrara  are  not  only  the  centre  of  the  Hemp 
production  in  the  north,  but  also  that  of  the  best  methods  of  cul- 
tivation. They  yield  the  best  produce,  and  amongst  them  the 


254  MODERN  LINEN. 

giant  Hemp  (Canopa  gigante),  which  has  been  much  approved 
in  the  various  International  Exhibitions.  The  Bolognese  Hemp 
almost  rivals  Flax,  and  is  distinguished  by  its  whiteness,  bril- 
liancy, softness,  and  divisibility  of  fibre.  The  Ferrarese  Hemp 
is  of  long  staple,  more  tenacious,  and  well  adapted  for  sack- 
ing, sailcloth,  and  cordage.  The  Hemp  of  Cesena,  Venice, 
Piedmont,  and  the  south  partakes  more  of  the  nature  of  the 
Bolognese. 

In  the  Hemp  growing  districts  of  the  north  of  Italy  very 
great  attention  is  paid  to  it  in  every  stage  of  its  progress.  The 
preparation  of  the  soil  is  of  primary  importance,  as  the  crop 
always  corresponds  to  the  care  bestowed  upon  it.  It  is  ploughed 
and  reploughed  in  autumn,  and  in  many  places  spade  husbandry, 
auxiliary  to  the  plough,  is  adopted.  Before  sowing  the  soil  is 
broken  and  levelled  by  machines  adapted  for  the  purpose,  and 
then  divided  into  beds.  The  refuse  of  the  stable  has  always 
been  considered  as  normal  and  necessary  manure,  but  prepared 
and  other  manure  is  used  by  some  growers.  The  management 
of  the  supply  of  water  requires  care,  and  various  contrivances 
have  been  adopted  for  its  proper  regulation.  Under  favourable 
circumstances  Hemp  grows  in  some  districts  to  a  prodigious 
height,  and  some  specimen  stalks  of  Farrarese  have  been  shown 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  length. 

Ketting  is  the  most  difficult  and  the  most  important  of  all  the 
operations  with  Hemp,  and  it  is  performed  in  lakes,  ponds,  and 
running  streams.  Artificial  pits  or  pools  are  considered  best,  and 
almost  every  grower  has  his  own  pits,  excavated  in  the  lowest 
part  so  as  to  collect  the  rain  water.  When  near  rivers  or 
canals  the  water  in  the  pits  is  changed  when  the  process  of 
maceration  has  made  some  progress,  which  makes  it  easy  to 
regulate  the  fermentation,  and  it  prevents  the  matter  formed 
during  the  maceration  from  being  deposited.  With  the  same 
object,  where  the  water  cannot  be  run  off  it  is  drawn  off  by 
pumps  or  other  means,  and  fresh  water  supplied.  The  quality 
and  quantity  of  the  water,  the  temperature,  the  quality  of  the 
Hemp,  and  the  care  of  the  grower,  contribute  essentially  to  the 
success  of  the  retting  process.  To  prevent  deterioration  to  the 
stalk,  and  to  preserve  the  greatest  suppleness  and  freeness  to  the 


ITALIAN  LIN  255 

ii l»ro,  is  the  great  object  to  be  attained,  and  to  secure  this  with 
the  greatest  uniformity  possible  the  Hemp  is  assorted  into  sizes. 
The  earth  of  the  retting  pits  is  carried  to  the  fields  to  furnish 
fertilizing  matter,  and  thus  the  crop  is  less  exhausting  to  the 
soil  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  The  nauseous  miasma  given 
off  while  the  Hemp  is  in  the  steep,  although  disagreeable,  is  not 
deleterious  either  to  men  or  animals. 

In  scutching,  the  stems  are  first  crushed  by  machinery,  then 
beaten  either  by  hand  with  the  comn^a  brake,  or  by  machinery 
constructed  for  the  purpose  and  moved  by  animals.  The  latter 
operation  detaches  the  fibres  from  the  wood,  after  which  they 
are  straightened  with  a  long  toothed  comb,  and  made  up  into 
bundles,  which  completes  the  practical  operation  of  the  grower. 
The  wood  is  valuable  for  charcoal  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder  and  artificial  fireworks.  Before  being  exported  the 
Hemp  is  carefully  picked  and  selected  into  different  qualities, 
suitable  for  the  various  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied.  It  is  then 
packed  into  bales  by  means  of  common  or  hydraulic  presses,  and 
this  process  gives  the  Hemp  greater  brightness  and  flexibility. 

Hemp  softening  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  in  Italy.  A 
large  spinning  work  has  been  established  for  about  twelve  years 
near  Bologna.  It  is  now  being  extended,  and  will  contain  4000 
spindles,  and  consume  nearly  900  tons  of  Hemp  yearly.  There 
are  some  small  hand-loom  weaving  establishments  in  various 
parts  of  the  country,  but  none  of  great  extent.  .The  trade, 
both  in  spinning  and  weaving,  is  almost  wholly  of  a  domestic 
character,  and  gives  employment  to  a  large  number  of  people. 

Flax  lias  been  cultivated  in  Italy  for  a  much  longer  period 
than  Hemp,  it  having  been  grown  extensively  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  and  when  Hemp  was  but  little  known.  It  is  now  reared 
in  many  parts  ot  the  country,  but  not  largely  in  any  one  dis- 
trict, and  this  renders  it  very  difficult  to  collect  complete  statis- 
tical details  respecting  it.  According  to  the  Statistical  Annual 
referred  to,  the  production  reaches  in  round  numbers  fully 
20,000  tons.  The  Flax  cultivated  is  of  two  kinds,  the  winter 
and  the  summer  sorts.  The  winter  Flax  is  sown  in  October  and 
gathered  in  June,  and  it  yields  about  six  hundred-weight  of 
seed  and  nearly  three  of  fibre  an  acre.  The  summer  Flax  is 
sown  in  May  and  watered  abundantly,  and  it  produces  only 


256  MODERN  LINEN. 

about  four  hundred-weight  of  seed  and  three  of  fibre  an  acre. 
In  the  rotation  the  winter  crop  is  made  to  succeed  the  harvest 
of  corn,  and  the  summer  Flax  the  grass  crop. 

The  production  of  Flax,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  cultivat- 
ing it,  differ  greatly  in  different  localities.  In  some  districts  the 
Flax  when  pulled  is  put  into  sheaves  and  dried  in  the  sun,  after 
which  it  is  thrashed  to  get  the  seed.  It  is  afterwards  put  into 
pits  or  in  running  water  to  steep.  In  some  places  where  there 
is  no  water  for  steeping,  the  Flax  is  cultivated  exclusively  for 
the  seed,  and  the  stalks  burned  in  the  kilns. 

In  various  districts  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  divided  among 
different  parties,  each  of  whom  performs  some  special  part  of 
the  operation.  The  farmer  furnishes  horses,  pays  the  seed  in  ad- 
vance, &c. ;  the  cultivator  and  his  family  sow  the  seed,  root  up  the 
Flax,  &c. ;  and  the  peasants  have  each  his  allotted  work  under  both. 
The  quit-rent  ground  (terratico)  is  either  a  pertica  or  a  half-per 
tica,  in  one  of  those  fields  in  which  the  rotation  of  the  Flax  crop 
happens  to  take  place.  This  part  of  the  Flax  serves  the  family 
of  the  peasant,  and  his  women  take  exclusive  care  of  the  ground 
for  it,  and  of  its  cultivation  even  until  it  is  spun. 

In  the  mountainous  regions  of  Lombardy  and  Venetia  some 
Flax  and  Hemp  are  grown  for  native  use,  and  some  cloth  and 
Hemp  is  exchanged  with  the  Milanese  and  other  Low  Countries 
for  their  produce  and  fabrics.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Lodi  and 
Crema  the  finest  Flax  is  cultivated,  and  it  is  exported  to 
foreign  countries  by  way  of  Venice  and  Genoa.  The  Flax  of 
Cremona  is  shorter  and  coarser  in  the  fibre  than  that  of  Lodi  and 
Crema.  In  the  Milanese  and  Pavian  districts  Flax  forms  one 
crop  in  a  nine  year's  rotation,  and  after  the  Flax  crop  is  reaped 
there  comes  the  second  harvest,  called^the  minuto,  or  smaller 
crop,  which  comprehends  millet,  vegetables,  and  beans. 

In  Brescia,  Mantua,  Yerona,  Vicenza,  and  some  other  places, 
there  are  manufactures  of  Linen,  but  they  are  not  sufficient  for 
the  domestic  consumption  of  the  country,  and  have  to  be  sup- 
plemented by  large  importations.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  Flax  trade  was  of  greater  importance 
in  the  province  of  Brescia  than  it  now  is,  as  at  that  period  about 
1 500  tons  were  annually  exported,  while  at  the  commencement 
of  the  present  century  it  was  only  about  one-fourth  of  that 


1TAI.I  \N   I.I 


<|uantity.      At   present  atout  300  liaml  luuins  an-  (•mj.lnvr'l  in 
weaving  KiiH'iis  in  l»ivsri:i,  the  value  of  the  cloth  made  1>« 
about  £20,000  annually       T\\«.  <  .  nturies  ago  there  was  a  great 
Ir.-nlc  in  l,inni  tlin  -a-1  at  Solo,  l>ut  it  lias  now  been  lost. 

The  separation  of  Venetia  from  Lombardy,  an«l  tip-  A  Marian 
tariff,  have  inllirli-tl  much  injury  on  tin-  Lim-n  trade  of  these 
provinces,  although  M.  Xanaidilli  states  that  the  manufacture  of 
Flax  in  Lombardy  still  gives  employment  to  300,000  wnmrn, 
who  work  at  their  own  homes,  spinning  by  the  ancient  mode 
of  distaff  and  spindle,  and  earning  scarcely  twopence  a  day. 
There  are,  however,  Flax-spinning  mills  at  Capaccio,  Olino,  and 
Melagnano  in  Lombardy,  employing  about  12,000  spindles,  and 
making  about  1100  tons  of  yarn  yearly.  There  is  only  one 
I  .inoii  power-loom  work  in  Italy,  and  there  both  Flax  and  Tow 
goods  are  manufactured-,  but  it  is  not  of  great  extent. 

In  Modena,  Hemp  and  some  Flax  are  cultivated,  and  Linen 
and  canvas  are  among  the  few  manufactures  of  this  district. 
Hemp  and  Flax  are  also  raised  in  Lucca,  and  both  these  articles 
are  exported  to  some  extent.  In  Peidmont,  some  Hemp  and  a 
little  Flax  is  produced,  but  not  enough  for  the  limited  local  con* 
sumption,  as  the  importation  exceeded  the  exportation  in  1857 
by  about  880  tons.  Common  Linens,  canvas,  and  cordage,  are 
made  in  Genoa,  and  some  other  towns,  but  excepting  for  domes- 
tic purposes  this  is  not  a  manufacturing  country.  In  the 
Island  of  Sardinia  a  small  quantity  of  Flax  is  grown,  and  about 
1000  cantars  (70  tons)  of  it  exported  annually,  the  rest  being 
Died  in  the  Linen  manufactures  of  the  country.  The  quantity 
of  Hemp  annually  produced  in  Continental  Sardinia  represents  a 
yearly  value  of  £400,000  to  £500,000,  but  it  is  not  sufficient  for 
the  wants  of  the  country.  The  Flax  grown  there  is  of  much  less 
value  than  the  Hemp.  In  Parma  and  Tuscany  there  are  almost  no 
manufactures  of  Linen,  and  very  little  Flax  is  grown  in  either 
place.  Any  manufactures  of  Flax  are  done  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts,  and  they  are  almost  exclusively  for  the  ordinary  wear  of 
the  peasants. 

In  what  was  formerly  the  Papal  States  some  Flax  and  Hemp 
are  grown,  and,  both  being  indigenous  to  the  country,  are  of  very 
superior  quality,  but  neither  are  cultivated  to  a  great  extent. 
Both  Hempen  and  Flaxen  cloth  is  made,  chiefly  in  the  puMic 


258  MODERN  LINEN. 

schools,  orphan  asylums,  and  private  houses  throughout  the 
country  and  city.  There  being  no  factories,  the  fabrics  made  are 
generally  of  the  lower  or  middling  descriptions,  but,  from  the 
fine  quality  of  the  material  used,  the  goods  are  excellent  of  their 
kind.  In  the  Fair  at  Sinigaglia  considerable  quantities  of  Linens 
from  Germany,  &c.,  are  sold. 

In  Naples,  Flax  and  Hemp,  equal  to  twice  the  consumption  of 
the  inhabitants  might  be  grown,  many  districts  being  remark- 
ably fertile,  and  admirably  adapted  to  produce  both  plants  in 
perfection,  but  agriculture  of  every  kind  is  in  a  rude  and  back- 
ward condition.  The  various  branches  of  manufacturing  in- 
dustry, among  which  are  a  few  coarsely  made  Linens,  are  in  as 
miserable  a  state  as  the  agriculture  of  the  country. 

In  the  fine  Island  of  Sicily,  Flax  and  Hemp  are  grown  with 
scarcely  more  culture  than  scratching  the  ground  to  let  in  the  seed. 
Although  the  soil  is  so  fruitful,  and  as  it  were  wooing  to  be  culti- 
vated, such  is  the  wretched  state  of  agriculture  and  of  manufac- 
tures that  Sicily  can  scarcely  export  a  ton  of  either,  nor  even 
supply  sufficient  Linens  for  her  own  domestic  consumption.  In 
one  of  the  psuedo  Platonic  epistles,  mention  is  made  of  Linen 
shifts  made  for  ladies  in  Sicily,  but  the  material  for  making  them 
may  have  been  imported.  In  like  manner  the  Linen  of  Malta 
was  in  ancient  times  exceedingly  admired  for  its  fineness  and  soft- 
ness, but  the  raw  material  was  in  all  probability  imported. 

The  Linen  manufactures  of  what  was  formerly  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  only  employ  some  400  to  500  hand-looms.  Per- 
haps the  freedom  now  enjoyed  under  the  more  enlightened  policy 
of  the  King  of  Italy  will  tend  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
country,  and  if  so  the  growth  of  Flax  and  the  extension  of  the 
Linen  manufacture  will,  no  doubt,  soon  become  of  much  greater 
importance. 

Comparatively  little  Linen  yarn  is  imported  into  Naples  or 
Sicily  from  the  United  Kingdom.  The  British  trade  in  brown 
and  bleached  Linens  is  now  much  cut  up  by  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  and  the  importation  of  diapers  and  table  Linen  is 
almost  wholly  from  Germany,  with  which  country,  it  would 
appear,  Britain  cannot  compete  in  these  articles.  Consider- 
able quantities  of  plain  and  fancy  drills  are,  however,  got  from 
England  and  Ireland,  as  their  manufacture  of  these  fabrics  is 


ITALIAN  LIN  I  259 

preferred.  The  high  duties  upon  Linen  manufactures  have  not 
been  sufficient  to  call  forward  the  Sicilian  or  Neapolitan 
weavers,  or  to  enable  them  to  compete  successfully  with  manufac- 
t  u ring  nations.  Several  experiments  were  made  some  years  ago 
to  extend  the  manufactures  of  Linen  in  the  country,  both  from 
foreign  and  native  grown  Flax,  but  all  proved  abortive. 

According  to  an  account  made  up  in  1764,  Linens  were  ex- 
ported from  the  following  places  in  Italy,  viz. — Verona,  Brescia, 
Crema,  Bolonia  (damask),  Ancona  (fine  Flax),  &c. 

The  causes  of  the  backward  state  of  agriculture,  trade,  and 
maiuilnd  mvs  throughout  Italy  generally,  is  a  sad  commentary  on 
the  despotism  and  misrule  which  have  so  long  afflicted  that  fine 
country.  Italy  teems  with  priests  and  sacerdotal  classes  of 
every  rank,  and  it  might  have  been  expected  that  a  people 
with  so  many  religious  instructors  would  be  enlightened,  happy, 
and  prosperous  ;  but  it  is  not  so.  Freedom  of  thought 
and  action  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  successful  cultivation 
of  manufacturing  industry,  and  for  the  prosperous  prosecution  of 
commercial  enterprise,  but  they  appear  to  be  incompatible  witb 
priestly  rule,  and,  in  Italy,  both  are  suppressed — to  the  misfor- 
tune of  the  people,  and  to  the  ruin  of  the  country. 

In  1857  the  Sardinian  States  imported  3300  tons  of  Flax  and 
Hemp,  and  about  the  same  quantity  in  1858,  but  in  1859  it  fell  be- 
low 1400  tons.  In  1857  about  900  tons  of  Flax  yarns  were  im- 
ported ;  in  1858  nearly  1000  tons ;  and  in  1859  nearly  1200  tons. 
The  Hempen  and  Flaxen  cloth  imported  in  1858  was  about  270 
tons,  and  in  1859,  240  tons.  The  exports  of  Hempen  cloth  from 
these  States  for  the  same  year  were  quite  unimportant.  The 
average  imports  of  Linens  into  the  Island  of  Sardinia  in  the  years 
from  1857  to  1861  were  under  100  tons,  of  the  value  of  about 
£18,000. 


R  2 


260  MODERN  LINEN. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SPANISH      LINEN. 

SPAIN  has  had  a  chequered  history.  Many  parts  of  the  country 
are  exceedingly  fair  and  fruitful.  It  only  wants  freedom  from 
bigotry,  intolerance,  and  oppression  on  the  part  of  its  rulers,  lay 
and  sacerdotal,  and  intelligent  industry  on  that  of  the  people,  to 
make  it  rank  high  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

After  the  removal  of  the  Roman  legions,  Spain  was  divided  into 
small  kingdoms,  ruled  by  petty  kings,  jealous  of  and  often  at 
war  with  each  other.  This  made  the  southern  portions  of  it  an 
easy  prey  to  the  Moors  from  Africa,  and  for  many  centuries  half 
the  country  was  overrun  by  them.  During  that  period  arts  and 
sciences  nourished  in  a  much  higher  degree  than  they  have 
generally  done  in  countries  under  the  sway  of  the  Moslem,  and 
good  progress  was  made  in  manufactures  and  commerce.  The 
ruins  of  the  Alhambra,  and  other  magnificent  architectural 
works,  still  remain  to  attest  the  taste  and  skill  of  the  Moors,  who, 
though  warlike  in  their  nature  and  habits,  yet  industriously  cul- 
tivated the  arts  of  peace.  Flax  was  largely  grown  by  this  extra- 
ordinary people,  and  Linens  and  other  textile  fabrics  were  manu- 
factured by  them  on  an  extensive  scale.  Besides  supplying  the 
home  demand,  many  of  these  fabrics  were  exported  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  to  other  cities  in  the  Mediterranean  and  adjacent 
seas,  and  even  as  far  as  India,  and  eastern  produce  was  brought 
back  in  return.  This  trade  enriched  the  chivalrous  yet  com- 
mercial Moriscoes,  and  enabled  them  long  to  maintain  their  hold 
of  some  of  the  finest  provinces  of  Spain. 

In  1450,  Spain  imported  Flemish  woollen  cloth  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  A  century  later  she  imported  Linens,  Flax,  thread, 
&c.,  from  Antwerp. 

The  same  year  (1492)  in  which  the  Moors  were  finally  expelled 


SPANISH  LINEN.  261 

from  Spain,  Columbus  discovered  for  her  a  new  world.  For  a  time 
wealth,  vast  wealth,  flowed  in  from  her  American  colonies,  and 
un<-\;iin|.lr<l  piMspcrity  -lu«Mened  every  heart  in  what  was  tln-u 
happy  Spain.  At  that  period  manufactures  flourished  in  many 
of  her  cities,  and  the  ocean  was  covered  with  her  fleets.  Then 
Spain  was  a  great  nation,  but  this  prosperity  was  not  destined 
to  be  of  long  duration.  In  the  Iflth  century  she  atiaiin-.l  tho 
zenith  of  her  glory,  but  with  it  her  sun  set,  and  in  the  following 
century  Spain  sank  into  deep  darkness.  By  the  bigotry  of 
king  and  nobles,  and  the  grasping  character  of  the  clergy,  with 
which  that  fine  country  has  long  swarmed,  a  deathlike  stupor  came 
over  the  people,  and  trade  sank  to  the  lowest  ebb.  Spaniards, 
stung  with  shame,  have  abstained  from  writing  the  history  of 
the  rum  which  befcl  their  country  at  the  close  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. 

With  the  expulsion  of  the  Moriscoes  manufactures  were 
nearly  extinguished.  In  the  16th  century  Seville  possessed 
upwards  of  16,000  looms,  which  gave  employment  to  130,000 
persons.  When  Philip  V.,  ascended  the  throne  in  1664,  the 
number  had  dwindled  down  to  300  looms.  Toledo  in  1550  had  up- 
wards of  fifty  woollen  factories,  and  in  1665  only  thirteen,  almost 
the  whole  trade  having  been  carried  away  by  the  Moors,  who 
established  it  at  Tunis.  Owing  to  the  same  cause,  the  art  of 
manufacturing  silk,  for  which  Toledo  had  been  celebrated,  was 
entirely  lost,  and  nearly  40,000  persons  who  depended  on  it  were 
deprived  of  their  means  of  support.  Other  branches  of  industry 
shared  the  same  fate.  The  manufacture  of  gloves,  which  in  the 
16th  and  early  in  the  17th  century  existed  in  every  city,  and  of 
which  enormous  quantities  were  made  and  exported  to  England, 
France,  and  the  Indies,  had  in  1655  quite  disappeared.  In 
1550  the  navy  numbered  140  galleys,  and  in  1656  it  was  reduced 
to  three  wretched  galliots,  which  were  with  difficulty  manned. 
In  1752  the  Government  determined  to  restore  the  navy,  but 
to  do  this  they  were  obliged  to  send  to  England  for  shipwrights, 
and  they  had  to  get  persons  from  the  same  place  to  make  ropes 
for  their  rigging  and  canvas  for  their  sails. 

Early  in  the  18th  century  a  woollen  manufactory  was  estab- 
lished by  Government  at  Segovia,  which  had  once  been  a  pros- 
perous manufacturing  city,  but  the  most  common  processes 


262  MODERN  LINEN. 

had  been  forgotten,  and  workmen  had  to  be  imported  from 
Holland  to  teach  the  Spaniards  how  to  make  up  the  wool,  an  art  for 
which  in  better  days,  they  had  been  especially  famous.  In  1757 
the  Government  constructed  a  similar  work  on  a  larger  scale  at 
Guadalaxara  in  New  Castile.  Soon  after  something  went  wrong 
with  the  machinery,  and  it  was  necessary  to  send  to  England  for 
a  workman  to  put  it  right,  as  the  Spaniards  neither  knew  nor 
cared  anything  about  these  matters. 

In  1767  the  Spanish  Government  became  more  alive  to  the 
importance  of  trade  and  commerce.  The  leading  men  in  the  Go- 
vernment then,  and  for  some  time  previous,  had  been  foreigners, 
and  that  year  the  Government  expelled  the  Jesuits,  curbed  the 
power  of  the  priests,  and  let  the  people  breathe,  which  they  could 
hardly  be  said  to  have  done  while  the  Inquisition  reigned  in  all  its 
terrors.  Trade,  commerce,  and  manufactures  started  into  exis- 
tence as  it  were  by  magic,  and  the  foundation  of  a  prosperity  was 
laid  such  as  had  not  been  known  since  the  Moors  were  expelled 
from  Granada.  Charles  III.  was  conciliating  the  Spanish  colonies 
while  George  III.  was  fomenting  rebellion  in  those  of  Britain.  In 
1765  he  conceded  free  trade  to  his  West  India  Islands,  and  a 
few  years  afterwards  he  granted  the  same  boon  to  the  American 
continent.  These  wise  grants  gave  an  immense  impetus  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  magnificent  colonies  of  Spain,  to  the  vast  bene- 
fit of  the  mother  country.  Such  enlightened  policy  had  a  rich 
reward.  The  export  of  foreign  commodities  was  soon  tripled, 
the  export  of  home  produce  was  increased  five-fold,  and  the 
returns  from  America,  nine-fold. 

Spain  is  a  territory  so  fair  and  fertile,  that  the  Moors  called 
it  an  earthly  paradise,  but  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  the 
fruitfulness  of  its  soil  have  oft  been  blasted  with  a  curse.  In 
1788  Charles  IV.  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He  was  a  king  of  the 
true  Spanish  breed,  devout,  orthodox,  and  ignorant ;  and  with 
him  came  intolerance  and  all  its  evils.  True  religion,  when 
exercised  in  its  purity,  humanizes  and  elevates  man,  and  makes 
him  happy  in  the  enjoyment  of  nature's  gifts,  and  in  the  God  of 
nature ;  but  when  performed  in  unmeaning  forms  and  ceremonies, 
by  an  ignorant  and  debased  priesthood,  it  brutalizes  the  mind,  and 
makes  man  unfit  for  the  duties  required  of  him,  either  as 
regards  the  present  or  the  future  state.  The  Church  soon 


SPANISH  LIKEN.  263 

became  dominant,  and,  as  it  rose  in  power,  freedom  of  thought 
and  action  were  abrogated ;  the  people,  oppressed,  groaned  uu«I.-r 
priestly  ty ninny,  and  the  Inquisition,  that  worst  instrument  of 
Jesuitical  rule,  was  again  set  up  with  all  its  horrors.  Then 
trade,  commerce,  and  manufactures  were  extinguished,  and  the 
rk'h  and  beautiful  country  of  Spain  once  more  became  almost 
a  commercial  blank  in  Europe, 

The  present  century  has  seen  a  great  change  in  the  condition 
of  Spain.  The  Government  now  exercises  more  of  its  legiti- 
mate authority  than  it  previously  did.  The  country,  although 
Mill  greatly  priest-ridden,  is  not  so  completely  under  the  misrule 
of  the  hierarchy  as  it  was.  The  :  njoy  more  freedom  of 

action  than  when  under  bigoted  priestly  sway,  and  prosperity 
has  begun  once  more  to  over-shadow  bright,  but  ill-governed, 
and  often  cruelly  persecuted  and  persecuting  fcpain. 

Within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  the  trade  of  Spain  has 
made  good  progress,  and  of  late  years  the  manufacture  of  Linens 
has  been  carried  on  extensively  in  some  of  its  provinces.  This 
manufacture  from  imported  yarns  is  of  comparatively  recent  date, 
but  since  the  revision  of  the  tariff,  framed  with  a  view  to  protect 
home  manufactures,  Linen  weaving  has  rapidly  increased,  and 
it  still  promises  to  do  so  daily.  The  great  difficulty  has  been  to 
weave  fine  Linens  for  shirting,  cambric,  and  the  like,  but  this  is 
now  being  gradually  overcome.  The  weaving  of  Linens  tlirough- 
out  Spain  is  principally  by  hand,  but  power-looms  are  now  to  be 
seen  in  several  districts.  Labour  there  is  not  very  plentiful  at 
present,  which  makes  manufacturers  more  willing  to  resort  to 
•r-looms,  and  as  their  capital  accumulates  these  will  increase 
in  Spain,  as  they  have  done  in  other  countries. 

The  weaving  of  all  kinds  of  coarse  Linens  is  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  Seville.  Formerly  large  quantities 
of  British  and  German  Linens  were  imported,  but  the  native 
made  goods  have  entirely  superseded  them,  except  for  the 
finest  class  of  fabrics.  The  manufacturers  are  almost  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  United  Kingdom  for  their  supplies  of  yarn, 
very  little  being  spun  in  the  country.  Cadiz  has  long  im- 
ported Linens,  besides  which  it  now  imports  Flax,  Hemp,  and 
Linen  yarn. 
From  time  immemorial  Catalonia  has  been  a  Linen  manufac- 


264  MODERN  LINEtf. 

taring  country,  and  it  still  retains  its  well-merited  fame.  Its 
Linens  found  their  way  to  Rome  in  the  days  of  the  Empire, 
and  perhaps  since  then  the  trade  has  never  been  wholly  ex- 
tinct. In  a  politico-commercial  poem  called  the  "  Libell  of 
English  Policie,"  we  learn  that  in  1437  there  were  flourishing 
manufactures  of  wool,  cotton,  Linen,  and  silk,  in  that  province. 
Catalonia  is  perhaps  the  greatest  seat  of  the  Linen  manufac- 
ture in  Spain  at  the  present  time,  and  the  Catalonians,  as  well  as 
many  other  Spaniards,  are  a  Linen-wearing  people.  Consider- 
able quantities  of  Flax,  Tow,  and  Jute  yarns,  chiefly  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  are  imported  into  Barcelona  for  the  Linen 
manufactures  of  Catalonia.  That  city  is  the  first  in  importance 
in  this  branch  of  business,  whether  as  regards  importation  or 
manufacture ;  and,  being  the  principal  producer  of  fine  Linen 
goods,  the  value  of  its  importation  of  yarns  is  almost  one-half  of 
all  Spain.  The  works  in  that  province  are,  both  for  spinning  and 
weaving,  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  of  late  years  several  power- 
loom  establishments  have  been  erected  there.  The  Flax  and 
Hemp  are  mostly  imported  from  Genoa  and  Leghorn,  but  some 
of  the  Northern  States  of  Europe  also. supply  a  part  of  what  is 
spun.  Some  Linens  are  also  imported  into  Barcelona,  the  supply 
of  the  goods  made  in  the  province  being  insufficient  for  the  wants 
of  the  district. 

Bilboa  is  the  seaport  next  in  importance  to  Barcelona  for  the 
importation  of  Linen  yarns,  although  very  little  is  manufactured 
in  the  neighbourhood.  It  is  the  receiving  port  for  the  yarns  for 
nearly  all  the  Linens  manufactured  in  the  north  of  Spain,  and 
it  supplies  Valladolid,  Madrid,  Saragossa,  and  Pampelona,  &c. 
The  importation  of  Linen  yarn  into  Bilboa  for  the  supply  of 
these  districts  is  on  the  increase.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly 
of  coarse  Linens  for  local  purposes.  In  1859,  the  value  imported 
was  £136,877,  all  from  Great  Britain,  being  a  considerable  in- 
crease over  the  previous  year.  In  I860,  the  importation  of 
Linen  yarns,  a  part  being  from  France,  but  chiefly  from  Great 
Britain,  was  of  the  value  of  £158,210,  and  of  Linens,  also 
from  Great  Britain  and  France,  £13,437.  In  addition  to  this 
there  was  imported  from  Great  Britain,  Jute  cloth  of  the  value 
of  £47,250,  and  Jute  yarns  of  the  value  of  £14,566.  In  1861 
the  importation  included — Linen  yarns,  £129,708  ;  Jute  yarns, 


UV!  265 

£19,414;  Linens,  £19,721  ;  ,.u<l  Jute  goods,  £118,25(5.  In 
1862,  the  imports  embraced — Linen  yarns,  £147,076;  Jute 
yarns,  £29,343  ;  Linens  £26,152.  The  heavy  importation  of 
Jut i-  Linens  in  1861  were  made  prior  to,  and  anticipatory  of, 
the  heavy  increased  duties  on  this  article,  which  were  imposed 
in  August,  1861.  The  duties  were  then  raised  from  50  roubles 
to  250  roubles  per  quintal,  which  may  be  regarded  as  prohibi- 
tory. After  that  date  the  importation  of  Jute  goods  into  Sp;iin 
almost  ceased.  The  Jute  goods  and  yarns  were  almost  wholly 
from  Great  Britain,  the  Linens  and  Linen  yarns  from  Great 
Britain  and  France,  but  chiefly  from  the  former. 

Malaga  is  next  in  importance  to  Bilboa,  and  being  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  largest  power-loom  factories  yet  built  in  Europe,  it 
consumes  an  immense  quantity,  both  of  Linen  and  cotton  yarns. 
It  is  besides  the  receiving  port  for  Grauada,  where  hand-loom 
weaving  is  pretty  extensively  carried  on. 

Valencia  ranges  next  in  importance.  Its  consumption  of 
yarns  is  of  the  coarser  description,  to  supply  home  wants  and 
sacks  for  the  guano  trade.  This  town  is  likely  to  become  the 
centre  of  the  Jute  trade  for  the  south  of  Spain.  In  1860,  413 
bales  of  yarn  were  imported  into  Valencia,  and  since  then  the 
quantity  has  largely  increased. 

There  are  also  Linen  manufacturing  establishments  in  other 
provinces  in  Spain,  two  being  in  Sansebastian,  which  are  on 
the  increase,  and  one  in  Corunna.  The  imports  into  San- 
sebastian include  Linen  and  Jute,  raw  and  manufactured. 

The  imports  into  Santander  in  1861  embraced — Linen  and 
Jute  manufactures,  £61,150  ;  Linen  yarn,  £2,610.  In  1862  the 
imports  included  Linen  £57,600,  and  Linen  yarn  £2,520.  The 
Jute  goods  were  from  Great  Britain :  the  Linens  from — 1st 
Great  Britain ;  2d,  France ;  and  3d,  Belgium ;  the  quantities 
from  each  being  in  the  order  stated. 

In  addition  to  the  yarn  imported  into  Spain  a  large  quantity 
of  Flax  and  Hemp  is  grown  in  the  Basque  provinces,  and  in 
nearly  all  the  other  provinces  of  the  country,  spun  into  yarn,  and 
consumed  in  the  native  manufactures  of  the  respective  districts. 

The  Spanish  colonies,  like  the  mother  country,  are  large  con- 
sumers of  Linen,  and  they  are  excellent  customers  of  ours.  In 
the  Consular  report  from  Havana  for  1858  it  is  said  that  the 


266 


MODERN  LINEN. 


Linens  of  the  United  Kingdom  have  deservedly  superseded 
those  of  Germany  in  a  great  measure,  and  the  coarse  descrip- 
tions those  of  Russia. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  imports  and  exports  of 
Linen  manufactures  and  Linen  yarns  into  and  from  Spain  for 
the  years  from  1857  to  1860  inclusive : — 


Linen  Yarns, 


IMPORTS 

1857.            1858.  1859.  1860. 

Tons,    4203             4153  3542  4975 

Value,      £440,019      £438,600  £373,750  £527,098 


Linen  Manufactures,    Tons,     297  189  245  218 

„  Value,      £153,452      £136,447       £170,982      £154,020 


Hemp, 

Manufactures  of  Hemp, 

Sparta  Grass, 


EXPORTS. 

£26,369  £27,678 
35,789  29,959 
28,202  36,266 


£36,096  £21,044 
26,359  31,620 
38,889  39,570 


In  1826  there  were  no  exports  of  any  of  these  articles,  and  the 
imports  for  that  year  consisted  of — 


Flax  and  Hemp,  valued  at 
Linen  Manufactures,      „ 
Linen  Thread,  „ 


£165,760 

222870 
12,970 


It  would  thus  appear  that  the  character  of  the  trade  has  greatly 
changed  since  that  period.  Then  little  or  no  yarn  was  imported, 
but  in  1860  the  quantity  had  risen  to  more  than  half-a-million 
sterling  in  value,  and  since  that  year,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
tables  of  Exports  from  the  United  Kingdom,  the  quantity  sent 
from  this  country  alone  very  greatly  exceeds  that  value. 


CHAPTER  III. 


GERMAN      LINEN. 


THE  manufactures  of  Germany  are  of  ancient  standing.  Already 
in  the  6th  century  several  towns  had  sprung  up  in  Germany, 


GERMAN  LINEN.  267 

which  were  soon  after  to  become  famous  for  their  manufactures 
and  trade.  The  introduction  «.i' Christianity  was  highly  instru- 
mental in  advancing  the  commerce  of  the  country.  By  the 
beginning  of  the  9th  century  a  little  progress  had  been  made 
in  general  trade,  and  by  the  llth  century,  Flanders  and  Brabant, 
and  several  German  cities,  had  become  important  for  their  manu- 
factures of  Linen. 

It  is  reported,  on  the  authority  of  Helinoldus,  that  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  12th  century  (about  1109),  Linen  cloth  was 
used  as  money  in  exchange  for  all  other  things  in  the  Isle  of 
Rugen,  on  the  coast  of  Pomerania. 

Early  in  the  14th  century  the  Emperors  began  to  infranchise 
certain  German  towns ;  whereupon  these  cities  found  it  neces- 
sary to  enter  into  a  confederacy  to  defend  themselves  against  their 
feudal  lords.  This  union  gave  security  to  traders,  and  assisted 
greatly  in  the  extension  of  manufactures  in  and  around  these 
cities,  as  well  as  throughout  Germany. 

The  Linen  trade  is  not  only  one  of  the  oldest,  but  it  is 
also  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  industry  in  Ger- 
many. It  gives  employment  to  an  immense  nnmber  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  a  vast  capital  is  embarked  in  it.  Many 
of  the  articles  made  in  the  United  Kingdom  were  at  first 
imitations  of  German  Linens,  and  some  of  them  are  still  familiarly 
known  by  their  German  names,  or  by  the  district  in  Germany 
where  they  were  manufactured.  Dowlas,  Tecklenburgs,  Creas, 
Platillas,  Bretagnes,  Silesias,  Osnaburgs,  &c.,  <fcc.,  have  all  a 
German  origin,  and  most  of  these  fabrics  are  still  made  there. 

Some  of  the  provinces  of  Prussia  proper  are  integral  parts  of 
Germany,  and  its  detached  provinces  are  also  German,  the  pro- 
gress and  present  state  of  the  Linen  trade  of  Prussia  will  there- 
fore be  included  in  this  chapter,  as  it  will  save  repetitions  which 
would  otherwise  be  necessary. 

Prussia  has  been  a  Linen  producing  country  from  a  very  early 
period.  In  1450  she  exported  Flax,  thread  of  Cologne,  and 
canvas,  principally  to  Flanders,  which  was  then  the  great  em- 
porium of  trade.  The  Italians,  Hanse  merchants,  and  Flemings, 
did  the  chief  of  business  at  that  period. 

The  Linens  of  Silesia  and  Saxony  have  been  long  celebrated 
for  their  fine  and  durable  qualities.  Westphalia,  Wiirtemberg, 


268  MODEKN  LINEN. 

and  several  other  of  the  sub-divisions  of  that  great  country  have 
also  been  long  deservedly  famous  for  their  Linen  manufactures. 

In  1764  Brandenburg  had  manufactures  of  canvas.  Frank- 
fort on  the  Oder  had  a  tolerable  Linen  trade.  Saxony  had 
manufactures  of  fine  and  coarse  Linen  and  ticking  canvas,  and 
made  large  quantities  of  thread.  The  persecution  of  the  Pro- 
testants in  Bohemia  and  Silesia  forced  great  numbers  to  with- 
draw and  settle  in  Upper  Lusatia,  where  they  introduced  the 
Linen  manufacture,  particularly  table  Linen  and  tickings.  Lower 
Lusatia,  Dresden,  Leipzic  and  neighbourhood,  Chemnitz,  Ham- 
burg, and  other  places  manufactured  Linens.  Bremen  made 
large  quantities  of  Osnaburgs.  Esenbach,  Harburg,  Saxe- 
Lauenburg,  Hanover,  Hameln,  Magdeburg,  &c.,  all  had  their 
Linen  manufactures.  Munster  was  much  engaged  in  the  Linen 
trade.  Osnaburg  or  Osnabruck  made  Linen  yarn  and  thread,  and 
manufactured  Osnaburgs  to  the  value  of  upwards  of  a  million  of 
rix-dollars  annually.  Hamm  was  famous  for  its  Linen  bleacheries. 
Glatz  had  thread  and  Linen  manufactures.  Silesia  manufac- 
tured twine  and  Linen  of  various  kinds  very  extensively,  includ- 
ing Linen  printing  canvas,  buckram,  and  damask,  and  exported 
these  goods  largely,  particularly  to  England.  Indeed  nearly  all 
the  places  named  exported  their  manufactures  to  some  extent,  in 
addition  to  supplying  the  home  demand.  In  1755  there  were 
248  Linen  looms  in  Berlin.  In  1764  Hemp  and  Flax  and  their 
seeds,  and  also  Linens  and  thread  were  exported  from  Prussia 
and  from  Dantzic  Hemp,  Flax,  and  Linens. 

Oddy,  in  his  work  on  European  commerce  (1805),  mentions 
that  the  produce  exported  from  Prussia  consisted  of  Flax, 
Hemp,  &c.,  chiefly  from  Memel  and  Konigsberg  ;  Linens  from 
Silesia,  either  by  the  Elbe,  or  from  Stettin.  The  value  of  Linen 
manufactures  exported  from  Prussia,  in  1799  was  about 
£2,000,000,  being  fully  a  fourth  part  of  all  the  exports  from  that 
country.  Between  that  year  and  1805  the  Linen  manufacture 
had  increased  to  a  surprising  degree.  This  branch  of  manufac- 
ture was  at  that  time  the  most  important  trade  of  the  country, 
and  Silesia  had  then  gained  a  great  reputation  in  the  world  for 
the  durability  and  general  excellence  of  its  Linens.  He  goes  on 
to  say  "  that  they  are  as  good,  or  of  better  quality  in  Ireland,  is 
certain  ;  but  they  at  one  time  were  not  equally  considerate  in 


GERMAN  LINEK.  269 

the  I  ill-aching  part.  The  chemical  process  for  bleaching,  once 
introduced  into  that  kingdom,  was  wisely  done  away  ;  while  the 
gentle  process  in  Silesia  has  been  invariably  used.  Their  cloth 
is  generally  three  or  four  months  in  bleaching,  and  the  lyes 
made  very  mild  ami  mo.lrratrly  used.  Experience  has  shown 
the  reputation  Silesian  Linen  has  obtained  in  South  and  Nortli 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  but  the  Irish  Linen  must  shortly 
command  a  preference  to  any  other,  as  great  care  and  attention 
is  now  paid  to  it. 

"  France,  the  United  Provinces,  and  Switzerland,  formerly 
carried  on  a  very  great  trade  in  the  Linen  manufacture,  but  at  pre- 
sent Silesia,  Bohemia,  Westphalia,  Suabia,  the  Lausitz,  and  the 
countries  belonging  to  the  House  of  Brunswick,  excel  particularly 
in  their  Linen  manufacture,  the  produce  of  which  is  exported  to 
almost  every  part  of  the  world.  The  greater  part  of  the  Silesian 
Linen  goes  through  Higher  Saxony  and  Luneburg,  to  Hamburg. 
It  is  likewise  conveyed  down  the  Oder,  and  from  thence  by  means 
of  canals  which  connect  it  with  the  Elbe.  The  Hamburg, 
merchants  export  it  in  great  quantities  to  Spain,  Portugal,  Eng- 
land, and  the  United  States  of  America. 

"  The  striped  and  the  checked  sort  of  Silesian  Linen,  the 
stripes  of  which  are  formed  of  Turkey  red  yarn,  are  mostly  ex- 
ported to  Italy  on  account  of  their  fine  quality,  and  are  used  for 
curtains,  bed-ticks,  &c. 

"  The  yarn  of  which  the  Silesian  Linen  is  made  is  spun  by 
means  of  the  spindle,  which  makes  it  look  like  cotton,  and  re- 
quires less  time  to  bleach  than  any  other.  The  Silesian  Linen 
of  different  manufactures  is  all  of  the  same  quality,  and  there  is 
no  other  distinction  in  it  than  in  the  width  and  length  of  the 
pieces.  The  merchants  of  Hamburg,  who  are  in  that  line,  go 
twice  a  year  to  Silesia  to  make  purchases.  Dutch  and  Italians 
also  go  there  to  buy,  and  even  the  English,  who  generally  buy 
lawns,  dowlas,  checked,  and  book  Linen. 

"  In  1740  the  export  of  Linen  from  Silesia  amounted  to  only 
£500,000.  In  1805  it  was  estimated  at  £3,000,000.  In  the 
Prussian  part  of  Silesia  in  1792-3  there  were  24,761  looms,  em- 
ploying 38,451  workmen,  making  £1,470,000,  of  which  was 
exported  £1,040,000.  The  previous  year  the  whole  production 
of  Silesian  Linen  amounted  to  only  £  1 ,250,000,  and  the  exporta- 


270  MODERN  LINEN. 

tion  to  £810,000,  of  which  about  nine-tenths  consisted  of  bleached 
Linens,  the  remainder  being  unbleached,  bleached  and  un- 
bleached yarn,  thread,  unbleached  linen  ticks,  damasks,  hand- 
kerchiefs, &c. 

"  To  the  value  of  the  above  exportation,  made  in  1791-2,  is 
still  to  be  added  that  of  the  following  sorts: — Creas,  Platillas, 
Bretagnes,  Lawn,  and  the  fine  checked  Linen. 

"  The  Silesian  Linen  trade  is  the  most  important  in  the  Ger- 
man Empire.  The  chief  places  of  its  manufacture  are  Hirsch- 
berg,  Landshut,  Schmiedeburg,  Greiffenburg,  Waldenburg,  and 
Schweidnitz. 

"  Hirschberg  is  the  first  and  most  important  trading  city  in 
Silesia,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  lawn  manufacture.  So  early  as 
1786  the  exports  amounted  to  £254,000.  The  raw  long  lawns, 
or  what  are  now  called  double  Silesias,  are  frequently  sent  to 
Haarlem,  to  be  bleached  for  England.  The  patterns  of  the 
coloured  lawns  are  sometimes  mixed  with  red,  blue,  and  green 
flowers.  Other  descriptions  of  lawns  are  made  for  the  Italian 
market,  and  also  still  a  different  sort  called  cobweb  lawns,  pro- 
bably from  the  fineness  of  their  texture.  The  other  towns 
mentioned  manufactured  Linens  more  or  less  extensively,  and 
some  of  them  made  fabrics  peculiar  to  themselves,  such  as  ticks, 
damasks,  checks  and  stripes,  &c. 

"  The  manufacture  of  flowered  damask  and  ticken  had  been 
brought  to  great  perfection  in  Silesia  and  Lausitz.  It  was  made 
in  three  different  modes,  plain,  marbled,  and  white  flowered,  and 
consisted  of  table  cloths,  napkins,  towels,  &c.  The  manu- 
factures of  Lausitz  were  chiefly  exported  to  Cadiz,  thence  they 
were  sent  to  the  South  American  colonies  of  Spain.  In  1795 
the  German  manufacturers  began  to  send  goods  to  the  United 
States,  but  the  wars  of  this  period  frequently  changed  the  nature 
of  the  trade,  and  caused  great  fluctuations  in  it." 

In  1840  the  value  of  the  Linen  manufactured  in  Silesia  was 
estimated  at  £1,230,000.  The  principal  localities  of  the  Linen 
manufacture  of  Prussia  at  that  period  were  in  West  Prussia ; 
in  Silesia,  where  it  was,  until  near  that  date,  all  spun  and  woven 
by  hand,  the  weavers  living  in  small  houses  in  the  valleys  be- 
tween the  mountains,  but  machinery  for  spinning  had  then  been 
recently  introduced  ;  at  Tecklenburg,  and  at  Bielefeld  in  West- 


GERMAN  LINEN.  271 

;  and  in  some  other  places  in  the  Rhenish  provinces  which 
were  famed  for  Linen  of  fine  and  white  quality.  The  annual  con- 
sumption of  Linen  in  Prussia  was  then  estimated  at  nine  or  ten 
(IK  or  between  seven  and  eight  English  yards  to  each  individual. 
Bavaria  grew  about  15,000  or  20,000  tons  of  Flax  annually, 
and  she  manufactured  Linen  for  domestic  use,  which  was  all 
spun  and  woven  by  hand,  but  exported  little.  \Vtirteraburg,  in 
addition  to  the  home  supply,  made  some  Linens  and  damasks  of 
an  ordinary  dr«-i -ijition  for  export.  Thuringia  made  them 
chiefly  t*>r  domestic  use.  In  Hesse-Cassel  and  Hesse-Darmstadt 
Linens  were  very  generally  manufactured.  Saxony  was  once 
famed  for  Linen  fabrics,  both  for  home  use  and  for  export,  but 
although  the  trade  had  declined  in  1840,  the  goods  produced 
there  were  still  of  deserved  repute.  The  Hanse  Towns,  Lubeck, 
Hamburg,  and  Bremen  each  manufactured  small  quantities  of 
canvas,  but  they  have  long  been  rather  commercial  than  manu- 
facturing cities. 

In  Hanover,  Flax  was  a  most  important  article,  as  the  culti- 
vation and  manufacture  of  it  gave  employment  to  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  inhabitants.  It  was  chiefly  grown  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  quality  was  generally  of  a  very 
good  description,  and  well  adapted  for  spinning.  At  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  Linen  trade  there  was  at  its  greatest 
h«  iurht,  but  towards]  the  middle  of  the  eighthteenth  century  it 
full  off,  as  the  Scotch  and  Irish  Linens  drove  Hanoverian  goods 
from  the  West  Indies.  During  the  American  war  it  flourished 
again,  but,  in  1806,  Napoleon's  continental  system  nearly  annihi- 
lated it.  After  the  peace  the  trade  again  assumed  a  national 
importance,  but  it  has  never  reached  its  former  very  prosperous 
condition.  In  1843  the  value  of  Linen  and  Linen  yarn  ex- 
ported from  Hanover  was  £300,000.  Some  Hemp  was  grown 
in  Hanover,  but  it  was  not  of  very  superior  quality.  The  Osna- 
bruck  hempen  Linen,  known  as  Tecklenburgs,  was  bleached  in 
the  yarn,  and  it  took  a  good  colour.  The  quality  of  the  Linen 
made  in  Hanover  has  considerably  improved  of  late  years,  and 
as  improvement  progresses  the  trade  may  extend. 

Mr  Petrie,  in  his  report,  dated  Hanover,  July,  1863,  says  : — 
"  The  total  value  of  the  Linen  manufactures  of  Hanover  (exclu- 
siveof  the  export  of  Flax  and  Hempen  yarns),  in  so  far  as  they  ap- 


272  MODERN  LINEN. 

pear  in  the  returns  for  1861 ,  amounted  to  1,748,080  dollars,  about 
£262,212.  The  returns  of  the  Linen  industry  of  Hanover  are  only 
partial,  as  they  record  merely  what  is  brought  to  the  Govern- 
ment Linnen  Leg  gen,  which  are  offices  where  they  are  measured, 
stamped,  and  valued,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  their  sale,  but 
it  is  very  likely  that  a  considerable  quantity  is  sold  without 
passing  through  these  marts.  The  returns  for  1861  show  an 
increase  of  5624  pieces,  measuring  612,553  ells  of  Linen  cloth, 
value  98,310  dollars,  upon  1860.  The  three  previous  years  there 
had  been  a  constant  and  considerable  diminution.  The  chief  seats 
of  the  Linen  industry  in  Hanover,  are  Osnabruck,  Hildesheim, 
Luneburg,  and  Hamburg,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  is  carried 
on  by  hand-loom  weaving,  and  gives  employment  to  the  rural 
population  during  the  winter.  The  produce  was  formerly 
bought  up  for  export  to  North  and  South  America  and  the  West 
Indies,  but  they  now  find  their  way  to  other  states  of  the  Zol- 
verein,  where  their  excellent  and  durable  qualities  procure  them 
a  ready  sale." 

Keturn  of  the  quantities  and  value  of  Linen  cloths  taken  to 
the  Hanoverian  Linnen  Leggen  : — 

1857  Pieces    220,881          Ells    17,371,668        Value,  Dollars  1,684,849 

1858  „  197,396  „  15,629,934  „  1,505,375 

1859  „  183,232  „  14,660,177  „  1,409,210 

1860  „  174,382  „  13,797,457  „  1,321,113 

1861  „  180,006  „  14,410,010  „  1,419,443 

Flax  and  Hempen  yarns  exported  from  Hanover  and  Hil- 
desheim : — 

1857  Bundles  of  37,500  yards,     108,142        Value,  Dollars    200,452 

1858  „  98,276  „  194,666 

1859  „  83,785  „  172,343 

1860  „  71,505  „  129,575 

1861  „  68,491  „  123,152 

Mr  Corbet,  in  his  report,  dated  Frankfort,  31st  December, 
1862,  says : — "  Excellent  results  are  said  to  be  attributed  to  the 
establishment  of  a  school  for  weavers  in  the  district  of  Lauter- 
bach.  The  disproportionate  import-duty  of  two  rix-dollars 
charged  on  Jute  yarn,  and  of  twenty  silver  groschens  on  Jute 


GERMAN  LINEN.  273 

Ir.is  exercised  tin-  nnfavnnraliN'  interest  upon  botli  the 
spinning  and  weaving  interests  which  was  to  bo  expected ;  and 
its  eiltvt  was  especially  t'.-lt  in  tin?  district,  whero  the  demand  for 
sackcloth  is  large,  caused  by  the  export  of  corn  to  France  in 
1861.  There  are  numerous  Linen  manufacturing  establish- 
ments in  the  districts  of  Upper  Hesse." 

Mr  Baillie,  in  his  rei>ort,  dated  Stuttgardt,  31st  January, 
1863,  says : — "  The  Linen  market  has  for  a  time  b«nefitted 
by  tin  lii-h  price  of  cotton,  and  the  production  of  1861  con- 
siderably surpassed  that  of  1860.  This  manufacture,  which 
had  been  abandoned  of  late  years  in  some  places,  has  now 
been  resumed,  and  is  likely  to  attain  a  still  farther  extension  in 
Wiirtemberg,  if  not  interrupted  by  political  disturbances,  and 
if  peace  is  preserved.  An  establishment  has  lately  been  erected 
in  Laichingen  by  a  Stuttgardt  house,  in  which  about  sixty 
looms  for  fine  Linen  and  damask  are  now  worked.  Flax  turned 
out  well  in  most  districts.  The  cultivation  of  Flax  is  advancing 
in  WUrtemberg,  and  derives  additional  stimulus  from  the  cir- 
cumstances which  now  affect  the  cotton  industry.  The  attention 
of  agriculturists  has  latterly  been  specially  drawn  to  the  necessity 
of  a  change  in  the  system  hitherto  adopted  for  the  production  of 
Flax,  before  its  cultivation  can  be  extended  and  rendered  re- 
munerative. The  Flax  plant,  when  first  gathered,  contains  an 
average  of  12  to  15  per  cent,  of  pure  Flax  capable  of  serving  as 
raw  material  for  spinning  purposes,  and,  consequently,  until  the 
Flax  has  been  prepared  by  the  separation  of  its  worthless  parts, 
it  is  not  current  article  of  trade,  and  possesses  no  fixed  market 
price,  such  as  corn,  &c.  This  is  a  great  inconvenience  to  many 
farmers  in  every  Flax  growing  country  ;  and,  to  obviate  it,  estab- 
lishments have  been  started  for  purchasing  the  straw  from  the 
farmers  after  harvest,  preparing  the  fibre,  and  selling  the  Flax 
in  a  marketable  state  to  the  consumer.  Such  an  establishment 
has  been  started  at  Wiirtemberg,  and  it  is  expected  that  it  will 
lead  to  a  large  increase  to  the  growth  of  Flax,  and  be  highly 
beneficial  to  all  concerned,"  <fec. 

In  classification  of  the  abundance  and  quality  of  the  pro- 
duce of  the  land  in  Havana,  where  1  stands  for  super-ex- 
cellent ;  2,  excellent ;  3,  good  or  abundant ;  4,  middling ; 
and  5,  bad; — Flax  and  Hemp  in  1862  stood  thus:  quality, 


274 


MODERN  LINEN. 


2.34  ;    quantity,  2.90,   which  ranges  between  excellent   and 
abundant. 

The  following  are  the  number  of  looms  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  Linen  in  Prussia  in  the  years  named : — 


In  1822— Constantly  Employed, 

Employed  part  of  the  Year,  auxiliary  to  Farming,  . 


In  1831— Constantly  Employed, 
Auxiliary  to  Farming, 


In  1834— Constantly  Employed, 
Auxiliary  to  Farming, 


In  1838— Constantly  Employed, 
Auxiliary  to  Farming, 


Total, 


Total, 


Total, 


Total,   . 


33,169 
186,611 

219,780 

•  • 

35,668 
216,780 


252,448 

: 

36,879 
220,343 


257,222 

•••••••••• 

35,877 
246,294 

283,171 


Of  the  whole  number  of  looms,  in  1838,  256,772  were  in  the 
valleys  and  villages  of  the  country,  and  the  remainder  in  the  towns. 
In  1832,  Linen  yarns  to  the  extent  of  1700  tons,  and  in  1834  to 
the  extent  of  nearly  2000  tons,  were  exported  from  Silesia, 
chiefly  to  Bohemia,  where  they  were  woven  into  Linens,  and  re- 
imported  in  a  brown  state,  to  be  bleached  by  the  Silesian 
bleachers. 

The  following  statistics  of  the  Linen  trade  in  Prussia  refer  to 
the  year  1849  :— 

Flax-Spinning  Mills, 11,  with  38,729  spindles-2634  hands  employed. 

Tow      Do.        Do.,  4      „       7,396        „  380      „ 

Weaving  Linen  and  Mixed  Linen,  48,384  Looms— 56,037      „  „ 

Auxiliary        Do.,  Do.,        274,096        „         

Linen  Establishments,.., 274        „  5896      „  „ 

The  average  value  of  Flax  and  Hemp,  &c.,  annually  exported 
from  Memel  prior  to  the  Crimean  war  was  about  £200,000. 
In  1854  it  was  £2,129,137.  From  Konigsberg  it  rose  from 
£30,000  to  nearly  £400,000. 

In  1850  there  were  in  Prussia  38,254  first-class  looms,  and 


GERMAN  LINEN. 

second-class  looms,  being  coiiHiderably  fewer  than  in 
1849.  In  1850  there  wore  in  Saxony  480  mills  and  manufac- 
tories, of  which  35  were  large,  and  445  small. 

Mr  Campbell,  on  the  trade  of  Memel  for  1862,  says:— "The 
I  Miriness  done  in  Flax  was  of  a  very  fluctuating  nature.  Towards 
the  end  of  May  largo  arrivals  came  in  from  Russia  and  Poland, 
which  overstocked  the  market.  A  lively  demand  sprang  up  in 
lh«  Kn.irlUh  markets,  and  towards  October  stocks  were  cleared  off. 
4000  tons  were  exported  during  the  year.**  "It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  the  Flax  wluch  reached  our  market  was  the  pro<lu<  <• 
of  the  Russian  provinces  which  lie  immediately  in  our  vi.inif  \. 
Our  merchants  used  their  best  endeavours  to  obtain  parcels  of 
the  fine  Wilna  Flax,  which  formerly  found  its  way  to  Memel, 
but  they  were  unable  to  procure  it,  the  Eydlkuhu  railway 
having  conveyed  it  to  Konigsberg  during  the  months  our  market 
was  inaccessible." 

Consul  Huslet  in  his  report  on  the  trade  of  Konigsberg  for 
1861,  says :— "  The  quantity  of  the  Flax  crop  of  1860  was  below 
an  average,  and  the  quality  but  second  rate.  The  import  from 
Russia  was— in  1860,  4294  tons,  and  in  1861,  4156  tons.  The 
export  by  river  and  sea  was  insignificant,  but  that  by  railway  to 
Germany  was  very  important.  Prices  of  Oberland  crown  Flax 
began  with  £43  per  ton,  rose  to  £44,  and  went  down  again  to 
£43  10s.  The  Russian  crown  sorts  were  quoted  at  £44  to  £49 
according  to  quality,  but  sank  in  autuinn  to  £43  to  £46.  The 
•li-n  wnd  was  languid  in  general;  it  was  most  lively  from  th •• 
beginning  of  August  to  the  middle  of  September.  The  business 
in  Linen  is  declining  more  and  more,  and  no  export  worth  men- 
tioning/' The  consul,  in  his  report  of  the  trade  at  Konigsberg 
for  1862,  says  that  the  "  Linen  manufacture  in  the  province  of 
Prussia  is  rapidly  decreasing,  and  prices  are  almost  too  high  for 
exportation." 

Inl859,theLiiR-n  manufactures  of  Bielefeld  in  Rhine  Prussia, 
were  in  a  very  flourishing  condition,  and  extending  greatly. 

The  following  particulars  are  extracted  iVum  tin-  report  of  Mr 
Lowther,  Secretary  of  Legation  at  Berlin,  dated  20th  Jan.,  IN 
— "  The  export  of  Linen  from  Landcsheet  was  unfavourable  in 
1861,  owing  to  the  American  war,  and  the  bad  state  of  tin* 
money  market  in  Havana.  The  tra<l»-  with  Hamburg  was 
s  2 


276  MODERN  LINEN. 

small,  but  it  was  better  with  Leipzic  and  Saxony.  Large  quan- 
tities of  diaper  were  sent  to  Denmark,  and  also  strong  raw  Linen. 
In  1861  the  number  of  weaving  chairs  at  work  on  raw  linen 
were  1628,  on  dowlas  1478  ;  563  weavers  worked  on  their  own 
account  on  raw  Linen,  and  63  on  dowlas;  and  for  wages,  on 
raw  Linen,  774,  and  on  dowlas,  1171.  Male  and  female  assist- 
ants on  raw  Linen ;  weavers,  622,  winders,  813 ;  on  dowlas, 
727  weavers  and  848  winders.  The  number  of  wefts  and  pieces 
of  raw  Linen,  93,663,  and  dowlas,  57,297. 

"  Erfurt  contains  factories  for  Linen  goods,  and  bleachfields. 
Linen  is  only  made  in  small  quantities  in  Munster,  and  little  is 
now  exported  to  Holland.  In  Gorlitz  the  manufacture  of  Linen 
did  not  diminish  in  1861,  and,  notwithstanding  the  increased 
price  of  yarn,  there  was  no  want  of  employment. 

"  In  Breslau  the  American  war  had  a  depressing  effect  upon 
the  Linen  trade.  Silesia  takes  a  large  amount  of  Kussian  Hemp, 
and  small  quantities  from  Hungary.  Little  business  is  done  in 
Flax.  The  Linen  trade  of  Silesia  was  fully  employed,  and  the 
goods  found  a  ready  sale,  but  the  prices  were  low,  and  the 
quality  of  the  Flax  was  not  remarkably  good. 

"  Bielefeld,  Halle,  and  Wiedenbruck.—The  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce states  that  in  1861  as  in  1860  the  Linen  trade  had  not  a 
proper  impetus.  *  Flax  suffered  from  the  wet  spring  of  1861, 
but  not  so  much  as  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  Belgium,  and 
Holland,  and  the  prices  were  good  for  the  seller.  Tow  and 
Hemp  were  plentiful,  There  was  not  much  done  in  the  spin- 
neries,  hand  spinning  being  very  much  on  the  decrease.  One 
spinnery  in  Bielefeld  contains  8400  spindles,  and  occupied  600 
people,  and  sold  17,392  centners  (930  tons)  of  Flax  and  Tow. 
A  spinnery  in  Rnavensberg  set  up  3000  spindles,  in  addition  to 
the  16,000,  but  could  not  make  use  of  them  in  consequence  of 
the  want  of  work  people.  It  employed  about  1100  operatives, 
consumed  15,850  centners  (850  tons)  of  Flax.  22,850  centners 
(1220  tons)  of  Tow,  and  produced  about  360,252  bundles  of 
yarn.  The  Schonfeld  spinnery  employed  3000  spindles,  and 
consumed  12,000  centners  (650  tons)  of  Flax  and  Tow.'  Of 
foreign  machine  yarn  there  were  imported,  according  to  the  West- 
phalian  Custom  House  Eeport,  in  1861,  2911  centners  ;  in  1860, 
3114  centners;  and  in  1859,  5329  centners.  String-making 


GERMAN  LINEN. 


'277 


from  the  American  war.  There  was  but  little  difference 
in  tlu-  Linen  trade  of  1861  as  compared  with  1800  ;  it  iVrls  tin- 
want  of  a  proper  impulse  from  Russia.  According  to  official 
lists,  there  were  manufactured  of  Linen  cloth  and  diaper — at 
HMefeld,  35,618  pieces,  and  31,103  in  1860 ;  at  Hereford,  5099 
pieces,  and  4495  in  1860.  Total  40,717  pieces  in  1861,  and 
35,598  in  1860.  About  500  persons  are  employed  in  the  II  r 
ford  district  in  the  mixed  Linen  trade,  which  suffered  from  the 
high  price  of  twist 

"  Cologne. — The  Flax  harvest  having  been  good  the  Linen 
trade  was  active,  but  on  the  whole  the  Linen  trade  lias  dimin- 
ished within  the  last  fifteen  years  one-third." 

The  exports  of  Flax  and  codilla  from  Prussia  were  as  follows, 
viz  : — 


In  1835 
1840 
1845 
1850 
1851 
1852 
1889 
1854 
1855 


FLAX. 

Tons,   3,595 
4,920 


CODILLA. 


Tous, 


11,236 

5,222 

9,289 

11,781 

33,386 

54,080 


326 
l,40d 
1,042 
1,022 
1,097 

884 
1,028 
1,829 
1,525 


The  great  increase  during  1854  and  1855  was  due  to  tLc 
Crimean  war.  The  Russians  could  not  export  their  produce 
from  any  of  their  own  seaport  towns,  because  their  ports  were  all 
blockaded  ;  but  Prussia,  who  selfishly  stood  neutral  during  that 
war,  taking  advantage  of  her  geographical  position  and  her  ap- 
parent neutrality,  profited  largely  by  the  transit  of  Russian 
produce  through  the  country,  and  its  shipment  at  her  ports. 
With  the  termination  of  the  war  the  commerce  of  Russia  again 
reverted  to  its  old  channels,  and  her  produce  was  shipped  from 
IHT  own  ports.  Since  then  the  average  exports  of  Flax  and 
Codilla  from  Prussia  have  ranged  from  10,000  to  12,000  tons,  a 
great  part  of  which,  however,  is  still  grown  in  Russian  provinces 
adjoining  to  Prussia. 

lii  Prussia,  the  employment  of  children  in  textile  factories  is 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  a  law  of  the  9th  March  1839,  and  of 
another  of  10th  May  1853.  The  labour  of  children  under 


278 


MODEIIN  LINEN. 


twelve  years  of  age  is  prohibited,  and  when  that  age  has  been 
attained  they  must  produce,  prior  to  employment,  satisfactory 
evidence  of  school  attendance  and  acquirement.  From  twelve 
to  fourteen  they  must  not  work  more  than  six  hours  daily,  and 
they  must  attend  school  for  other  three  hours. 

The  statistics  of  Prussia,  with  regard  to  commerce  are  not 
given  separately,  but  are  included  in  the  Zollverein  calculation. 


IMPORTS  FOB  CONSUMPTION,  EXPORTS  AND  TRANSIT  TRADE  OF  THE  GERMANIC 

UNION. 


7,976      6,671 


Imports. 
1834.        1840. 

Linen  Yarns,  unbleached, 

centners,    ...         34,108    40,506 

Linen  Yarns,  bleached,  and 
dyed  thread, 

Packing  Linen  and  Sail- 
cloth, 

Unbleached  Linen  and 
Ticking,  . 

Bleached,  Dyed  and  Print- 
ed Ticking,  including 
Damasks,  Towelling, 
&c.,  .... 


Exports. 
•  1834.         1840. 

25,429  29,567 

6,348  2,140 

6,265    17,847       31,978  44,976 

5,619    39,571        15,059  14,257 


Transit. 
1834.          1840. 


226 
1,282 
5,716 
4,172 


920 
578 
221 
402 


821      1,528      101,720    93,396        13,739      4,418 


Flax,  Hemp,  and  Tow,  Cwts.  168,441  234,357      126,629  162,009 


1,* 


The  imports  and  exports  of  the  Zollverein  for  the  years  1850 
and  1853  were  as  follows  : — 


IMPORTS. 

1850. 

1853. 

Tons. 

£ 

Tons. 

£ 

Flax,  Hemp,  &c.  . 
Linen  Yarn, 

13,500 
3,350 

815,750 
427,750 

14,700 
5,340 

576,740 
585,990 

Linens, 

1,610 

358,390 

1,750 

442,220 

EXPORTS. 

Flax,  Hemp,  &c. 

13,900 

835,520 

13,700 

534,410 

Linen  Yarn  —hand  spun, 

6,600 

70,000 

2,900 

44,200 

Do.           mill  spun, 
Linens,    .... 

4,300 
5,700 

52,100 
2,222,100 

3,900 
6,100 

59,500 
2,264,400 

In  1859,  the  imports  into  the  Zollverein  of  Flax,  Hemp, 
&c.,  amounted  to  14,040  tons,  and  the  export  of  same  articles 
to  7480  tons. 


UUEMAN  LLNKN  279 

The  quant  iiy  of  Flax  and  Hemp  imported  into  the  Zolh 
in  1S61  was  343,969  centners  (about  18,430  tons),  and  ex- 
ported 269,750  centners  (14,450  tons.) 

Some  farther  details  regarding  the  imports  and  exports  of 
Linen  manufactures  from  and  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  Ger- 
many will  be  found  in  the  statistical  tables  given  in  various  parts 
of  this  volume.  They  do  not,  however,  shew  the  full  extent  of  the 
trade  with  Germany,  as  many  of  the  yarns  and  Linens  destined 
for  that  great  country  go  through  Holland,  Belgium,  <fec.,  and 
a  iv  included  in  the  exports  to  these  countries. 

Notwithstanding  the  large  extent  of  the  German  Linen  manu- 
facture, and  its  importance  to  this  country,  it  might  be  greatly 
increased  were  the  absurd  fiscal  restrictions  which  trammel  and 
seriously  injure  the  trade  removed,  or  judiciously  modified,  and 
the  unwise,  and  in  some  cases  prohibitory  duties  reduced.  Each 
Petty  State  has  customs  regulations,  scales  of  duties,  monies, 
weights,  and  measures  of  its  own,  which  mistify  and  confuse 
merchants  trading  with  them.  The  conservative  and  absolutist 
views  of  some  of  these  insignificant  States  hinder  the  liberal 
countries  of  Germany  from  assimilating  the  tariff  of  the  Zollve- 
rein  to  that  of  other  nations,  and  from  making  it  more  in  accord- 
ance with  the  free  trade  principles  of  the  age.  A  treaty  for  a  new 
and  more  liberal  tariff  with  France  has  been  in  progress  for 
some  time,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  fully  carried  througk  The 
government  of  this  country  should  not  rest  until  a  commercial 
treaty,  mutually  advantageous  to  Germany  and  to  the  United 
Kingdom,  is  concluded,  and  the  trade  thrown  open  to  the  people 
of  both  countries.  Were  this  done,  and  care  taken  to  have. 
Linens  and  Linen  yarns,  including  Jute  fabrics,  admitted  at 
a  moderate  rate  of  duty,  it  would  greatly  benefit  the  Linen  trade 
of  this  country,  and  be  a  boon  to  the  people  of  Germany. 

Consul  Wanl.  in  his  report  on  the  trade  of  Hamburg  for  1861, 
says : — "  The  Zollverein  expires  on  31st  December  1865.  Prussia 
will  then  have  her  hand  free  to  establish  as  liberal  a  customs 
tariff  as  she  pleases.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  she  will 
have  the  courage  to  risk  the  dissolution  of  the  Union,  and  pro- 
ceed alone,  if  necessary,  in  the  path  of  free  trade.  In  Prussia 
an«l  in  all  Northern  Germany,  public  opinion  sets  in  favour  of 
the  non-renewal  of  the  /«»ll\vrein  as  at  present  constituted. 


280  MODERN  LINEN. 

The  principle  of  the  decision  of  a  majority  is  desired  to  be  sub- 
stituted for  that  of  an  unanimity  of  votes."  Were  this  alteration 
effected,  the  carrying  of  a  liberal  tariff  by  the  more  enlightened 
of  the  German  States  would  follow  as  a  certain  result. 


GEEMAN      FAIES. 

IN  Germany  most  extensive  Fairs  or  markets  are  held  periodi- 
cally at  several  places,  where  merchandize  to  a  great  value 
changes  hands.  Some  of  the  Fairs  in  Germany  were  established 
more  than  1000  years  ago,  and  have  been  continued  ever  since- 
Many  goods  of  almost  every  description  are  taken  there  in  stock, 
but,  in  addition  to  these,  large  transations  are  entered  into  for 
delivery  afterwards.  Merchants  from  all  parts  of  Germany,  and 
also  from  all  the  neighbouring  countries,  Kussia,  France,  Britain, 
&c.,  &c.,  attend  at  some  of  these  Fairs.  In  1842,  about  750 
tons  of  Linen  goods,  at  the  average  price  of  200  thalers  per 
centner,  value  about  £500,000,  were  imported  for  sale  at  the 
Easter  Fair  at  Leipzig,  about  two-thirds  of  which  were  disposed 
of.  The  total  value  of  all  the  goods  brought  to  that  Fair  was 
estimated  at  £4,905,000,  and  the  money  which  changed  hands 
about  3J  millions  sterling,  an  astonishing  amount  to  turn  over 
during  the  few  days  the  Fair  lasts. 

The  privileges  which  from  time  to  time  have  been  granted  to 
the  merchants  attending  those  Fairs,  and  the  exemption  of  the 
goods  exposed  for  sale  from  many  taxes  which  are  levied  on 
similar  goods  at  other  times,  have  drawn  large  quantities  of 
merchandize  to  the  Fairs.  They  have  also  tended  to  stimulate 
commercial  enterprise,  and  to  foster  a  spirit  of  freedom  in  Ger- 
many and  in  other  countries,  and  they  have  helped  to  spread 
civilization  throughout  the  world. 

The  extraordinary  extent  of  business  still  transacted  annually 
at  the  Fairs  in  Germany  may  be  imagined  when  it  is  stated  that 
the  value  of  goods,  the  produce  or  manufacture  of  the  German 
Customs-Union,  imported  for  sale  at  the  Easter,  Michaelmas, 
and  New  Year's  Fairs  at  Leipzig  in  1856,  was  £11,095,272 ; 


GERMAN  LINEN.  281 

and  of  foreign  goods,  £4,045,893;  total,  £15,141,165.  Two- 
thirds  ni  the  German,  find  seventeen-twentieths  of  the  foreign 
goods  were  sold.  In  these  amounts  are  included  Linens  of 
( J«  1111,111  manufacture,  of  the  value  of  about  £600,000 ;  bleached 
Linens  of  British  manufacture,  the  whole  of  which  were  sold,  of 
tlic  value  of  £48,532,  and  Linen  yarn,  value  £20,122;  of  which 
£12,060  was  British  manufacture. 

In  the  Fairs  at  Leipiig  for  1 858  the  sales  of  Linens  were  quit. 
up  to  the  average,  and  l>riti>h  and  Irish  bleached  Linens  v, 
then  reported  to  be  gaining  ground  in  Germany.  British  Limn 
yarn  and  thread  were  also  in  good  demand,  and  a  large  business 
was  done  in  them.  In  1857  the  Linen  trade  at  the  Fairs  there 
rose  to  its  maximum,  having  been  about  one-sixth  more  than  in 
1856.  In  1859  it  had  fallen  about  one -third  from  the  point 
ivarhrd  in  1857,  but  in  1860  it  improved,  the  fall  that  year  not 
being  quite  one-fourth  below  the  highest  point.  In  1861  there 
was  a  slight  improvement  upon  the  previous  year.  This  falling 
off  in  the  imports  into  the  Fairs  did  not  arise  from  any  diminu- 
tion in  the  supply  from  this  country,  as  the  quantity  of  British 
made  goods  was  even  greater  than  before.  The  Germans  had 
shaken  public  confidence  in  their  manufactures  by  mixing  cot- 
ton with  their  Linens,  which  limited  the  sale  of  their  goods. 
There  was  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  Russians  and  Poles,  and 
in  some  others  who  usually  bought  largely  at  these  Fairs,  which 
prevented  sales  being  made  on  credit  in  1860,  and  this  tended 
to  restrict  business.  The  protective  system  of  the  German  Cus- 
toms-Union, which  checks  the  importation  of  foreign  Linen 
Yarn,  worked  unfavourably  for  the  Linen  manufacturers  and 
artizans  of  Germany,  and  did  injury  to  the  trade  at  the  Fairs. 
In  1860,  wages  was  so  low  as  2d  to  3d  for  a  day's  work  of 
sixteen  hours,  and  the  condition  of  the  spinners  by  hand  was 
even  worse.  In  1861  the  home  market  had  somewhat  improved, 
but  the  export  market  had  rather  declined,  or  more  business 
would  have  been  done. 

The  supply  of  damasks  at  the  Leipzig  Fair  of  1861,  particu- 
larly from  Gross  Schonau,  was  large,  but  the  business  in  that 
article,  which  is  one  of  luxury,  was  dull.  There  was  a  bri.-k 
demand  for  the  ready  -made  rli.the  -  and  shirts,  which  Bielefeld 
furnishes  in  large  quantities.  English  Linen  of  the  dearer 


282  MODERN  LINEN. 

qualities  had  a  fair  sale,  and  Irish  goods,  notwithstanding  the 
high  duties,  beat  the  native  articles  at  the  Fairs.  In  French 
and  Belgium  goods  there  was  no  business,  but  a  little  was  done 
in  Dutch  Linen.  Mill  spun  yarns  were  abundant  and  sold 
cheap,  whilst  hand-spun  yarn  maintained  a  higher  rate. 

The  quantity  of  Linens,  the  manufacture  of  the  States  com- 
posing the  German  Customs-Union,  brought  to  the  Leipzic 
Fairs  in  1862,  was  1470  tons,  and  the  sales  were  brisk.  Of 
foreign  Linen  yarns  the  quantity  at  the  Fairs  was  110  tons,  of 
which  about  65  tons,  value  £10,095,  were  sold.  About  70  tons 
of  British  bleached  Linen,  of  the  value  of  £32,468,  was  brought 
to  the  Fairs,  and  the  whole  was  sold. 


HANSEATIC    LEAGUE. 

THE  Hanseatic  League  was  established  in  1169  between  Ham- 
burg and  Lubeck,  and  they  were  shortly  after  joined  by  Bremen, 
and  subsequently  by  other  cities.  The  League  was  of  great 
service  in  establishing  and  consolidating  commerce  in  Germany 
and  the  north  of  Europe,  and  much  of  the  prosperity  of  these 
countries  is  owing  to  the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  Hanse 
Towns.  Their  sole  aim  and  object  was  the  cultivation  and 
extension  of  trade  and  manufactures,  of  which  Linen  formed 
one  of  the  most  important  articles,  and  the  strength  and 
energy  of  the  united  cities  enabled  the  League  to  overcome 
aggression,  oppression,  and  other  difficulties  which,  singly,  would 
have  crushed  the  whole  of  them. 

The  cities  forming  the  League  were  the  depots  of  merchandize 
from  all  quarters,  and  their  ships  navigated  every  sea.  At  one 
time  from  seventy  to  eighty  of  the  cities  in  Germany  were  mem- 
bers of  the  League,  which  was  then  powerful  enough  to  defend 
itself  against  all  aggressors.  They  planted  factories  in  London, 
Bruges,  Bergen,  and  Novgorod,  at  each  of  which  they  carried 
on  a  most  extensive  trade,  exchanging  the  surplus  commodities  of 
one  country  for  those  of  the  others,  and  vice  versa.  Through  their 
instrumentality  and  fostering  care  the  dense  forests  of  Sweden, 


«,I:KMAN  LINEN. 


280 


l.  &c.,  gave  place  to  smiling  fields  of  corn,  Flax,  and 
Hemp ;  and  the  inhabitants  exchanged  their  dresses  of  skin  for 
woven  tal.rirs  of  Linen  and  wool 

For  many  centuries  the  League  played  an  important  part  in 
the  commerce  of  Europe,  and  for  a  time  ruled  its  destinies  ;  but 
)>y  the  progress  of  events,  political  and  commercial,  it  was  shorn 
of  its  aiu-icnt  glory,  and  gradually  its  sun  waned,  and  set.  The 
Hanse  towns  now  only  comprise  the  three  cities  which  first  com- 
posed the  League,  and  of  these  Hamburg  alone  can  now  be  called 
a  great  city.  Its  trade  is  yet  enormous,  chiefly  because  it  is  the 
highway  to  a  great  part  of  Germany  and  central  Europe ;  and, 
true  to  its  former  instincts,  it  still  docs  extensively  in  Linen 
manufactures.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  imports  and 
'rts  of  Hamburg,  in  as  far  as  regards  the  Linen  trade,  for  the 
years  named : — 


1850. 

1856. 

IMPORTS. 

Tons. 

£ 

Tons. 

£ 

Flax,  Hemp,  &c., 
Linen  Yarn,  &e., 

1,170 
8,830 

43,400 
385,700 

2,430 
3,540 

87,200 
535,100 

Linen,  .... 

5,400 

800,500 

4,800 

754,900 

EXPORTS. 

Flax,  Hemp,  &c. 
Linen  Yarn, 

1,030 

L',450 

39,160 
353,400 

1,880 

ruio 

56,130 
536,40) 

Linens,          .        .        . 

3,310 

667,400 

3,830 

670,000 

Of  the  Linen  yarn  imported  into  Hamburg  in  18M),  five-sixths 
was  from  Great  Britain,  and  one-sixth  from  Altona.  In  1855 
about  three-fourths  the  quantity  was  from  Great  Britain,  and 
nearly  one-fourth  from  Altona,  Of  the  Linens  imported  nearly 
one-half  is  by  the  Berlin  Railway,  one-fifth  from  Great  Britain, 
one-sixth  from  Harburg,  and  the  balance  from  other  countries. 
Of  the  yarn  exported  from  Hamburg  fully  two-thirds  goes  by 
the  Berlin  Railway,  nearly  one-fourth  to  Altona,  and  the  balance 
to  other  countries.  Of  the  Linens  exported  in  1855  fully 
22  per  cent  went  to  Cuba,  16  per  cent,  to  Altona,  8£  per  c 
to  St  Thomas  and  Porto  Rico,  8  per  cent,  by  the  Kill  Railway, 
6J  per  cent,  to  Venezuela,  6J  per  cent,  by  the  Berlin  Railway, 
fully  4|  IKT  cent,  to  Norway,  nearly  4}  per  cent,  to  Brazil  fully 


284  MODERN   LINEN. 

4  per  cent,  to  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  and  the  balance 
to  various  other  countries.  In  1859  the  Linens  imported 
amounted  to  5725  tons,  of  the  value  of  £916,759.  In  1860  the 
imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  of  Linen  yarn  and  thread 
were  3820  tons,  value  £522,700,  and  Linen  and  Linen  manu- 
factures, value  £377,400.  The  exports  cannot  be  ascertained, 
because,  since  the  export  duty  was  abolished,  no  accounts,  official 
or  otherwise,  have  been  kept,  but  they  are  supposed  to  bear  the 
usual  proportion  to  the  imports,  which  are  steadily  on  the  in- 
crease. 


The  following  reports,  written  from  inspection,  on  the  yarns 
and  Linens  from  Germany  shown  in  the  International  Exhibition 
of  1862,  give  some  idea  of  the  state  of  excellence  to  which  the 
manufacture  has  attained  in  that  country. 

"  Hanover  exhibits  a  small  but  very  good  assortment  of  Flax, 
yarns,  and  Linens.  The  Flax  is  in  various  stages  of  preparation, 
strong,  of  very  fine  fibre,  and  really  excellent  quality.  The  yarns 
comprise  both  Flax  and  tow  qualities,  and  are  very  uniform  and 
well  spun.  The  Linens  are  of  various  qualities,  brown  and 
bleached,  comprising  sheetings,  shirtings,  damasks,  &c.  They 
are  well  manufactured,  highly  bleached,  the  damasks  of  pretty  de- 
signs, and  all  nicely  finished  and  tastefully  done  up." 

"  Prussia  takes  a  high  rank  among  Linen  producers,  and  makes 
an  excellent  appearance  in  the  Exhibition.  Numerous  speci- 
mens of  Flax  are  shown  from  different  districts  of  that  kingdom. 
It  is  well  cleaned  and  heckled,  and  some  of  it  of  very  fine 
quality.  The  yarns  are  shown  in  the  green  and  bleached  states, 
and  spun  from  both  Flax  and  Tow.  Many  of  the  samples  are  ad- 
mirably spun,  and  well  bleached.  Of  Linens  there  is  an  excel- 
lent display.  Flax-sailcloth  is  shown  in  two  or  three  qualities 
by  different  manufacturers.  The  quality  is  generally  very  good, 
and  some  of  the  specimens  are  highly  superior,  being  made  of 
excellent  material,  the  yarn  level  and  well  boiled,  and  the  cloth 
firmly  and  carefully  manufactured.  Sheetings,  shirtings,  ducks, 
diapers,  damasks,  and  other  Linens,  in  considerable  variety,  are 
exhibited.  Some  of  them  are  in  the  rough  or  loom  state,  and 
others  are  bleached  and  finished.  While  some  of  the  specimens 


AUSTRIAN   LINEN.  285 

'!•»  not  possess  great  merit,  others  arc  of  first-rate  excellence, 
and  not  in  any  respect  behind  the  wiino  class  of  goods  made  in 
tliis  country.  Some  of  the  damasks  are  of  splendid  designs, 
and  tin1  bleaching  is  remarkably  good  an<l  dear.  There  are 
some  very  pretty  specimens  of  indigo-dyed,  and  also  of  printed 
Linens.  Many  of  the  goods  are  highly  finished,  and  got  up 
with  tfood  taste.  The  display  is  altogether  very  credi table  to 
Prussia,  as  it  is  really  very  excellent." 

xony  lias  a  small  display  of  Linens,  comprising  sailcloth 
of  very  good  quality;  twilled  sacking  for  railway  covers,  <fcc., 
which  are  well  and  carefully  made  ;  dowlas,  bleached,  strip* ••!. 
ami  checked,  made  up  as  creas,  lestados,  &c.,  and  also  sheeting 
of  beautiful  colour  and  finish ;  and  diapers  and  damasks  of  pretty 
patterns  and  designs,  and  of  high  colour  and  excellent  quality." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AUSTRIAN      LINEN. 

AUSTRIA  has  been  long  famous  for  its  Linens,  but  it  has  never 
exported  either  yarn  or  Linens  largely,  the  manufacture  hitherto 
having  to  a  great  extent  been  confined  to  the  supply  of  its  local 
consumption.  The  high  duties  charged  on  the  importation  of 
these  articles  from  other  countries  have  been  almost  prohibitory, 
and  cumjiarativi -ly  few  foreign  Linens  have  found  their  way 
thither.  Both  the  exports  and  imports  of  Linens  have  therefore 
been  almost  at  zero  hitherto  The  quantity  of  Linen  yarn  im- 
ported is  also  much  smaller  than  might  have  been  expected,  con- 
sidering the  extent  of  the  population  of  the  country,  and  that 
many  of  them  are  a  Linen  wearing  people.  Details  of  the  im- 
ports and  exports  are  given  below. 

Austrian  Flanders  was  among  the  first  countries  which,  after 
the  dark  ages,  began  the  manufacture  of  Linens  in  W«->tern 
Europe  Austrian  Hainault  and  Brabant  were  also  famous  for 


286  MODERN   LINEN. 

their  Linen  manufactures  at  an  early  period,  the  city  of  Louvain 
alone  having,  in  the  14th  century,  employed  150,000  weavers  in 
its  Linen  and  woollen  manufactures.  These  countries  are  not 
now  numbered  among  the  dominions  of  Austria.  In  1764, 
Vienna  exported  Linens,  probably  by  the  Danube  and  also 
through  Trieste.  Among  the  exports  from  the  latter  port  in 
the  present  time  are  enumerated  Hemp,  Linen  manufactures, 
and  Linen  bags. 

Hemp  is  grown  largely,  and  of  good  quality,  in  Hungary, 
Transylvania,  &c.  Flax  is  cultivated  largely  in  many  districts 
of  Austria,  and  in  some  of  them  to  a  very  great  extent. 

The  quantity  of  Flax  and  Hemp  grown  in  the  Austrian 
Empire  in  1854  was  146,090  tons  ;  in  1859,  147,840  tons,  and 
it  is  computed  that  the  quantity  has  since  increased  to  about 
150,000  tons.  The  quantity  of  linseed  and  hempseed  raised  in 
1854  was  5,372,680  bushels ;  and  in  1859,  3,886,200  bushels. 

Mr  Fane,  Her  Majesty's  Secretary  of  the  Embassy  at  Vienna, 
in  his  report,  dated  31st  December  1862,  says  : — "  A  great  part 
of  the  manufacturing  industry  of  Austria  has  been  created  by 
artificial  means,  and  is  only  maintained  by  high  protective 
duties,  and  thus  the  community  pay  heavily  for  the  benefit  of 
the  limited  class  of  manufacturers." 

It  would  thus  appear  that  the  Linen  manufacture  of  Austria 
is  not  in  a  healthy  position.  The  Government  desires  that 
Austria  should  be  dependent  on  itself  alone  for  its  textile  fabrics, 
and,  while  governed  by  such  a  spirit,  neither  an  export  nor  an 
import  trade  of  any  extent  need  be  looked  for.  Such  a  doctrine 
may  do  in  an  absolute  country  like  Austria,  but  it  is  contrary  to 
the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  with  people  living  under  such  a  law 
great  progress  is  an  impossibility,  as  fair  competition  only  will 
stimulate  to  first-rate  excellence  in  any  branch  of  manufacture. 

The  Linen  manufactures  of  Austria  are  not  confined  to  any 
one  province  of  that  great  empire,  but  they  are  established 
throughout  nearly  all  of  them.  Kreusberg  of  Prague  says,  that 
in  1835  about  280,000  persons  were  employed  in  the  Linen 
manufacture,  including  those  in  regular  factories,  as  well  as 
those  in  farm  houses  partially  employed  in  husbandry,  but  pro- 
bably the  number  now  very  considerably  exceeds  this,  as  the 
trade  has  been  on  the  increase. 


AUSTRIAN     F.I' 

There  are  yet  few  large  Linen  spinning  or  weaving  establish- 
ments by  power  in  the  Austrian  Empire,  but  no  doubt  the 
manufacturers  of  that  country,  as  they  have  hitherto  done,  will 
endeavour  to  keep  pace  with  other  nations,  and  extend  with  the 
wants  of  the  trade. 

In  Austrian  Silesia,  there  are  spinning  mills  at  1-Yeu'Ienthal, 
Engelsberg,  and  Schonlinde  ;  and  the  first  two  places  also  make 
1 1  e  n  t  Linens.  Several  towns  in  Bohemia  have  spinning-n  i  i  1 1  s 
and  Linen  weaving  establishments,  such  as  Hohenelbe,  Mark- 
low,  Garten,  Rumburg,  Nachod,  Liebenau,  <fec.  Linens  are  also 
made  at  Liebau,  Sternberg,  <kc.,  in  Moravia,  in  Vienna,  and 
in  many  other  places  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  and,  from  the 
great  quantity  of  Flax  grown,  the  total  Linen  manufactures  of 
the  country  must  be  very  large,  and  of  the  value  of  more  than  ten 
millions  sterling  per  annum.  Comparatively  few  of  the  Linens 
made  in  Austria  are  exported,  their  domestic  consumption 
must  therefore  be  enormous.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
Linen  manufacture  of  Austria  is  still  carried  on  in  the  primi- 
tive method  common  to  Scotland  last  century.  The  Flax 
is  grown  by  small  farmers,  spun  on  the  common  hand  wheel  by 
their  wives  and  daughters  during  the  winter,  and  woven  in  the 
houses  of  the  peasants,  partly  by  those  who  follow  weaving  as  a 
trade,  but  chiefly  by  hinds  when  not  engaged  in  field  work. 

Linens  when  imported  into  Austria,  but  not  including  canvas 
or  Linen  tliread  and  yarns,  have  to  be  entered  under  special 
permit,  so  that  the  Government  may  have  the  power  of  prohi- 
bit ing  their  importation  altogether,  if  so  inclined. 

Flax  and  Hemp  passing  through  Austria  pay  a  transit  duty 
of  2  kreutzers  (or  the  15th  part  of  a  shilling)  per  centner  of 
123J  Ib.  Manufactures  of  Linen  and  Hemp,  27  kreutzers 
(10 jd)  per  centn 

The  imports  and  exports  of  Flaxen  fibres  and  manufactures 
in  the  years  1856  to  1859  inclusive,  were  as  follows  : — 

IMPORTS. 

is:-;.               1867.               ls.%s.  1859. 

Flax,  Hemp,  Manilla  \  TOM,       11,375              1<>,<>:<7             10.676  '.'..ar, 

Hm,!-,  xc.t          f  Value,  L  309,438       L.289,392  L.385,438  L.347,372 


T.        v                        (  Tons,         2,276  2.1M1  2>l.i.~»               1,600 

»rn,     .     .     .{  Value,  L  193,339  L.190,720  L.269321  L.  145,071 

Linen  Manufacture*,  )  Tona,            -jr.2  237  175                   l.v.» 

Lace,  &c.,          f  Value,     L.57,429  L.68,336  L.61,915  L.33,966 


MODERN  LINEN. 


EXPORTS. 
1856.  1857.  1868.  1859. 


inen  Yam,     .     .    .{ 


Linen 


In  1860  and  1861  the  imports  and  exports  of  yarns  and 
woven  fabrics,  as  given  by  Mr  Fane,  show  an  increase  on  the 
total  ;  but  as  the  report  does  not  give  the  quantities  of  each 
textile  fabric  separately,  it  is  uncertain  what  progress  may  have 
been  made  in  Linen  yarns  or  Linens. 

The  quantity  and  value  of  the  Flax  and  Hemp,  and  of  the 
Linen  manufactures,  conveyed  in  transit  through  the  Austrian 
Empire  for  the  same  years,  were  — 

1856.  1857.  1858.  1859. 

Flax  and  Hemp,    .     {    ^'e,  L.I^70        J&        i,&        j.  & 
Linen  Manufactures,  {   ^e,  L  Kl%        L.55&        L.&        L.18?!80 


In  1850  there  were  1500  Flax  spinning  mills  and  manufac- 
tories in  Austria,  some  of  them  of  large  and  others  of  small 
size,  and  since  then  they  have  been  largely  increased,  both  in 
number  and  extent. 

Some  excellent  specimens  of  Austrian  Linen  were  shown  in 
the  Great  Exhibition  of  1862,  and  the  following  short  report, 
written  after  an  inspection  of  the  goods,  conveys  some  idea  of 
the  attainments  of  the  Linen  manufacturers  in  Austria  at  that 
period.  From  various  causes  Great  Britain  has  little  to  fear 
from  the  competition  of  that  Empire  ;  still,  even  the  most  ad- 
vanced of  the  manufacturers  of  Leeds,  Belfast,  or  Dundee,  may 
learn  something  from  the  study  of  Austrian  Linens. 

"  A  considerable  quantity  of  Flax  yarn  and  Linens,  spun  and 
manufactured  chiefly  in  Bohemia  and  Silesia,  are  shown  in  the 
Exhibition.  The  yarns  are  exhibited  in  the  natural,  bleached, 
and  dyed  states.  Borne  of  the  specimens  are  admirably  spun, 
and  would  do  no  discredit  to  the  mills  of  Dundee,  Leeds,  or 
Belfast.  The  art  of  bleaching  and  dyeing  is  well  known  in 
Bohemia  and  Silesia,  the  colours  produced  being  first-class. 
The  Linens  comprise  sheetings,  fine  shirtings,  diapers,  damasks. 


DUTCH    LINEN.  280 

find  various  other  fabrics.  They  are  manufactured  with  much 
e.-ire,  the  cloth  being  well  driven  up  and  uniform  throughout, 
and  the  selvages  neatly  formed.  Some  of  the  goods  are  of  com- 
mon quality,  and  some  of  them  of  great  fineness.  The  bleach- 
ing and  finish  of  the  finer  goods  are  highly  commendable,  and 
contrast  very  favourably  with  similar  goods  made  in  tin's  country. 
Some  beautiful  damask  curtains  and  table  Linens  are  shown,  of 
very  rich  and  lovely  designs,  and  of  most  superior  quality.  The 
Linens  exhibited  in  the  Austrian  department  are  possessed  of 
much  excellence,  and  do  great  honour  to  the  various  houses  pro- 
ducing them,  as  well  as  to  the  sections  of  that  empire  in  which 
they  ore  made." 


CHAPTER  V. 

DUTCH      LINEN. 

HOLLAND,  although  a  small  and  naturally  a  poor  country,  a  land 
of  sand  hardly  recovered  from  the  ocean,  was  early  celebrated 
for  her  trade  and  commerce,  and  for  the  great  wealth  which 
these  brought  her  people.  The  indomitable  love  of  the  Flem- 
ings and  Dutch  for  civil  and  religious  liberty,  and  consequent 
hatred  of  tyranny  and  oppression,  made  them  both  feared  and 
respected  by  other  nations.  They  have  ever  been  famed  for  in- 
dustry and  frugality,  and  for  great  perseverance  in  the  pursuit 
of  gain.  The  wealth,  once  acquired,  was  handed  down  from  sire 
to  son,  increasing  as  it  rolled  on,  until  in  many  cases  it  attained 
colossal  proportions.  Their  liberal  and  enlightened  commercial 
policy  enabled  them  to  make  the  most  of  the  vast  capital  at 
their  disposal,  until  in  time  they  became  the  richest  people  in 
Europe. 

The  history  of  Holland  in  the  middle  ages  admirably  exem- 
T 


290  MODERN  LINEN. 

plifies  the  advantages  which  flow  from  commercial  freedom,  and 
from  the  absence  of  all  restrictions  on  trade.  Trade  to  be  pros- 
perous must  be  free,  and  if  free,  it  requires  no  protection,  no 
fostering  care,  no  adventitious  aid.  The  love  of  gain  is  sufficient 
stimulus  to  urge  the  merchant  on  to  success,  just  as  the  desire 
for  fame  impels  the  warrior  to  deeds  of  glory.  One  country 
possesses  a  superfluity  of  some  commodities,  and  another  of 
others,  the  interchange  of  which  is  advantageous  to  both.  The 
trader,  if  let  alone,  speedily  discovers  this,  and  becomes  the 
medium  of  exchange,  to  the  benefit  of  both  countries,  and  to 
his  own  profit.  In  Holland,  liberty  and  commerce  went  hand 
in  hand,  until  her  cities  became  the  depots  of  the  world,  and  all 
nations  were  her  customers. 

The  Flemings  enjoyed  commercial  freedom  before  the  Dutch, 
and  were  justly  jealous  of  their  privileges.  When  Edward  I.  of 
England  levied  tolls  and  impositions  on  foreign  merchants,  ves- 
sels and  goods,  he  solicited  Robert,  Earl  of  Flanders,  to  prohibit 
all  trade  with  the  Scots.  The  Earl  replied  "  Our  country  of 
Flanders  is  common  to  all  the  world,  and  every  person  finds  in 
it  free  admission."  The  reply  is  what  might  be  expected 
from,  and  would  be  worthy  of,  Britain  in  the  present  day.  It  re- 
flects immortal  honour  on  the  noble  Earl  who  spoke  it. 

Austrian  Flanders  was  perhaps  the  earliest  of  any  country, 
without  the  Mediterranean,  which  began  the  manufacture  of 
Linens  on  a  large  scale,  after  the  dark  ages  which  so  long  bound 
Europe  as  it  were  in  a  gloomy  prison. 

Before  1253  the  Linen  manufacture  had  been  carried  to  great 
perfection  in  Flanders,  and  the  material  employed  was  of  the 
finest  quality.  Many  of  the  goods  made  were  exported  to  Eng- 
land and  to  other  countries.  By  the  vast  woollen  and  Linen 
manufactures  of  Flanders  and  Brabant,  these  countries  acquired 
great  commercial  importance  and  much  wealth  during  the  13th 
century,  and  their  ports  were  crowded  with  shipping  both  of 
their  own  and  of  other  countries. 

The  city  of  Bruges,  which  had  been  founded  in  760,  gradually 
rose  to  great  importance.  In  1385  it  attained  the  zenith  of  its  pros- 
perity, having  been  at  that  period  the  centre  of  all  the  commerce 
of  Christendom.  It  then  exported  Linens  largely,  and  in  1437 
it  was  still  noted  for  its  export  of  fine  Linen.  About  1487  much 


DUTCH  I-INi  2'Jl 

of  its  commerce  was  removed  to  Dort,  and  thence  soon  after  to 
Antwerp,  which  thru  began  tobethu  emporium  of  Kun.pe.  Tho 
cause  was  a  dispute  between  the  inhabitants  ami  the  Kmprror, 
who,  with  the  assistance  of  Antwerp  and  Amsterdam,  blocked  up 
Sliiyce,  its  proper  harbour,  and  so  destroyed  its  commerce. 

The  city  of  Ypres  in  Flanders  was  built  in  9GO,  and  has  been 
long  famous  for  its  table  Linen  manufacture,  commonly  called 
Diaper  (i.e.)  Cloth  D' Ypres.  Lou  vain,  in  Austrian  Brabant, 
was  very  celebrated  for  its  woollen  and  Linen  manui.u -tun •<• 
which,  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century,  maintained  150,000 
weavers. 

De  Witt  says,  "  the  province  of  Holland  enjoyed  little  trade  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  the  14th  century,  because  its  feudal  lords 
oppressed  and  overawed  the  people,  and  would  not  allow  the 
citizens  to  wall  their  towns  for  security,  as  was  the  case  then 
with  Haarlem,  Amsterdam,"  &c.  This  statement  shows  the 
advantages  which  the  trade  of  Holland  derived  from  its  munici- 
pal cities,  and  commerce  in  other  lands  has  also  benefited  by  the 
protection  they  afforded.  They  were  a  check  and  safeguard  against 
the  extortions  of  the  barons,  and  enabled  the  people  to  prosecute 
their  trade  in  peace.  He  also  says  that  "  in  the  14th  century  the 
cloth  halls  of  the  Netherland  cities,  by  making  restrictive  laws, 
under  pretence  of  preventing  deceit  by  the  debasing  of  manufac- 
tures, drove  much  of  the  weaving  trade  into  the  villages,  from 
which  it  was  again  driven  by  the  wars  between  France  and  Flan- 
ders to  Lou  vain  and  other  towns  in  Brabant."  And  "  that  the 
Brabanters,  in  turn,  no  wiser  than  the  Flemings,  by  the  same 
means  drove  many  of  their  weavers  into  England." 

About  the  10th  century  the  woollen  cloth  manufactures  of  the 
Flemings  had  gained  a  high  name  in  Britain  and  in  Germany, 
and  large  quantities  of  them  were  exported  in  exchange  for 
the  products  of  these  lands.  About  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
century,  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth  was  introduced  into 
Holland  by  weavers  from  Brabant  and  Flanders,  and  before  the 
end  of  that  century  the  towns  of  Holland  had  become  strong  and 
had  acquired  great  power  and  influence.  For  several  centuries 
thereafter  the  Dutch  and  FlemNh  looms  clothed  the  greater  part 
of  Europe,  and  it  was  from  them  that  Britain  and  other  countries 
learned  the  art  of  manufacturing  textile  fabrics. 
T  2 


292  MODERN  LINEN. 

For  a  long  period  the  Dutch  imported  the  raw  material  for 
their  manufactures,  spun  and  weaved  it,  and  returned  the  cloth 
to  the  countries  whence  it  was  received,  in  the  same  way  as  is 
done  in  Britain  at  the  present  day.  In  that  early  period  they 
had  no  competitors  for  their  woven  fabrics,  consequently  they 
had  the  control  of  the  various  markets  of  the  world,  and  could 
command  their  own  terms.  It  may  therefore  be  imagined  that 
their  profits  were  handsome,  and  the  trade  well  worth  culti- 
vating. Louis  Guiciardini,  in  his  description  of  the  Nether- 
lands in  1560,  says : — "  It  has  no  wine  growing  in  it,  yet  they 
have  plenty  of  that  fine  liquor  ;  nor  Flax  of  their  own  growth, 
yet  they  make  the  finest  Linen  of  any  in  the  universe.  They 
have  no  wool,  either  in  good  quality  or  quantity,  yet  make  infi- 
nite quantities  of  good  cloths.  They  grow  no  timber,  yet  they 
use  more  for  ships,  dykes,  &c.,  than  perhaps  all  the  rest  of  Europe 
together."  Strong  testimony  of  their  industry  and  commercial  en- 
terprise. 

The  same  writer  says : — "  Antwerp  was  then  the  great  em- 
porium of  the  world,  400  or  500  ships  being  in  the  harbour  in 
one  day,  and  merchants  from  the  principal  nations  of  the  world 
resided  there."  In  enumerating  the  exports,  he  says  they  sent 
Linen,  tapestry,  &c.,  toKome  ;  to  Ancona,  English  and  Flemish 
cloths,  stuffs,  Linen,  tapestry,  &c. ;  to  Bologna,  Naples,  and 
Sicily,  the  same ;  to  Milan,  in  addition  to  these  goods,  they  sent 
English  and  Spanish  "  woolinens"  ?  The  same  goods  were  ex- 
ported to  Florence,  Genoa,  &c.,  &c.  Antwerp  also  exported  Flax, 
&c.,  to  Italy.  To  Germany  she  exported  a  very  large  quantity 
of  Linens,  &c.  To  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Eastland, 
Livonia,  and  Poland,  Linens,  &c.  She  imported  from  these 
countries,  particularly  Eastland  and  Poland,  Flax,  &c.,  to  a 
large  amount.  To  France  she  exported  great  quantities  of  fine 
Linens,  getting  back  in  return  immense  quantities  of  canvas  and 
strong  Linens  from  Bretagne  and  Normandy.  To  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  she  exported  Linens.  He  estimated  the 
exports  and  imports  to  and  from  England  at  twenty-four  million 
guilders,  or  £2,400,000.  To  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Barbary, 
Linens  and  Flax  thread,"  &c.,  &c. 

He  also  says  that  "  Bois-le-duc  was  then  the  seat  of  a  great 
many  manufactures,  among  others  20,000  pieces  of  Linen, 


M   K  11   LINEN. 

worth,  on  an  average,  ten  crowns  each,  were  made  annually."  At 
Novelle  (five  leagues  from  Brussels),  he  says  "  they  made  great 
quantities  of  very  fine  cambric,  and  also  at  Cambray,  which  ori- 
ginally gave  its  name  to  that  fine  manufacture.  At  Courtenay  they 
made  fine  Linen  fur  the  tal>lc.  At  T«-«  1.  Linen  cluth  and  buck- 
ram. At  Ghent,  the  cloth  named  from  that  city  ( .In miiu,  in 
immense  quantities,  also  fine  Linen  of  many  sorts,  woollen  also, 
and  tapestries,  fustians,  buckrams,"  <fcc. 

Of  Amsterdam,  Guiciardini  says  they  have  no  Flax  of  their 
own  growth,  yet  make  the  finest  Linen  in  the  universe.  This 
may  be  true,  but  in  1560  great  quantities  of  Flax  were  raised 
in  some  parts  of  Holland. 

Leyden  was  early  distinguished  for  its  woollen  manufactin 
and  in  order  to  maintain  the  reputation  of  Leyden  cloths  they 
were,  in  1482  subjected  to  inspection  by  the  Government  autho- 
rities,  something  in  the  same  way  as  Linens  were  in  Scotland  at 
a  much  later  period. 

In  1570  the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  against  Spain  began. 
In  1585  the  sacking  of  Antwerp  by  the  Spanish  soldiery,  drove 
the  trade  of  that  city,  and  of  the  manufactures  of  Brabant  and 
Flanders,  into  England  and  Holland.  Many  of  the  woollen 
manufacturers  settled  at  Leyden ;  the  Linen  spinners  and  wea- 
vers at  Haarlem  and  Amsterdam  ;  and  more  than  one-third  of 
those  who  worked  and  traded  in  serges,  stockings,  flannels,  taf- 
fetas, silks,  and  damasks  fled  to  England.  Gerard  Malynes 
says  that  four -fifths  of  the  merchandize  sold  in  Antwerp,  before 
its  sacking  by  the  Duke  of  Parma  in  1585,  were  English. 

In  1595  the  Dutch  began  to  trade  with  India,  and  in  1601  they 
opened  up  a  trade  with  Japan,  sending  out  Linens,  woollen  cloths, 
<fcc. ;  but,  by  the  end  of  the  century,  the  trade  was  almost  annihi- 
lated. In  a  manuscript,  submitted  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
shortly  before  his  execution,  to  James  I.,  the  great  extent  of  the 
trade  ot  Holland  is  graphically  detailed,  and  had  this  monarch 
carried  out  the  recommendations  of  that  great  man,  they  would 
have  advanced  the  prosperity  of  Great  Britain  in  a  wonderful 
degree,  but  they  were  disregarded. 

In  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  although  the  Duich  had 
no  native  commodities  of  their  own,  having  imported  their  Flax, 
Hemp,  &c.,  yet  their  commerce  was  greater  than  all  the  rest  of 


294  MODERN  LINEN. 

Europe  together.  This  prosperity  was  increased  by  the  great 
influx  of  men  from  Germany,  France,  and  England,  whence 
they  were  driven  by  religious  persecutions,  and  civil  wars.  The 
security  afforded  by  the  Government  of  Holland  drew  many  of 
the  best  people  thither,  and  as  they  had  to  work  for  their  sus- 
tenance, it  added  to  the  general  opulence.  Each  town  had  then 
its  own  particular  commerce  or  staple,  which  they  brought  to 
the  greatest  height  of  improvement.  Haarlem  had  the  manu- 
facture of  Linen,  mixed  stuffs,  and  flowers. 

Holland  was  not,  however,  destined  to  continue  a  great  manu- 
facturing country.  The  dearness  of  labour,  high  taxes,  and 
circumstances  peculiar  to  the  country,  were  unfavourable  to 
the  production  of  woven  fabrics.  They  owed  their  manufactur- 
ing prosperity  to  the  commotions  and  persecutions  in  other 
lands,  particularly  in  France,  Spain,  and  Flanders.  As  more 
peaceful  times  dawned  in  England  and  France,  manufactures, 
aided  by  improved  machinery,  took  root  and  prospered  there, 
As  manufactures  rose  in  these  countries,  they  declined  in  Hol- 
land, until  at  last  they  only  retained  those  which  were  not 
exposed  to  the  competition  of  other  nations.  It  is  thus  evident 
that  Holland  was  more  adapted  by  position,  and  by  the  commer- 
cial spirit  of  her  citizens,  for  being  a  trading,  rather  than  a  manu- 
facturing country. 

The  wars  with  Britain  and  other  countries,  which  followed  the 
season  of  prosperity  in  the  Netherlands,  did  irreparable  injury 
to  her  manufactures.  These  wars  interrupted  trade,  caused 
heavy  losses  by  captures  at  sea  and  otherwise,  and  greatly  increased 
taxation.  Voltaire  says,  "  it  is  war  alone  that  improvishes  a 
nation,"  and  certainly  war  all  but  ruined  the  Netherlands.  Her 
trade  declined,  her  capital  had  to  seek  employment  abroad,  and 
it  nourished  the  growing  trade  of  those  countries  in  which  it  was 
invested,  and  enabled  them  to  become  rivals  to  the  Dutch  them- 
selves. 

In  1765  there  was  exported  from  Rotterdam  2500  to  2700 
tons  of  Flax,  and  17,000  hogsheads  of  Flax  seed,  value  about 
50s  each,  or  £42,500 ;  and  Dort  exported  from  500  to  600 
tons  of  Flax.  At  this  time  English  printed  Linens  and  calicoes, 
being  the  common  summer  dress  in  Holland,  were  in  every  shop 
in  the  country,  and  no  attempts  to  imitate  them  had  hitherto  sue- 


DUTCH  LIKEN.  295 

ceeded.  At  this  period  Linens  were  exported  from  the  province 
of  llullaml.  Haarlem  (ami  l»l«-aehing  Linens),  Amsterdam,  and 
1'Yi^hm.l.  tli«-  latter  being  specially  notr.l  fur  its  Linens,  then  the 
finest  in  Europe. 

In  the  palmy  days  of  Holland  its  Linen  trade  was  large  and 
important,  not  only  supplying  the  home  demand,  hut  affording, 
as  ahove  narrated,  great  quantities  fur  export  to  other  countries. 
It  declined  with  the  general  trade  of  the  country,  wliich  in  1795 
had  hecorne  completely  paralyzed.  After  the  peace  of  1815  the 
Linen  trade  began  to  revive,  and  it  subsequently  increased  to 
a  very  important  extent,  especially  in  Flanders. 

The  separation  of  Belgium  from  Holland,  took  place  on  15th 
November,  1831.  The  two  countries  have  since  been  distinct, 
and  a  short  notice  of  Belgium,  subsequent  to  the  separation, 
will  he  given  in  another  chapter. 

There  are  still  some  Linens  manufactured  in  Haarlem,  but 
the  quantity  is  unimportant,  the  bleaching  of  Linens  is,  however> 
still  extensively  carried  on.  In  some  other  places  a  few  are 
made,  chiefly  for  home  consumption.  In  Friesland  a  large 
quantity  of  superior  Flax  is  grown,  and  at  Leeuwarden  and 
Harlingen  canvas  and  Linen  are  manufactured,  but  not  on  a  largo 
scale.  Some  Linens  are  also  made  in  Zwolle.  The  province  of 
North  Brabant  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable  Linen  trade,  chiefly 
for  home  use.  It  is  made  by  the  small  farmers  when  not  en- 
gaged in  field  labour,  the  yarn  being  spun  by  their  wives  and 
da  11 -liters,  by  the  common  hand -wheel,  and  from  their  own  Flax. 
Bois-le-duc,  in  that  province,  has  long  lost  its  former  celebrity 
for  Linens,  but  a  considerable  number  of  the  peasants  are  still  en- 
gaged in  Linen  weaving  in  their  own  cottages,  and  they  bring  the 
produce  of  their  labour  to  an  annual  fair,  which  is  held  in  that 
town  on  St  John's  day. 

Holland  not  being  now  a  manufacturing  country,  domes- 
tic fabrics  receive  little  protection  from  its  customs'  tariff. 
From  and  after  1st  November,  1862,  Linen  and  Jute  yarns 
wore  admitted  tree  of  duty.  Sail  twine  pays  f.  1.00  per  100 
Ibs.  Linen  and  all  manufactures  of  Flax,  Ilenq..  and  Tow, 
pay  ."»  J..T  tvnt.  ail  valorum,  excepting  sail-cloth,  which  pays 
f.  0.30  per  roll  of  42  ells,  and  when  beyond  that  length,  GO 
cents.  These  particulars  are  taken  from  "  The  Tariff  for  the 


296  MODERN  LINEN. 

Netherlands,"  kindly  suppled  by  Mr  Thorns,  the  Vice  Consul 
at  Dundee.  Linens  can  therefore  be  imported  into  Holland  at  a 
lower  price  than  they  can  be  produced  there,  and,  as  will  be 
seen  by  the  Board  of  Trade  returns,  given  in  another  portion  of 
this  volume,  the  Dutch  are  very  good  customers  to  the  United 
Kingdom. 

In  1841  the  value  of  Linen  yarn  and  Linens  imported,  ex- 
ported, and  sent  through  Holland,  was  as  follows : — 

YARNS.  IMPORTS.    EXPORTS.    TRANSIT. 

Yarns,  raw £83,300       £570         £43,300 

Imports  f  ths  from  England,  Transit  almost  all 

to  Germany. 

Yarns  for  Sewing    .  25,000          500  6,250 

Imports  §ds  from  England,   Transit  fths  to 

Germany. 

Yarns  for  Weaving,  .  .  23,000          850  8,300 

Imports  £th  from   England,    Transit  all  to 

Germany. 

Manuf actures  of  Flax,  &c.,  Kaw  and  bleached,     166,500        2,100  8,300 

Imports  nearly  all  from  Germany,  Exports  and 

Transit  to  various  countries. 
Do.     Dyed  and  Printed,       .  .  .  16,650          ...  850 

Imports  |  ths  from  Germany. 
Do.     Table  and  Napkin  Cloths,  white  or  damask,    12,500          166  250 

Imports  almost  all  from  Germany. 
Do.    Bed  Ticks.        ....  11,000         ...  450 

Some  other  manufactures  of  Flax,  Hemp,  &c.,  came  from  Ger- 
many, Russia,  England,  &c.,  and  were  chiefly  used  for  home  con- 
sumption. There  were  then  no  mills  for  spinning  Linen  yarns, 
or  Linen  weaving-factories  in  Holland,  excepting  a  few  in 
Overyssel  and  North  Brabant,  and  they  were  not  extensive. 

The  very  large  quantities  of  Jute  yarn  exported  from  the 
United  Kingdom  (chiefly  from  Dundee),  to  Holland,  is  wrought 
up  into  cotton  and  coffee  bagging  and  other  fabrics,  to  a  great 
extent  by  those  confined  in  the  prisons  and  houses  of  correction. 
The  bulk  of  it  is  sent  out  to  the  colonial  possessions  of  the 
Dutch  in  the  East  Indies,  The  quantity  required  for  this  pur- 
pose is  very  great,  and  likely  to  increase.  In  1858  there  was 
imported  into  Holland  1,145,600  bags  of  East  India,  and  17,600 
bags  of  West  India  coffee,  of  which  the  Netherland  Trading 
Company  imported  1,120,900  bags.  The  value  of  the  ordinary 
Linen  goods  exported  to  Java  and  the  other  Dutch  possessions 


DUTCH  LIWKN. 


297 


in  the  Eastern  Archcpclago  IB  62  JMT  <••  nt.  of  the  whole  export ; 
\vli lie  the  value  of  the  imports  in  this  branch  is  nearly  double 
tl  iat  of  the  exports, 

Hitherto  thriv  had  been  no  law  in  Holland  akin  to  the  Fac- 
tory Act  of  this  country,  but  recent  enquiries  have  been  made 
by  some  parties  in  that  country  regarding  the  working  of  the 
Art  lu-iv,  with  the  view  of  its  introduction  there, 

In  1862  men  and  boys  employed  at  weaving  wrought 
10  hours  a  day  as  a  minimum,  to  14  hours  as  a  maximum ; 
women  and  girls,  10  to  13  ;  and  children,  9 J  to  13  hours.  Men, 
lads,  women,  girls,  and  children,  at  spinning,  10  to  13  hours  ; 
less  about  2}  hours  a-day  for  meals.  Wages — men,  lOd  to  Is  8d 
a-day  ;  women,  7d  to  Is  8d ;  lads,  5d  to  Is  8d  ;  girls  and  chil- 
dren, 2J  to  8d. 

The  imports  into  and  exports  from  Holland  for  the  years 
noted,  were  as  follows :  — 


IMPORTS. 


1850. 


Total  Imports 

Entered  for 

Total 

Entered 

including 

Home  Con- 

Imports. 

for  Con- 

Transit. 

sumption. 

sumption. 

Linen  Yarn,  Raw, 

L.  137,  362 

L.  71,623 

L.  94,942 

L.  64,456 

Do.,  Other  kinds, 

Tons  172 

Tons  105 

Tons  188 

Tons  102 

Linens. 

L.  154,668 

L.137,566 

L.  156,842 

L.  136,476 

Sackcloth,     . 

Ps.  7390 

Ps.  7220 

Ps.  15,763 

Pa.  15,184 

Flax,      . 

Tons  458 

Tons  269 

Tons  1.128 

Tons  1,059 

Hemp,  . 

„  1,712 

„  1,604 

„     3,425 

„    3,465 

EXPORTS. 


isr>o. 


is;,;,. 


From  Holland. 

Transit. 

Fl«,     .        .       .        . 

Tons  9,898 

Tons  214 

Linen  Yarn,  Raw, 

L.  2,206 

L.65,712 

Do.    Other  Kinds,     . 

Tons  15 

Tons  76 

Linens,  .... 

L.  69,248 

L.  16,368 

Sackcloth,     . 

Pi.  3,175 

P..  126 

Tons  12,857 

L. 2,114 

Tons  11 

L.  57,549 

Ps.  2,439 


Transit. 
Tons  68 
L.  29,307 
Tons  97 
L.  20,263 

Ps.  575 


The  quantity  ot  Flax  and  Hemp  grown  in  Holland  for  the 
I  noted  was  as  follows : — 


FUx,      . 
Hemp,  . 


ma 

Tons  12,918 

..       M52 


1853. 

Tons  6,341 
„    1,210 


is;,  i. 

Tons  6,586 
„      1,568 


The  value  of  the  Flax  exported  to  Great  Britain  in  1859  was 


298  MODERN  LINEN. 

£254,802.      The  value  of  the  Linens  imported  in  1860  was 
£171,442,  and  exported  £75,364. 

Mr  Ward,  Her  Majesty's  Secretary  of  Legation  at  the  Hague, 
in  his  report  dated  27th  June,  1862,  says  : — "  There  are  no 
statistics  on  the  manufacturing  industry  of  the  Netherlands 
made  up,  and  any  abstracts  got  are  necessarily  imperfect  and 
incomplete."  No  positive  reliance  can  therefore  be  made  on  the 
figures  given  above,  although  they  are  believed  to  be,  on  the 
whole,  substantially  correct. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

BELGIAN      LINEN. 

AFTER  the  separation  of  Belgium  and  Holland,  the  government 
of  the  former  kingdom  paid  great  attention  to  the  manufactures 
of  the  country.  The  cultivation  of  Flax  received  much  en- 
couragement, and  large  quantities  have  long  been  regularly 
grown  in  both  East  and  West  Flanders,  and  in  other  provinces 
in  the  kingdom  The  quality  of  the  Flax  raised  is  highly  ex- 
tolled, and  it  commands  a  comparatively  high  price  in  all 
countries.  Large  quantities  of  the  Flax  grown  is  consumed  at 
home,  but  it  is  also  exported  extensively  to  the  United  King- 
dom, France,  and  other  countries. 

From  time  immemorial  the  Flemings  have  been  famous  for 
their  mode  of  cultivating,  preparing,  and  dressing  Flax,  which  is 
not  surpassed,  if  indeed  equalled,  in  any  other  country.  Some 
account  of  the  various  processes  employed  there  having  already 
been  given  in  the  chapter  on  Flax  culture,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
say  more  on  the  subject  here. 

The  farmers  who  grow  the  Flax  have  generally  small  hold- 
ings, and  much  of  the  work  connected  with  its  preparation  is 


BELGIAN  LINEN.  299 

rmcd  l.y  the  members  of  their  own  family.     They  also 
spin  and  weave  a  8ufli< -i«  -nt  quantity  of  it  for  domestic  wear,  and 
limes  also  for  sale  in  the  home  market.      In  addition  to  the 
quantity  thus  produce!,  thnv  stablishments  for  the 

spinning  and  weaving  of  Linens  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
Tlu>  chief  seats  of  the  plain  Linen  manufactures  are  Gh 
Oudenarde,  Renaix,  Grammont,  Lokeron,  and  Alost,  in  East 
Flanders;  Thi.-lt  and  Roulers,  in  West  Flanders;  Malines,  and 
Turnhout,  in  Antwerp,  and  Ath  in  Hainault.  Courtrai,  Brus- 
sels, and  Bruges,  are  celebrated  for  lace,  thread,  ticking,  and 
checks,  <fec. 

The  machinery  for  the  spinning  and  weaving  factories  in 
Belgium  is  of  the  best  construction,  and  with  all  the  recent  im- 
provements, a  great  part  of  it  having  been  supplied  by  the  best 
makers  in  Leeds  and  other  towns  in  this  kingdom.  At  one 
period  large  quantities  of  the  yarn  spun  was  exported  to  France, 
but  the  high  duties  charged  by  France  nearly  put  a  stop  to  the 
The  recent  alterations  in  the  French  tariff  will  no 
doubt  again  open  the  door  to  the  Belgium  spinners,  and  enable 
them  to  send  part  of  their  surplus  production  thither.  Consider- 
able quantities  of  Belgian  yarn  are  annually  exported  to  this 
country,  and  used  in  some  of  the  manufactures  of  Leeds  and 
Belfast.  Belgium  also  imports  a  good  deal  of  Linen  yarn  from 
ilic  United  Kingdom,  part  of  which  is  used  in  her  manufac- 
tures, and  part  sent  on  to  Germany. 

The  quantity  of  Linen  manufactured  annually  in  Belgium, 
exclusive  of  what  is  made  in  the  houses  and  worn  by  the  farmers 
of  Flanders,  was  stated  to  amount  to  about  750,000  pieces  in  1840. 
Since  then  the  production  has  increased  very  largely,  and  the 
increase  would  appear  to  be  progressive.  According  to  French 
official  accounts  the  value  of  the  imports  from  Belgium  of  t  he- 
following  articles  entered  for  consumption  in  1839  was — Flax, 
£24,997;  Linen  yarn,  £89,689;  Linen,  £440,915;  lace  of 
Linen  thread,  £91,393;  linseed,  £136,623;  total,  £783,617; 
IH  >ides  articles  of  same  class  introduced  by  contraband. 

The  process  of  bleaching  in  Belgium  is  much  and  deservedly 
extolled,  as  the  colours  produced  are  very  pure  and  bright. 
The  water  in  some  of  the  rivers  would  appear  to  be  admi ral.ly 
adapted,  not  only  for  steeping  Flax,  but  also  for  bleaching  both 


300 


MODERN  LINEN. 


Linen  yarn  and  cloth,  and  no  doubt  this  circumstance  helps  to 
bring  out  the  high  colours  for  which  the  Belgian  bleachers  are 
so  celebrated.  There  is  a  bleaching  establishment  worked  by 
steam  at  Antwerp,  and  others  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

In  1856  the  numbers  engaged  in  the  Linen  and  Hempen 
manufactures  of  Belgium  amounted  to  199,779  people,  of  whom 
86,663  were  males,  and  113,116  females. 

The  quantity  and  real  value  of  the  Linen  importations  into 
Belgium  for  the  five  years  ending  1860  were  as  follows : — 


FL 

A  X. 

1856. 

1857. 

1858. 

1859. 

1860. 

Quantity,     Tons,      6900 

7420 

10,710 

8425 

9730 

Real  Value,         L.  482,  567 

L.452,29l 

L.  652,390 

L.581,600 

L.  592,600 

H  E 

M  P, 

Quantity,    Tons,      1410 

2380 

1345 

2365 

1915 

Real  Value,           L.  53,366 

L.  89,  836 

L.  50,914 

L.  80,752 

L.  65,289 

L 

I  N  E  N 

YARNS. 

Quantity,    Tons,        616 

663 

1246 

618 

448 

Real  Value,         L.  101.  990 

L.  110,090 

L.259,275 

L.  125,694 

L.  91,008 

LIN 

ENS. 

Quantity,    Tons,        116 

124 

116 

151 

293 

Real  Value,         L.  101,076 

L.89,832 

I*  73,306 

L.  86,775 

L.119,173 

Besides  Linen,  lace  and  tulle,  and  mixed  Linen,  and  cotton  small 

wares. 

The  quantity  of  Flax,  and  Hemp,  and  manufactures  thereof, 
imported  into  Belgium  ("  Special  Trade")  was,  in  1861,  19,006 
tons,  value,  £1,030,720.  In  1862  the  quantity  was  18,373  tons. 
Of  the  Hemp  imported  nearly  one-half  was  from  Great 
Britain,  about  one-fourth  from  Kussia,  and  about  one-eighth 
from  Austria.  Of  the  Flax,  about  one-half  was  from  Kussia, 
and  the  bulk  of  the  remainder  from  Holland.  Almost  the 
whole  of  the  Linen  yarn  imported  was  from  Great  Britain. 

The  Linen  exports  for  the  same  period  consisted  of — 


1856. 

Quantity,     Tons,        421 
Real  Value,        L  15,912 


Quantity,     Tons,  12,600 
Real  Value,      L.869,631 


HEMP. 

1857.       1858.  1859.  1860. 

274        183  218  227 

L.  10, 362             L.6943  L.7436  L.7745 

FLAX. 

14,806      14,941  12,394  16,840 

L.901,725   L.910,555  L.855.457  L.1,025,561 


BELGIAN  r  IN  301 

LINEN  YARNS. 

1S.V,.              :«7.  1858.  1859.  186a 

Quantity,    TOM,     1961                lM*o  1777  2241  3273 

Real  Value,     L.311,547        L.403,606  L  366^86  L.444,530  1*623,481 

LINENS. 

Quantity,    Tom,     3344  :w*\  3358  .WJ  4306 

Real  Value.      L.676,688    L.  1,204392     L.  1,136,011     L,  1,096,193     L.  1, 139,280 
Besides  Linen,  lace  and  tulle,  of  the  average  value  of  about  £40,000  yearly. 

The  exports  from  Belgium  in  1861  were — Flax  and  Hemp 
17,792  tons,  value  £1,134,440;  Linen  yarns,  2610  tons,  value 
£512,200  ;  Linens,  4410  tons,  value  £1,131,240.  In  1862  the 
quantities  were — Flax  and  Hemp,  19,340  tons;  Linen  yarn, 
2860  tons  ;  Linens,  4240  tons. 

Mr  Barron,  Secretary  of  Legation  at  Brussels,  in  his  report, 
dated  25th  Feb.,  1863,  (from  which  the  above  statistics  relating 
to  1861  and  1862  are  taken),  says : — "  In  official  parlance  the 
'  special '  trade  comprises  only  imports  for  home  consumption, 
and  exports  of  native  produce.  My  tables  are  all  intended  to 
ilqtict  the  *  special '  trade  only ;  but  great  quantities  of  goods  not 
liable  to  duty,  especially  Flax,  <fec.,  pass  in  and  out  of  Belgium  as 
if  intended  for  home  consumption,  and  then  as  if  native  produce, 
and  thus  completely  vitiate  the  returns  of  the  special  imports  and 
exports."  He  farther  says : — "  The  exports  of  Linen  yarns  and 
tissues  alone  amounted  in  1861  to  f.  41,000,000.  If  to  this  be 
added  the  value  of  Flax  and  Hemp  exported,  viz.,  f.  28,300,000, 
we  should  arrive  at  the  prodigious  amount  of  nearly  f.  70,000,000 
as  the  aggregate  value  of  these  fibres  exported  from  Belgium  in 
a  raw  or  manufactured  state.  It  is  true  some  foreign  Flax  is 
confounded  with  these  exports.  The  finest  Flax  in  the  world  is 
grown  in  Flanders.  This  is  evidently  the  most  important  in- 
dustry of  Belgium  in  exportable  value.  It  has  profited  largely 
by  the  cotton  crisis. 

"  Another  staple  industry  of  Belgium,  the  Lace  trade  shares 
in  the  general  languor.  The  manufacture  of  Valenciennes  lace 
alone  occupies  50,000  women  in  the  two  Flanders,  and  repre- 
sents a  value  of  nearly  f.  20,000,000  per  annum.  De  Bruxelles 
is  another  national  lace  which  is  unsurpassed  in  any  other 
country,  &c. 

"  The  extensive  Linen  mills  existing  in  Ghent  have  afforded 
a  resource  to  many  cotton  workers. 


302  MODERN  LINEN. 

"  The  new  tariff  on  Linens  is  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  Although 
it  offers  no  real  reciprocity  it  is  some  improvement  on  the  pre- 
vious regime,  and  is  even  more  liberal  than  the  new  French 
tariff,  which  has  already  proved  beneficial  to  the  English 
trade." 

Of  the  Flax  exported,  on  the  average  fully  one-half  is  to 
France,  and  three-eighths  to  Great  Britain.  Of  the  yarns 
about  one-half  is  to  France,  three-eighths  to  Prussia,  and  one- 
eighth  to  Holland ;  and  of  the  Linens  about  one- third  is  to  France, 
one-fourth  to  Holland,  and  one-fifth  to  Prussia. 

The  recent  progress  and  present  state  of  the  Linen  manufac- 
ture in  Belgium  was  well  exemplified  by  the  goods  shown  in  the 
International  Exhibition  of  1862.  The  yarns  and  Linens  ex- 
hibited gave  indisputable  evidence  of  the  skill  displayed  in  their 
production,  and  the  excellence  which  the  manufacture  has  at- 
tained in  that  country,  proving  unquestionably  that  Belgium  is 
no  mean  competitor  with  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  markets 
of  the  world.  The  following  short  report  on  the  Linen  shewn 
by  Belgium  was  written  during  the  Exhibition,  and  after  a 
careful  inspection  of  the  goods  exhibited,  and  it  is  not  without 
its  lesson  to  all  engaged  in  the  trade : — 

"  There  are  comparatively  few  private  exhibitors  of  Flax  yarns 
and  Linens  from  this  country,  the  greater  part  of  them  being 
shown  by  the  Belgian  Government,  and  produced  at  the  various 
Flemish  Apprentice  Schools  throughout  the  country.  The  pri- 
vate exhibitors  are  the  present  owners  of  what  were  lately 
Apprentice  Schools,  some  Linen  Societies,  and  a  number  of 
private  firms.  The  Yarns  comprise  heavy  Flax  and  Tow  sorts. 
Some  of  them  are  shown  in  various  stages  of  preparation,  and  of 
various  qualities  and  sizes.  The  Linens  exhibited  are  of  many 
kinds,  and  comprise  sail-cloth,  sackings,  ducks,  sheetings,  shirt- 
ings, ticks,  diapers,  damasks,  &c.,  &c.,  forming  altogether  a  large 
and  varied  assortment.  Both  Flax  and  Hemp  sail-cloth  is 
shown.  The  Hemp  goods  look  rather  coarse,  and  are  not  of 
great  merit ;  but  the  Flax  canvas  is  made  of  well-spun  yarn,  of 
good  colour,  and  firmly  driven  up.  Some  excellent  four-yard 
wide  canvas  is  shown.  Many  of  the  Linens  are  shown  in  the 
rough  or  loom  state  ;  and  they  are  very  carefully  manufactured 
and  very  excellent  cloth.  Others  are  shown  in  the  bleached  and 


303 

linishnl  slate,  and  are  of  high  colour,  tastefully  done  up,  and  of 
in .-t  SUJH  ri..i  quality.  They  are  of  various  degrees  of  fineness, 
IV.  .in  common  Jute  and  Tow  sacking  to  very  fine  lawn  or  cam- 
bric. The  diapers  are  strong,  useful,  and  pretty  goods.  The 
damasks,  in  table  Linens,  and  for  bed  and  window  curtains,  dis- 
play extraordinary  taste  in  design  and  finish.  They  are  very 
lovely,  of  admirable  quality,  and  some  of  them  of  parti<  ul  nly 
fine  texture.  In  class  No.  4,  Belgium  has  also  an  admirable 
and  large  assortment  of  Flax  and  yarns.  The  Flax  is  exhibited 
in  every  stage  of  preparation,  and  from  a  common  to  the  very 
finest  quality.  Some  of  the  specimens  are  most  beautifully 
dressed  and  made  up,  and  of  remarkably  fine  fibre.  The  yarns 
shown  in  both  classes  are  of  many  sorts  and  qualities,  Tow, 
Flax,  and  Hemp,  but  the  greater  proportion  are  in  wet  spun 
line.  They  are  beautifully  spun,  and  some  of  the  specimens  are 
of  remarkable  iineness,  and  equal,  if  they  do  not  surpass,  the 
finest  examples  of  either  the  Leeds  or  Belfast  mills.  With  such 
Flax  and  with  such  yarn,  no  wonder  that  Belgium  makes  so 
fine  an  appearance  in  Linens.  The  display  in  both  these  de- 
partments is  of  the  very  highest  order,  and  worthy  of  the  very 
greatest  praise. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

FRENCH       LINEN. 

THE  soil  of  France  is,  in  many  districts,  admirably  adapted  for 
the  growth  of  Flax  and  Hemp,  and  both  plants  have  from  time 
immemorial  been  cultivated  extensively  in  some  parts  of  that 
empire.  The  manufacture  of  Linens  in  France  also  dates 
back  to  a  remote  period,  and  some  cities  and  districts  have  long 
been  celebrated  for  the  large  quantity  and  high  quality  of  the 


304  MODERN  LINEN. 

Linens  produced  by  them.  The  French  are,  and  have  long  been, 
essentially  a  Linen  wearing  people,  and  the  consumption  of  the 
various  qualities  for  household  and  other  purposes  throughout 
the  country  is  very  large. 

When  the  Komans  swayed  the  destinies  of  France,  Linens 
were  extensively  produced  there,  and  since  that  period,  although 
the  manufacture  may  have  fluctuated  much  in  different  ages, 
it  has  never  been  wholly  extinct.  Charlemagne,  as  has  been 
mentioned,  wore  Linen,  and  his  subjects  were  partly  clothed 
in  the  same  material.  At  this  period,  and  perhaps  for  long 
afterwards,  the  making  of  Linen  was  chiefly  confined  to  the 
labour  of  female  servants,  who  span  and  weaved  it  for  domestic 
use.  What  was  not  so  required  would  be  sold  to  those  who 
manufactured  none  in  their  own  establishments,  but  who  could 
in  this  way  supply  themselves  with  this  necessary  article. 

Rheims  was  famous  for  its  Linen  manufactures  at  an  early 
period.  In  1394  it  is  said  the  King  of  France  sent  "fine 
Linen  of  Rheims"  to  the  Sultan,  as  part  of  the  ransom  of  some 
noble  prisoners  who  had  fallen  into  his  hands.  Reynes  or 
Rennes  and  Champagne  were  much  celebrated  about  this  period 
in  romances  and  poems  for  the  excellence  of  their  Linens. 
Champagne  has  now  lost  its  Linen  trade,  but  it  has  acquired 
as  wide  a  fame  for  its  exhilarating  wine  as  it  ever  had  for  its 
Linens,  and  probably  the  substantial  benefits  which  it  derives 
from  its  "  champagne  "  is  far  greater  than  ever  it  got  from  its 
Linens.  In  1422  Normandy  had  a  considerable  Linen  manufac- 
ture. In  1437  Bretagne  exported  canvas.  In  1453  France  had 
an  extensive  foreign  trade.  She  had  then  her  wealthy  merchant; 
Jacques  Cceur,  who  had  300  factors,  and  traded  with  the  Turks 
and  Persians.  He  exported  large  quantities  of  Linen  and  other 
goods.  In  an  enumeration  of  the  exports  at  this  period,  cloth 
and  canvas  are  among  the  articles  sent  from  Bretagne. 

During  the  16th  century  the  commerce  of  France  presents  no 
feature  of  striking  interest.  She  then  exported  Linens  and 
other  goods  to  England,  and  there  seems  to  have  been  a  great 
exchange  between  the  woollens  of  England  and  the  linens  of 
Bretagne. 

Guicciardini  in  his  picture  of  Antwerp  in  1560,  says  that 
great  quantities  of  fine  Linens  were  exported  from  Antwerp  to 


Citing  hack  immense  .|i:antities  of  cunvus  and  sti 
L  i  n  i  •  1 1  s  i V. .  1 1 1  Bretagne  and  N  ormandy.  He  also  says  that  at  1 1 1  <  • 
same  period  cam  In -ie  was  made  at  Cambray.  The  fabric  got  its 
name  from  this  town,  and  it  is  therefore  probable  that  it  had  first 
made  there,  (jiovani  Bolero  say>  that  I  ranee,  at  the  close 
«f  tin-  10th  century,  possessed  four  magnets,  which  attract.  .1  the 
uv-alth  of  other  countries — one  of  which  was  Hemp  and  cloth, 
of  which,  and  of  cordage,  great  411.1111  iiies  \\vre  exported  to  Lis- 
h on  and  to  Seville.  He  adds  that  the  exportation  of  the  articles 
of  this  class  wa«  incredibly  great. 

In  1G03  King  Henry  IV.  introduced  foreign  workmen  into 
France  for  the  improvement  of  manufactures,  including  tapes- 
tries, cloths  and  serges,  silks  and  stuffs,  gaups  or  thin  Linen 
cloth,  <fec.  At  this  time,  it  is  said,  a  Linen  manufacture  was  set 
up — probably  in  some  town  where  no  establishment  of  the  kind 
had  previously  existed.  Early  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Col- 
\>-  it  directed  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  manufactures 
and  commerce  in  France,  which  were  then  raised  to  their  greatest 
height.  In  1685  the  value  of  Linen  sail-cloth  and  canvas  ex- 
ported to  England  was  £400,000,  and  to  Holland  £160,000  ; 
and  the  average  value  of  Linens  exported  to  England  in  the 
years  1686,  1687,  and  1688,  was  about  £700,000  sterling. 

The  Popish  persecutions  which  followed  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes  in  1685,  drove  about  600,000  protestants  from 
France.  These  men  were  the  pith  and  marrow  of  the  country, 
and  their  removal  proved  a  great  blow  to  its  manufactures,  not 
only  by  the  loss  of  their  heads  and  hands,  but  by  the  stimulus 
which,  by  their  skill  and  industry,  was  given  to  the  same  mann. 
factures  in  the  countries  to  which  they  went.  Subsequent  wars 
had  also  the  effect  of  gradually  destroying  some  of  the  French 
manufactures,  and  of  transferring  them  to  other  nations.  "  In  this 
way,"  says  Macpherson,  "  France  was  deprived  of  a  most  profitable 
manufacture  of  two  species  of  Linen,  viz.,  dowlas  and  buckram, 
ehieily  made  in  Normandy  and  Brittany,  of  which  England  was 
said  to  have  taken  off  to  the  value  of  £200,000  annually ;  for 
England,  not  being  able  to  do  without  these  two  sorts  of  Linen, 
set  the  Hamburgers  in  imitating  them  so  well,  that  the  very 
names  of  these  French  Linens  with  us  are  buried  in  oblivion." 

In  1753  the  value  of  the  Linens  exported  from  France  was 
u 


306  MODERN  LINEN. 

911,465  livres.  In  1764  Linens  were  exported  from  Lille 
and  Cambray  in  French  Flanders;  Valenciennes  in  French 
Hainault;  Amas  in  Artois ;  Amien,  St  Quentin  (lawn),  and 
Abbeville  (sackcloth),  in  Picardy ;  Troyes  (Linen  and  canvas), 
in  Champagne ;  Caen  in  Normandy ;  and  Mortagne  (coarse 
Linens),  in  Maine.  In  Postlethwayt's  Dictionary  of  Commerce, 
published  in  1766,  it  is  stated  that  "Flax  abounds  in  France. 
They  import  large  quantities,  however,  from  Russia.  Holstein 
and  Flanders  lint  is  of  great  esteem  ;  that  of  Picardy  comes  near 
it ;  of  others,  Riga  and  Konigsberg  are  in  most  repute."  He 
says  the  Linen  trade  of  Europe  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Russians,  Germans,  Swiss,  Flemings,  Hollanders  and  French. 
It  would  thus  appear  that  Linens  had  been  manufactured  very 
extensively  in  France  a  century  ago,  because  in  addition  to  the 
large  quantity  of  Flax  grown  at  home,  the  importation  of  it,  the 
growth  of  foreign  countries,  was  also  large. 

The  following  extract,  (taken  from  the  Dundee  Advertiser), 
from  a  decree  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  shews  the  importance 
which  he  attached  to  the  prosperity  of  the  commerce  and  manu- 
factures of  France,  and  the  large  share  which  the  Linen  manu- 
facture then  formed  of  the  trade  of  the  country. 

"  Palace  of  St  Cloud,  26th  June,  1810.  Napoleon,  Emperor 
of  the  French,  King  of  Italy,  &c.,  &c.,  &c.  It  being  our  inten- 
tion to  ascertain  the  opinion  of  the  principal  merchants  and  manu- 
facturers of  our  empire  upon  everything  relating  to  commerce 
and  manufactures,  we  have  decreed  as  follows : — That  there  should 
be  established  at  Paris  a  general  council  of  manufacturers,  to  con- 
sist of  sixty  members.  The  most  useful  members  to  obtain  the  title 
of  Counsellor  of  Arts  and  Manufactures,  and  receive  a  brevet 
signed  with  our  hand.  The  members  to  be  manufacturers  in  em- 
ploy/' "  Six  of  them  shall  be  composed  of  those  in  the  Flax  and 
Hemp  manufacture,  one  of  whom  must  reside  in  Paris,  &c.,  £c." 

Since  the  termination  of  the  war  in  1815  the  Linen  manufac- 
ture in  France  has  progressed  steadily.  Fiscal  regulations  and 
commercial  convulsions  have  now  and  again  ruffled  the  tenor 
of  its  course,  and  checked  its  career,  but  it  has  overcome 
all  obstructions  and  difficulties,  and  its  extent  is  probably  greater 
now  than  ever  it  was  at  any  former  period.  As  in  most 
other  countries,  the  Flax  and  Hemp  raised  by  the  farmers  were 


.    II    I.1NI.V 


3C7 


dressed,  spun,  and  woven  for  domestic  use  by  tin-  \ peasantry, 
many  (vnturirs  before  large  manufactories  were  estal.li-h«-<l.  In 
course  of  time  this  system  proved  inadequate  to  supply  ih«-  <1<- 
maud  I..]  Linrns,  and  establishments  were  specially  erected  for 
weaving  the  cloth.  Spinning  by  machinery  was  subsequent  ly 
introduced,  and  latterly  weaving  by  power,  and  these  appliances 
have  completely  changed  the  aspect  of  the  trade. 

The  value  of  Linen  and  IK'iupui  cloth  exported  from  France 
in  1800  was  34,866,000  livres.  In  1814  no  Linen  yam  was 
exported  from  the  United  Kingdom  to  France,  and  the  quantity 
of  Linen  sent  thither  was  only  37,314  yards,  of  the  declared  value 
of  £3703.  The  exportation,  both  of  Linen  yarn  and  Linens, 
from  this  country  to  France  was  not  of  great  extent  prior  to 
I83l>.  That  year  a  new  tariff  of  a  more  favourable  nature  came 
into  operation,  and  the  trade  at  once  assumed  gigantic  propor- 
tions, showing  the  advantage  to  both  countries  of  a  moderate 
scale  of  duties,  with  the  absence  of  undue  restrictions  upon  com- 
merce. In  1842,  in  order  to  encourage  the  native  manufacture, 
tin  duties  were  again  raised,  and  the  trade  fell  off  greatly.  In 
\^\7  the  duties  were  still  farther  increased,  and  upon  heavy 
-  ot  Linen  yarn  and  coarse  Linens  they  were  virtually  prohi- 
bitory. As  a  natural  consequence  the  trade  became  almost 
extinct,  and  for  about  twelve  years  only  small  quantities  of  the 
finest  class  of  goods  were  exported  to  France.  In  1860  a  new  and 
more  liberal  tariff  came  into  operation,  and  great  hopes  were 
raised  regarding  its  value  to  the  Linen  trade  of  this  country. 
Hitherto,  from  exceptional  causes,  these  have  been  only  partially 
realized,  and  for  some  part  of  this  year  (1863)  Dundee,  iu> 
of  exporting  her  yarns  and  Linens  to  France,  as  it  was  expected 
she  would  do,  has  imported  from  that  country  large  quantities 
of  Flax,  Tow,  and  Jute  yarns,  and  also  sailcloth  and  other 
Linens.  This  may  to  some  extent  be  accounted  for  by  the 
hii^h  prices  to  which  Linens  rose  in  that  town,  consequent 
upon  the  scarcity  of  cotton,  and  the  greatly  increased  consump- 
tion of  heavy  Linens  in  America,  for  war  and  other  purposes 
there.  These  causes  are  not,  however,  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  phenomena  of  Dundee  being  undersold  on  her  own  streets 
by  French  yarns  and  Linens,  and  it  would  appear  that  the 
demand  for  such  goods  in  France  is  not  equal  to  the  production 
u2 


303 


MODERN  LINEN. 


especially  for  Jute  yarns  and  cloth.  If  this  be  the  case,  this  coun- 
try has  little  to  hope  from  France  as  a  market  for  her  Linens, 
even  in  ordinary  times  after  the  trade  has  settled  down  into  its 
usual  channels  again,  as  it  implies  that  the  French  can  spin  and 
weave  Linens  as  cheaply  as  can  be  done  in  Dundee.  Britain 
has  therefore  no  compensating  advantages  to  counterbalance 
the  high  duty  still  charged  upon  her  Linen  yarns  and  Linens  im- 
ported into  France,  and  thus  far  the  Tariff  is  entirely  one-sided. 
The  progress  of  the  trade,  and  the  impolitic  effect  of  an 
adverse  tariff  are  well  exemplified  by  the  following  statement, 
taken  from  Parliamentary  Returns,  of  the  exports  to  that 
country  for  the  years  from  1830  to  1848.  The  effect  of  the 
new  tariff  for  the  first  two  years  is  shown  by  the  value  of  the  ex- 
ports to  France  during  1860,  the  year  in  which  that  tariff 
came  into  force,  compared  with  those  for  1858  and  1862. 


Linen  Yarn. 

Linen  Manufacture. 

Total  declared 

value  of  Yarns 

Iba. 

Declared 

Yards. 

Declared 

and  Linens. 

Value. 

Value. 

1830 

2,724 

£200 

102,993 

£11,140 

£11,340 

1831 

17,503 

1,095 

102,642 

8.265 

9,360 

1832 

76,512 

6,516 

314,100 

22,531 

1833 

867,288 

68,299 

183,598 

13,055 

81,354 

1834 

1,430,369 

130,561 

263,961 

21,518 

152,079 

1835 

2,384,678 

198,823 

1,247,901 

61,612 

260,435 

1836 
1837 
1838 

4.012,141 
7,010,983 
11,485,680 

276,942 
401,007 
600,806 

1,998,158 
3,668.388 
7,633,291 

118,666 
142,812 
273  854 

395,608 
543,819 
874,660 

1839 

12,259,254 

644,144 

6,255,476 

246,829 

890,973 

1840 

13137,367 

629,533 

6,792,485 

225,505 

855,038 

1841 

20,832,875 

806,336 

8,823,503 

281 

,982 

1,088,318 

1842 

22,202,292 

749,675 

8,586,667 

270',019 

1,019,694 

1843 

13,824,285 

482,357 

4,379,601 

137,965 

620,322 

1844 

13,546,757 

501,241 

4,976,718 

173,454 

674,695 

1845 

9,153,188 

414,350 

2,366,082 

102,440 

516.790 

1846 

5,806,568 

262,101 

1,950,763 

83,119 

345,220 

1847 

1,662,173 

116,990 

1.326,265 

71,939 

188,929 

1848 

259,521 

23,003 

860,598 

45,568 

68,571 

DECLARED    VALUE. 

Linen  Yam. 

Linen  Manufactures. 

Total. 

1858 

£84  223 

£67,260 

£151,483 

1860 

70,620 

61,097 

131,717 

1862 

99,258 

189,329 

288,587 

en  I.; 


306 


The  proportion  of  Linens  aud  Lin«-n  yarns  which  were  sent 
from  Dundee  to  France  during  the  years  given  in  the  foregoing 
tables  cannot  be  ascertained,  because  many  of  them  were  shipped 
t"  Hull,  London,  Ac.,  and  transhipped  from  these  ports.  The 
following  table  exhibit^  the  quantities  which  were  sent  direct 
from  Dundee  to  France,  for  the  ten  years  from  1839  to  1848 
inclusive.  If  the  quantities  sent  indirectly  were  added,  it  would 
tluit,  lor  many  of  these  years,  Dundee  manufactures 
formed  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  total  exports  to  France : — 

EXPORTS  OF  LINENS  AND  LINEN  TARNS  SENT  DIRECT  FROM  DUNDEE  TO  FRANCE. 


Osna 

I'.ii^s. 

Sheetings 

Dowlas. 

Sun- 
dries. 

Total. 

Linen  Yarns. 

HMM 

Mm* 

Mm* 

Pi  •  •  •« 

Pieces 

Yards 

Lbs. 

1   K'v.t'8 

1839 

1,740 

5,750 

8,705 

69 

L4264 

2,363.160 

3,376,240 

8,896 

'.».i  »•_>•; 

57 

16,821 

2.4H7.610 

4,453,:i44 

1841 

8,  '.':.';{ 

21,220 

159 

33,547 

4,913,165 

6.131,216 

1842 

18,843 

28,137 

51,978 

7.  .V.I,  960 

12,123,664 

1*48 

1,434 

6,433 

iL',4;.o 

19,542 

2,839,300 

9,065,616 

I8ll 

3,380 

1,148 

3521 

8,047 

1,223,  6<JO 

10,713.584 

1845 

yc»3 

2,«S2 

... 

5,324 

802,445 

8,860,320 

L844 

437 

146 

696 

40 

1,319 

195,63) 

2,332,736 

1847 

205 

OH 

1,091 

163,175 

2,034,816 

1848 

72 

63 

135 

20,025 

260,624 

The  two  following  years  the  direct  exports  totally  ceased,  subse- 
quently a  little  yarn  was  sent  occasionally,  but  the  trade  was 
almost  extinct  until  the  recent  tariff  came  into  operation,  when 
>hil»iiu.'uts  on  a  small  extent  were  for  a  time  resumed. 

Statement  of  the  duties  on  Linen  yarns  and  Linens  imported 
into  France  according  to  the  tariffs  of  1836,  1842,  and  1860. 


BROWN  LINEN  YARNS.— DDTT  ON  100  KILOGRAMMES,  OR  221  LBS.  ENGLISH. 


Class  1. 

ClanS. 

fin-  3 

Clss>4. 

Class  5. 

Class  0. 

9  Lea  and  under. 

10  to  10  Lea 

If  to  :•'  i.-:i 

40  to  60  Lea 

00  to  110  Lea 

120  Lea  and 
upwards. 

ISM 

181'J 

lH,.l 

PR.    - 

u     11    :; 
88    30    5 
L6     1-    " 

PR.  s.  D. 

48  38  5 
20  i 

PR.    s.   P. 

24    19    3 
80    64    0 
30    24    0 

S.     D 

19    3 
125  100    0 
36    28  10 

PR.    a.     D. 

165  1. 
60    48    0 

Fa.     s.    D. 

::-»    0 
100    80    0 

310 


MODERN    LINEN. 


UNBLEACHED  PLAIN   LINENS — DUTY  ON  100  KILS.  OB  221  LBS.  ENGLISH— QUALITY 
FIXED  BY  THE  NUMBER  OF  THREADS  OP  WARP  IN  ONE-FIFTH  OF  AN  INCH. 


1836 
1842 
1860 

Class  1. 

Class  2. 

Class  3, 

Class  4. 

Class  5. 

Class  6.     i     Class  7. 

8  thread.- 
&  under, 
un.  37  por. 

9  toll 
thread?, 
un.  51  por. 

12  to  14 
threads, 
un.  65  por. 

15  to  17 
threads, 
un   79  por. 

18  to  2) 
threads, 
un.  94  pir. 

21  to  23     '24  thds.  and 
threads.         upwards, 
un.  108por.'l08pr.&ups 

FR.  s.  D. 
33  26    5 
70  56    0 
28  22    5 

FR.  s.  D. 
65    52    0 
126  100  10 
55    44    0 

Fa.  s,  D. 
98    78    5 
172  137    7 
90    72    0 

FR.  s.  D. 
142  113    7 
251  200  10 
115    92    0 

FR.  s.  D. 
195  156    0 
320  256    0 
170  136    0 

FR.   s.  D.  1  FR.  s.  D. 
350  280    0350  280    0 
467  373    7  467  373    7 
260  208    0400  320    0 

JUTE  YARNS— NATURAL  COLOUR.— DUTY  ON  100  KILS,  OR  221  LBS.  ENGLISH. 


Old  duly, 
New  do  , 

Class  l. 

Class  2. 

Class  3. 

Class  4. 

Class  5. 

Heavier  than 
21  Ib.  per  spdl. 

20  Ib.to  8  Ib. 

7  Ib. 

6  Ib.  to  5  Ib. 
inclusive. 

4lb.to2ilb. 

FR.    s.    D. 

60    48    0 

757 

FR.    s.    D. 
60    48    0 
9.20    7    4 

FR.    s     D. 
60    48    0 
10.20    8    2 

FR.  s.  D. 
60  48  0 
15  12  0 

FR.    s.    D. 
bO    48    0 
20    16    0 

PURE  JUTE  GOODS  -NATURAL  COLOUR— DUTY  ON  100 KILS.,  OR  221  LBS.  ENGLISH- 
QUALITY  FIXED  BY  THE  NUMBER  OF  THREADS  OF  WARP  IN  ONE  FIFTH  OF  AN  INCH. 


Old  duty, 
New  do., 


Class  1. 

Class  2. 

Class  3. 

Class  4. 

Mending  Bagging, 
Plain  Sacking, 
Double  Warp,  do., 
np  to  14  Porter. 

Twilled  Sack- 
ing. 

Hessians,  &c. 
4  and  5  threads, 
15  to  22  por. 

6,  7,  &  8  threads, 
23  to  36  Porter. 

FR.      S.      D. 
77    61      7 
13    10      5 

FR.    s.    D. 
77    61    7 
15    12    0 

FR.    s.    D. 
77    61    7 
21     16  10 

FR.    s.    D. 
77    61    7 
30    24    0 

Bleached  or  dyed  yarns  and  Linens  pay  considerably  higher 
rates  than  brown  or  unbleached  goods.  Drills,  both  brown  and 
bleached,  pay  higher  rates  than  other  Linens,  and  damasks  pay 
16  per  cent,  ad  valorum.  In  1864  a  diminution  of  the  duty  on 
Jute  yarns  and  Jute  goods  takes  effect,  amounting  on  the  aver- 
age, to  about  30  per  cent,  on  the  rates  charged  up  to  that  date. 

There  are  not  existing  materials  for  the  minute  comparison 
of  the  growth  of  textile  industry  in  France  over  a  series  of  years, 
like  that  which  is  made  up  for  the  United  Kingdom,  but  the 
following  facts  and  figures  relating  to  the  Linen  trade  of  France 
give  some  idea  of  its  extent  and  importance. 

The  average  value  of  the  Linen  yarn  imported  into  France 
from  all  countries  for  the  five  years  from  1834  to  1838  was 


i  i:i;.\«  ii  i 


311 


£524,000.  In  1839  it  was  £1,044,000.  The  average  value  of 
Linens  exported  from  France  to  all  countries  for  the  same  five 
years  was  £1,104,000,  and  for  1839  £1,208,000.  The  average 
value  of  Flax  exported  from  France  for  the  same  five  years  was 
£48,000,  and  for  1839  £180,000. 

Tho  average  annual  imports  of  Flax  into  France  for  the  three 
(/mling  as  under  were — 


is:;:,. 


Tons 


isaa 

1,903 


184L 
2,212 


1*4-1. 
7,345 


1847. 
11,290 


I860. 
18,361 


The  imports  of  Hemp  into  France  for  the  following  years 
were — 

1847.        1848.        1849.        1850.        1851.        1852.        1853, 
Tons,  4,981        2,2*8        2,966        2,642        1,978        2,736        3,329 

The  quantity  and  real  value  of  the  Linen  manufactures  im- 
ported into  France  for  the  years  named  were  as  follows,  viz. : — 

HEMP. 

1S.V..  1857.  1858.  1859.  I860. 

Quantity,       Tons,      6,655  7,948  6,042  7,350  7,471 

Real  Value,      .      L.  276,752        L.312,784        L.256,010       L.292,050       L.275,044 

FLAX. 

Quantity,       Tons,    21,733  19,188  24,608 

Real  Value,      .     L.I,  192,478    L.  1,012,991    L.  1,678,826 


15,702  21,170 

L.  1,115,870    L.  1,419,100 


LINEN  AND  HEMPEN  YARNS. 

Quantity,       Tons,      1,016  1,243  909  1,212  2,388 

Real  Value,      .      L.IC.4,000        L.164,000        L.172,000        L.172,000        L.252,000 

LINEN  AND  HEMPEN  FABRICS. 

Quantity,       Tons,      1,385  1,321  1,098  1,414  2,139 

Real  Value,      .      L. 596, 000        L.656,000        L.588,000        L.644,000        L.  792,000 

About  half  the  Flax  imported  is  from  Russia  and  the  other 
half  from  Belgium  ;  and  the  major  part  of  the  yarn  and  Linens 
imported  is  from  Belgium. 

The  quantity  and  real  value  of  the  Linen  manufactures  ex- 
1  M.I  ted  for  same  years  were  as  follows  : — 


1M 

Quantity,       Tons,         452 
Real  Value,      .        L.'J1.:;7» 

Quantity,        Tons,        954 
Real  Value,      .        L.45,988 


HEMP. 

1857.               is.s.  1859.  1860. 

600                 674  837  713 

I, -7,703          L.35,565  I. .39,062  L.  30,535 

FLAX. 

2,481  ,284  2,661 

L  85,718        L.131,410  L.124,166  L.128,423 


312  MODERN  LINEN. 

LINEN  AND  HEMPEN  YARNS. 

1856.  1857.  1858.  1859.  I860. 

Quantity,        Tons,        409  457  618  698  996 

Real  Value,      .        L.73,520          L.89,989        L.132,466        L.  135,639        L.226,528 

LINEN  AND  HEMPEN  FABRICS. 

Quantity,       Tons,      2,090  2,740  1,996  2,105  2,608 

Real  Value,      .      L.844,000        L.892,000        L.708,000        L. 828,000        L.876,000 

The  greater  part  of  the  Linens  exported  are  to  the  various 
colonies  of  France. 

The  acreage  under  Flax  and  Hemp,  the  produce  thereof,  and 
the  value  of  the  same  in  the  years  noted,  were  as  follows  : — 

Acres.  Linseed.  Fibre.  Value  Seed.  Value  Fibre 

Flax  1841  245,603  Imp.  Qrs.,  253,479  Tons,  36,216  L. 2,300, 288 

„  1852  200,840  „  186,743  „  33,049  L.421,129  L.1,270,234 

Hemp  1841  440,371  „  576,428  „  66,301  L.3,451,494 

„       1852     125,357  „          316,482  „    63,071  L.513,743    L.1,986,239 

In  1841  the  average  produce  of  Flax  seed  per  acre  was  8.3 
Imperial  bushels,  and  in  1852  7.43,  and  the  value  per  Imperial 
bushel  for  the  two  years  respectively,  50s  2d  and  45s  Id.  The 
average  produce  of  Flax  fibre  in  1841  was  375  Ibs.,  and  in  1852 
368  Ibs.  avoir,  per  acre,  and  the  value  46s  lOd  and  37s  8d  per 
cwt.  respectively. 

The  average  produce  of  Hemp  seed  per  acre  in  1841  was  10 J 
Imperial  bushels,  and  in  1852,  8  Imperial  bushels,  and  the 
value  39s  6d  and  32s  5d  per  Imperial  bushel  respectively. 
The  average  produce  of  the  Hemp  fibre  in  1841  was  337  Ibs., 
and  in  1852  450  Ibs.  avoir,  per  acre ;  the  value  being  36s  8d 
and  31s  per  cwt.  respectively. 

The  number  of  spindles  employed  in  the  Linen  trade  in 
France  was  given  as  follows : — 

In  1840        57,000     Spindles.  In  1849        250,000    Spindles. 

„    1844      120,000          „  „  1850       275,000 

,,    1847      170,000          „  „   18";!        330,000         „ 

In  1853,  in  157  Mills,  395,800  Spindles. 

These  numbers  are  greatly  in  excess  of  those  stated  in  the 
French  Factory  Keturns  for  1855,  given  below.  How  the  dis- 
crepancy arises  is  unknown.  It  is  improbable  that  the  trade 
could  have  decreased  so  much  between  1853  and  1855,  as  it  is 


understood  to  have  rather  increased  considerably  during  tl 
years,  and  to  have  gone  on  <  xt.  i  id  ing  up  to  the  present  time. 

From  the  Factory  Returns  published  in  France  for  the  \ 
1855,  it  appears  that  there  were  5f>7''>  fa . lories  engaged  in  the 
Flax  and  Hemp  manufacture,  with  210,282  spindles  and  20,901 
l.'i.ius,  driven  by  64  steam  engines,  90  water  wheels,  and  other 
in  M  hanical  i>ower  124  (it  is  not  said  of  what  nature),  employ- 
:>>3,067  men,  15,868  women,  and  7232  children  under  sixteen 
years  of  age,  making  a  total  of  56,167  persons. 

From  this  return  it  would  appear  that  the  term  " factory' 
must  designate  in  France  something  very  different  from  its 
ordinary  acceptation  in  this  country.  In  the  United  Kingdom 
the  number  of  factories  in  1861-62  on  Flux,  lleinp,  and  Jute 
440,  employing  94,003  persons,  giving  an  average  of  213 
to  each,  while  in  France  the  average  of  persons  to  each  factory 
on  Flax  and  Hemp  were  only  10,  showing  that  some  of  the 
works,  designated  factories,  must  be  very  insignificant  affairs.  It 
is  probable  that  each  building  containing  a  few  hand-looms  may 
I'  included  in  the  return  as  a  factory,  which  would  swell  the  num- 
ber of  them  greatly,  and  may  account  for  so  many  being  given. 

In  France  the  employment  of  children  in  textile  factories  is 
governed  by  a  law  of  22d  March  1811,  framed  partly  on  the 
model  of  the  British  law,  but  which  extends  to  ordinary  work- 
shops as  well  as  to  factories  possessing  mechanical  motive  power, 
provided  that  not  less  than  20  workpeople  are  employed  in 
them.  By  this  law  no  child  under  eight  years  can  be  employe*  1 
at  all,  and  none  between  eight  and  twelve  can  be  em  pi 
during  more  than  8  hours  out  of  every  24  hours,  and  those  8 
hours  must  be  divided  by  sufficient  intervals  of  rest.  From 
twelve  to  sixteen  years  of  age,  the  hours  of  labour  may  extend 
to  12,  witli  similar  intervals.  No  person  under  sixteen  can  be 
employed  on  Sundays  or  holidays.  A  subsequent  law  of  8th 
September  1848  limits  the  hours  of  labour  of  adults  in  factories 
of  all  kinds  to  12,  reserving  power  to  the  government  to  declare 
exceptions  to  this  enactment,  in  those  cases  where  the  nature  of 
the  work  or  the  mechanism  may  require  it.  In  1855  Air  Red- 
grave made  a  careful  inquiry  into  the  execution  of  these  mea- 
sures, and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  law  of  1841  had  been 
obeyed  very  imp. -i -feclly,  and  that  of  1848  fairly. 


314  MODERN    LINEN. 

Flax,  as  has  been  shown,  is  extensively  grown  in  many  De- 
partments of  France,  and  some  districts  are  celebrated  for  the 
superior  quality  of  what  they  raise.  In  the  province  of  French 
Flanders,  now  the  department  of  Nord,  Flax  is  one  of  the 
most  important  crops  cultivated,  the  quantity  raised  yearly 
being  large,  and  the  quality  very  superior.  Consul  Pringle, 
in  his  report  of  the  trade  of  1862,  says  that  "  a  good  deal  of 
Flax  is  grown  in  the  district  of  Dunkirk.  Throughout  the 
entire  Department  great  care  is  paid  to  the  cultivation  and 
preparation  of  this  valuable  fibre,  and  the  quality  of  what  is 
produced  will,  in  general,  contrast  favourably  with  what  is 
grown  across  the  border,  in  Flanders  in  Belgium."  In  the 
Department  of  Aisne,  good  Flax  is  grown,  as  well  as  in  the 
Departments  of  Moselle,  Yoges,  and  others.  In  Maine  (Depart- 
ments of  Mayenne  and  Sarthe),  Flax  of  excellent  quality  is 
cultivated  extensively.  In  Eure  and  other  1  )epartments  of  Nor- 
mandy superior  Flax  is  grown.  Bretagne  has  been  long  famous 
for  its  Flax,  especially  the  Departments  of  Finisterre,  Cote-du- 
Nord,  and  Morbihan,  in  all  of  which  it  is  largely  raised. 
Hemp  is  also  grown  to  a  great  extent  in  these  and  in  other 
districts  of  France,  and  the  quality  is  generally  very  superior, 
much  of  it  being  woven  into  Linen,  for  many  varieties  of  which, 
from  its  strength  and  durability,  it  is  well  suited. 

Much  of  the  Flax  raised  in  France  is  characterized  by  fine- 
ness of  fibre,  and  it  is  prised  for  its  spinning  qualities.  A  con- 
siderable part  of  it  is  well  suited  for  being  spun  into  the  finer 
sizes  of  yarn,  indeed  some  of  it  is  so  very  superior  that  it  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  cambric,  lawn,  and  lace,  fabrics  for  which 
France  has  long  been  famous.  In  addition  to  the  Flax  grown 
in  the  country,  a  considerable  quantity  is  imported,  the  produce 
of  the  country  not  being  sufficient  for  the  consumption,  The 
Belgium  Flax  imported  is  very  similar  in  quality  to  the  native 
article,  and  the  Eussian  Flax  bought  by  the  French  spinners  is 
almost  wholly  of  the  higher  marks,  little  of  common  quality 
being  used  in  France. 

The  very  smallest  and  finest  sizes  of  yarn  are  still  spun  by 
hand,  the  human  fingers  being  able  to  produce  a  thread  finer 
than  can  yet  be  made  by  machinery.  There  are  many  Flax- 
spinning  mills  in  France,  where  remarkably  fine  and  perfect 


1  i;i.N<  I!   LINKS. 


315 


yarns  are  spun,  and  which  will  vie  with  any  produced  elsewhere. 
Lille.  ValeneienneM,  Rouen,  Abbeville,  Dunkirk,  Nantes,  Bennes, 
and  several  other  cities  and  towns  have  long  been  celebrated  for 
their  yarns,  and  others  are  following  fast  after  them.  The 
Departments  of  Finisterre  and  Cotes-du-Nord  have  several 
asive  Flax-spinning  establishments,  and  the  trade  is  ex- 
tending there,  as  well  as  in  the  other  districts  in  France  \s ':. 
it  has  got  a  footing. 

The  Linen  manufacture  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  northern 
and  western  provinces  of  France,  but  there  are  establishments 
both  for  spinning  and  weaving  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 
Although  the  trade,  as  already  mentioned,  was  wholly  of  a  do- 
mestic character  in  former  times,  and,  as  in  Scotland  last  cen- 
tury, spread  over  a  great  part  of  the  country,  it  is  now  gradually 
settling  down  in  circumscribed  localities,  where  the  work  is 
mainly  performed  in  lar^e  establishments.  The  provinces  at 
present  most  celebrated  for  their  Linens,  are  French  Flanders. 
Picardy,  Isle  of  France,  Normandy,  Maine,  and  Bretagne  or 
l>rittany.  In  some  of  these  the  manufacture  existed  during  the 
palmy  days  of  Rome,  and  has  never  since  been  lost,  and  in 
others,  although  of  more  recent,  it  is  still  of  ancient  standing. 

The  towns  chiefly  engaged  in  the  Linen  manufacture  are 
Lille,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  seats  of  the  manu- 
facture  ;  Dunkirk,  which  makes  excellent  sail-cloth  ;  Cambray, 
lamed  for  its  cambric,  whence  the  name ;  and  Valenciennes, 
noted  for  its  lace  and  lawns,  all  situate  in  Nord,  in  which  De- 
partment Linen  is  the  most  important  branch  of  industry.  Ab- 
beville and  Amiens,  in  Somme,  make  strong  and  coarse  Linens ; 
St  Quentin  in  Aisno,  tamed  fur  lawns  and  lace  ;  Vimoulier  and 
Alencon,  in  Orne.  in  the  latter  of  which,  a  kind  of  Hempen  and 
Linen  cloth  is  made  largely,  styled  "  Toiles  d'Alen9on,"  which 
are  held  in  high  estimation,  and  of  which  Lorn  25,000  to 
30,000  pieces  are  sold  annually ;  Lisieux,  Caen,  and  Bayeaux, 
in  Calvados,  famous  for  lace  and  lawns,  in  the  manufacture  of 
which  they  employ  upwards  of  50,000  hands ;  Beauvais,  in 
Oise,  which  produces  some  of  the  best  Linens  made  in  France  ; 
Boulogne  and  St  Omar,  in  Pay  de  Calais ;  Dieppe,  Fecamp,  and 
Rouen,  in  Seine  In terieu re  :  IVrnay.  in  L'Eure  ;  La  Mayenne 
employs  about  10,000  persons  in  the  manufacture  of  sail-cloth, 


316  MODERN    LINEN. 

duck,  and  table  Linen,  all  of  excellent  quality  ;  Haute  Rhine 
for  fine  broad  Linen  and  Hempen  cloth ;  Vosges  for  Linens  and 
lace ;  Seine  et  Oise,  and  Seine  et  Marne,  for  Linen  and  cotton 
prints,  &c.,  &c. 

In  all  the  Departments  of  Brittany,  Finisterre,  Cote-du-Nord, 
Morbihan,  Hie  et  Vilaine,  and  Loire  Inferieure,  Linens  are 
manufactured  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  in  some  of  them 
on  a  very  large  scale.  The  Linen  Company  of  Finisterre  alone 
employs  about  2400  hands,  and  other  large  establishments 
exist  throughout  that  province.  At  these  works  sail-cloth, 
ducks,  and  almost  every  variety  of  fine  and  coarse  Linens  are 
made,  the  character  of  which  stands  very  high  for  excellence  of 
material,  and  for  workmanship.  Consul  Barrow,  in  his  report  of 
the  trade  of  Nantes,  in  1862,  says  : — "  There  are  three  Hemp  and 
Flax  spinning  factories  at  Nantes,  and  there  are  manufactures 
of  Linen  and  canvas  in  the  Departments  of  Loire  Inferieure,  at 
some  of  which  several  British  operatives  are  engaged.  For  a 
number  of  years  past  many  spinners  and  other  operatives  have 
gone  from  Britain  to  France,  where  they  are  employed  in  almost 
every  town  where  Linen  manufactures  of  any  importance  are 
carried  on." 

In  the  report  of  Mr  Grey,  Secretary  to  the  Embassy,  dated 
Paris,  20th  February,  1863,  he  says  "  The  Flax  and  Hemp 
trade  feel  that  the  high  prices  of  cotton  create  an  increased  de- 
mand for  these  products ;  and  the  raw  material,  as  well  as  yarns 
and  twists  are  rising  in  value."  The  value  of  the  exports  of 
Linen  cloth,  &c.,  from  France  as  given  by  Mr  Secretary  Grey, 
were  in  1859,  f.108,900,000  ;  in  1860,  f.104,200,000  ;  and  in 
1861,  f.79,900,000,  which  shows  a  great  falling  off,  especially 
in  the  latter  year.  These  figures  are  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
exports  from  France  already  given,  and  which  were  extracted 
from  part  viii.  of  the  statistical  tables  relating  to  foreign  coun- 
tries, published  by  Government.  Perhaps  the  values,  as  given  by 
Mr  Grey,  embrace  both  imports  and  exports,  although  they  are 
stated  in  his  Report  as  exports  only. 

In  the  report  of  the  British  Consul  at  Dunkirk,  for  1861,  he 
says  that  "  since  1st  June  a  great  increase  had  taken  place  in 
the  import  of  Linen  sheeting  and  yarn  from  England.  There 
was  a  proposal  among  some  of  the  dealers  in  these  articles  to 


FHl  317 

import  Irish  Linen  yarn,  and  after  it  had  been  woven  int.. 
Linen,  to  send  it  back  to  Ireland  to  be  bleached.  The  manu- 
factures of  Lille  and  other  towns  in  this  I  K-partinent  will  now 
have  th.'  double  competition  of  England  an<l  IM-ium,  and  must 
exert  themselves  if  they  wish  to  maintain  their  ground.  K 
article  in  daily  use  was  so  expensive  in  France,  that  it  was  ex- 
pected the  relief  to  consumers  would  be  great  when  the  new 
tariff  came  into  operation.  The  principal  factory  was  Dickson 
&  Co.'s  for  the  manufacture  of  Linen,  sail-cloth,  and  carpets, 
and  which,  in  1861  employed  866  hands,  whose  wages  amounted 
to  £316  per  week,  consuming  about  1718  tons  of  raw  material 
annually,  of  the  value  of  about  £80,000,  and  producing  manu- 
factured goods  to  the  amount  of  £120,000,  JUT  annum.  There 
was  then  another  small  Linen  factory  in  Dunkirk,  employing 
fifty-eight  hands,  and  the  product  of  which  was  reckoned  at 
£8000  to  £10,000  annually/' 

The  following  report  on  the  Linens  and  Linen  yarns  exhibited 
at  the  Great  International  Exhibition  of  1862,  written  after  a 
careful  inspection  of  them,  will  conclude  the  chapter  on  the 
Linen  trade  of  France.  Under  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III. 
great  progress  has  been  made,  not  only  in  Linens  but  in  other 
textile  manufactures  in  France.  The  state  of  perfection  they 
have  already  attained  is  wonderful,  and  under  the  wise  and 
fostering  care  of  so  astute  a  man,  they  must  prosper  : — 

"  After  the  United  Kingdom,  and  perhaps  Belgium,  France  is 
the  largest  exhibitor  of  Linens.  Not  only  is  the  collection  ex- 
tensive, but  it  is  very  varied  in  kind,  and  most  excellent  in 
quality.  The  goods  are  shown  in  handsome  cases,  which  sets 
them  off  with  good  effect.  The  position  in  which  some  of  the 
stalls  are  placed  is  unfortunate,  as  the  cross  gallery  prevents  the 
light  from  permeating  among  them,  and  throws  a  shade  over  some 
of  the  cases.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  goods  have  a  very  splen- 
did appearance,  and  command  much  attention.  In  Class  3,  both 
Flax  and  Hemp  are  shown  in  the  straw,  and  in  various  stages  of 
scutching,  cleaning,  heckling,  &c.  The  quality  of  some  of  the 
specimens  is  very  superior,  and  the  dressed  fibre  well  adapted  for 
very  fine  yarns.  Yarns  spun  both  from  the  Flax  and  Hemp  are 
shown.  The  Flax  yarn  is  both  dry  and  wet  spun,  and  some  of 
the  samples  are  remarkably  fine  and  well  spun.  Sail-cloth  is 


318  MODERN  LINEN. 

exhibited  made  of  Flax  yarn,  and  also  of  Hemp  yarn.  The 
Hemp  cloth  is  not  very  sightly,  being  rough,  but  the  Flax  cloth 
is  well  made,  firm,  and  good.  The  Hemp  exhibited,  No.  450, 
is  broke  and  scutched  without  retting.  It  appears  to  be  well 
done,  the  fibre  good,  and  very  suitable  both  for  making  into 
cloth  and  also  for  fine  twines,  &c. 

"  In  Class  19,  Flax  and  Hemp  yarn  and  cloth  of  many  descrip- 
tions are  shown.      The  yarns  vary  from  the  finest  cambric  quali- 
ties, to  coarse  sizes  both  of  Flax  and  Tow,  for  sail-cloth,  sacking, 
&c.     In  the  quality  of  the  spin  there  must  necessarily  be  con- 
siderable variety,  but  on  the  whole  the  samples  are  very  uniform 
and  level.     Some  of  them  are  remarkably  fine,  both  in  quality 
and  spin,  and  quite  equal  to  those  shown  from  either  Leeds  or 
Belfast.     Jute  yarns  are  also  exhibited,  of  very  good  quality, 
which  would  do  no  dishonour  to  Dundee.      Beautifully  pre- 
pared sewing  thread,  of  many  shades  of  colour,  and  of  different 
qualities,  are  also  exhibited.      Many  of  the  Linens  shown  are 
in    the   loom    state,   which   makes    them    appear  rough   and 
unsightly,  but  the   quality  is  generally  very  superior.      The 
bleached  and  finished  goods  are  got  up  with  much  care  and 
taste,  and  are  of  great  excellence.      Twilled  tow  sacking,  plain 
hemp  sacking,  double  warp  plain  bagging,  and  other  sorts  of 
coarse  goods,  are  exhibited,  the  quality  of  which  is  strong  and 
good.      They  are  made  of  well-spun  yarn,  well  manufactured, 
and  very  suitable  for  the  purposes  intended,  but  like  all  Flax  tow 
fabrics,  they  appear  rough  and  coarse  beside  Jute  goods.      Sail- 
cloth is  shown  by  Dickson  of  Dunkirk  and  other  firms,  of  re- 
markably superior  quality.     The  material  is  excellent,  the  yarns 
are  well  spun,  and  the  cloth  is  very  firm  and  level,  and  admir- 
ably manufactured.     It  is  shown  in  the  various  numbers  from  7 
to  0,  and  in  one  instance  to  00,  and  some  specimens  are  equal  to 
any  of  the  goods  from  this  district.      Some  brown  army  ducks 
and  similar  goods  of  excellent  quality,  are  shown.      Sheetings, 
shirtings,  cambrics,  lawns,  &c.,  are  exhibited,  made  of  excellent 
yarn  and  finely  woven.     The  cloth  is  very  highly  bleached  and 
beautifully  finished       Very  pretty  cambric  handkerchiefs  and 
dresses,  rich,  yet  chaste,  both  in  colour  and  design,  are  shown. 
Damasks  in  table-cloths,  towellings,  dowleys,  &c.,  are  exhibited 
in  the  white  on  brown,  and  in  the  full  bleached  state,  the  quality 


RUSSIAN  LIKEN.  319 

of  which  is  truly  admirable.  The  design  of  the  damask,  is  in 
all  cast's,  rich  and  beautiful,  and.  in  some  of  the  specimens,  it  is 
lisite,  and  the  finish  of  all  is  of  the  very  highest  merit.  The 
display  is  altogether  of  so  great  excellence  that  our  home  spin 
ners  and  manufacturers  have  difficulty  in  holding  their  own 
against  their  brethren  in  France.  They  will  1»<  i  ntirely  outdone 
in  point  of  quality,  design,  bleach,  and  finish,  at  no  distant  day, 
should  they  at  all  relax  in  their  efforts  to  maintain  the  supe- 
riority they  have  hitherto  held." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

RUSSIAN      LINEN. 

RUSSIA,  although  now  a  great  country  in  respect  of  the  vast 
extent  of  its  territory,  is  in  its  intercourse  with  the  other  nations 
of  Europe,  of  comparatively  modern  origin.  Commercially  little 
was  known  of  it  throe  centuries  ago,  and  the  trade  between 
Russia  and  other  countries  was  at  that  period  quite  insignifi- 
cant. Since  it  first  became  known  to  the  trading  nations  ot  the 
world,  its  commerce  has  extended  greatly,  and  some  branches  of 
its  trade  is  now  of  first-rate  importance.  Chief  among  these 
are  its  exports  of  Flax  and  Hemp,  and  their  products,  which 
now  amount  to  several  millions  sterling  yearly. 

Russia  has  for  a  long  period  been  the  greatest  Flax  and  Hemp 
growing  country  of  the  world.  To  its  cultivation  of  these  fibres 
the  several  Linen  manufacturing  countries  of  Europe  have  been 
largely  indebted  for  their  staple  raw  material.  It  is  computed 
that  the  quantity  of  Flax  annually  raised  in  Russia  is,  on  the 
average,  about  150,000  tons,  of  which  about  one-third  is  consumed 
in  its  native  manufactures,  and  the  balance  exported.  Its 
Hemp  is  also  largely  used  in  Europe,  and  in  other  divisions  of 


320  MODERN  LINEN. 

the  world,  for  cordage,  twines,  and  in  many  cases  for  textile 
fabrics,  for  the  former  of  which,  from  its  strength  and  tar  absorb- 
ing qualities,  it  is  admirably  adapted. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  Russia  was  not  known 
excepting  to  a  few  Flemish  merchants,  who  found  the  trade 
profitable,  and  for  a  considerable  period  kept  their  own  secret 
and  the  trade  to  themselves.  The  English  discovered  it  by 
chance,  after  which  they  were  not  slow  to  avail  themselves  of  its 
advantages.  In  1553  an  English  ship,  sent  out  in  search  of  a 
north-west  passage,  touched  at  the  place  where  Archangel  now 
stands,  and  this  led  to  the  formation,  in  the  following  year,  of  a 
company  of  merchants  for  trading  with  that  country. 

In  1555,  a  treaty  was  entered  into  by  Ivan  Yassiliewitch  II.  of 
Muscovy,  and  Philip  and  Mary  of  England,  by  which  a  monopoly 
was  granted  to  the  English  to  trade  with  Russia.  The  trade 
was  carried  on  almost  exclusively  between  the  English  and  the 
Russian  Government  itself,  private  individuals  not  being  allowed 
the  privilege  of  trading  with  the  foreigners.  The  English 
established  factories  at  Kolmogorod,  near  where  Archangel  now 
stands,  Novgorod,  Vologda,  and  Moscow,  and  ultimately  ex- 
tended their  commerce  by  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Persia  and 
Bokhara. 

The  Russia  company  was  incorporated  by  charter  of  Philip 
and  Mary,  and  it  was  sanctioned  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1566. 
The  statute  10  and  11,  William  III.,  cap.  6,  enacts  that  "  every 
British  subject  desiring  admission  into  the  Russian  company 
shall  be  admitted  on  paying  £5  ;  and  every  individual  admitted 
into  the  company  shall  conduct  his  business  entirely  as  a  private 
adventurer,  or  as  he  would  do  were  the  company  abolished." 
Duties  were  payable  to  the  Russian  company  on  all  goods  im- 
ported into  England,  among  which  were  the  following,  viz. :  — 
Flax,  the  ton,  9d ;  Hemp,  7d ;  mats,  the  100,  2d ;  Linen,  the 
120  ells— drillings,  l£d;  diaper,  2d ;  22J  to  31J  inches  wide, 
3d  ;  31 J  to  45  inches,  4d ;  45  inches  and  upwards,  6d ;  sailcloth, 
3d;  cordage,  the  cwt.,  2d;  linseed,  the  quarter,  2d ;  &c.,  &c. 
Goods  not  enumerated  to  pay  one-eighth  per  cent,  ad  valorum, 
on  the  declaration  of  the  importer. 

The  exports  from  Russia  at  first  were  chiefly  hides,  furs,  &c. 
The  imports  cloth,  and  what  is  remarkable,  coarse  Linens,  which, 


321 


I'm-  Ion-  aii.r.  iinted  a  large  part  of  the  export*  to  thai 

country.  In  1  &">.">,  the  exports  from  Archangel  were  valued  at 
about £330,000  sterling,  and  they  embraced  coarse  Linens,  and 
Linen  yarns  ;  but  no  Flax  is  m.-ntinned,  and  tin-  export  of  that 
artielr,  if  ;my,  inu.M  l1:,  :  ;,  Mnall.  In  the 

century  from  the  first  opening  up  of  th«-  trade  t«»  the  English 
until  that  period,  great  changes  bad  taken  place  in  the  commerce 
of  Russia.  I  jnens  had  now  ceased  to  be  imported,  and  were  classi- 
fied among  the  exports.  Instead  of  the  exports  <• 
an  1  fur-,  \vhieh  imply  a  people  dependent  on  their  tloeks  and  h 
or  Upnii  the  wild  animal  <>t  ihe  e<>nnt:y,  and  in  a  state  of  rude 
barbarism,  they  had  changed  to  yarns  and  cloth,  which  infer  a 
considerable  degree  of  practical  kno\\  h  di;  •  and  skill.  The  skins 
and  furs  are  grown  to  their  hand,  but  the  yams  and  Linens 
require  that  the  Flax  shall  be  cultivated,  deprived  of  its  woody 
stem  and  the  fibre  cleaned,  then  spun  into  filaments,  and  these 
wrought  into  a  textile  fabric.  All  these  changes  indicate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  productions  of  nature,  the  preparation  of 
them  for  use,  and  the  mechanical  means  necessary  for  accoin- 
pl i>hing  the  alterations  they  must  undergo  to  adapt  them  for  the 
purposes  they  are  intended  to  serve. 

In  1724,  the  monopoly  by  the  Russian  Government  was  totally 
broken  up,  and  private  merchants  first  established  themselves  at 
Archangel,  duties  being  charged,  for  the  benefit  of  the  crown,  on 
the  importation  of  goods.  In  1726  the  first  duties  were  laid  on 
exports.  Compared  with  the  days  of  the  monopoly  by  the  Russia  n 
Government,  this  was  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  and  the  country 
benefited  greatly  by  this  institution  of  free  trade,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  following  return  of  the  average  value  of  the  trade  for  succes- 
sive  decennial  periods  from  1724  to  1833,  being  in  all  110  years. 


Ten  Years  Ending  Imports. 

1733  Roubles,    137,535 

1743  181,346 

1753  143,276 

1763  182,054 

177  327,430 

351,386 

1793  643,737 

066,088 
4,506,290 
i.-jr 
87> 


1813 
1823 
1833 


Exports.  Average  Value  of  Rouble 

Rouble*,    279,113  SOU  to  40.1 

**>m 

288.440 
457,960 
1,049,685 
,786 
1,89:' 
!.743 

'-.247  Bd 

9,930, 4:U  1URN-. 


322 


MODERN  LINEN. 


These  figures,  for  the  period  up  to  1803,  were  extracted  from 
an  old  manuscript,  some  time  in  the  possession  of  a  merchant 
in  Archangel.  They  show  that  the  trade  must  have  declined 
after  1655,  as  it  was  not  until  towards  the  end  of  last  century 
that  the  value  of  the  exports  reached  the  same  point  at  which 
they  are  stated  to  be  for  that  year. 

The  following  tables  show  the  exports  of  Flax,  Tow,  and  Codilla 
from  Archangel,  from  1823  to  1.853 ;  also  the  same  articles,  toge- 
ther with  the  linseed  and  mats  exported,  from  1856  to  1863 : — 


Flax. 

Towand.Codilla. 

Flax. 

Tow  and  Codilla. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons, 

Tons. 

1823 

1,356 

116 

1839 

4,788 

1,897 

1824 

831 

98 

1840 

3,940 

2,521 

1825 

2,465 

227 

1841 

4,050 

2,738 

1826 

228 

32 

1842 

2,066 

1,578 

1827 

79  L 

74 

1843 

2,980 

3,136 

1828 

871 

67 

1844 

4,233 

4,273 

1829 

2,082 

160 

1845 

6,414 

5,096 

1830 

2,577 

876 

1846 

5,403 

5,563 

1831 

4,315 

1,232 

1847 

6,340 

6,163 

1832 

1,916 

1,287 

1848 

1,799 

1,975 

1833 

3,083 

1,774 

1849 

5,530 

5.131 

1834 

2,459 

2,266 

1850 

7,100 

4,961 

1835 

3,188 

2,287 

1851 

4,407 

2,953 

1836 

3,303 

1,630 

1852 

6,204 

5,152 

1837 

2,857 

679 

1853 

8,465 

6,138 

1838 

3,462 

2065 

Flax. 

Tow  and  Codill-i. 

Linseed. 

Mats. 

Tons, 

Tons, 

Quarters, 

Pieces, 

1856 

7,821 

5,247 

117,531 

630,185 

1857 

4,766 

3,461 

114,106 

639,012 

1858 

4,345 

4,084 

49,106 

575,030 

1859 

8,168 

8,063 

56,740 

282,787 

1860 

3,588 

3,218 

60,419 

348,011 

1861 

4,951 

4,907 

61,497 

325,815 

1862 

4,305 

4,114 

87,065 

785,244 

1863 

4,134 

4,451 

8,680 

307,555 

Whereof  to  Great  Britain  in  1862— Flax,  4051  tons  ;  Tow  and  Codilla,  3086  tons ; 
Linseed,  33,732  quarters  ;  Mats,  669,574  pieces.  In  1863— Flax,  3340  tons  ;  Tow 
and  Codilla,  3274  tons  ;  Linseed,  4684  quarters  ;  Mats,  276,770  pieces. 

The  Flax  goods  shipped  at  Archangel  bear  a  high  character 
in  the  markets  of  great  Britain.  They  are  grown  near  the  centre 
of  Kussia,  in  the  Governments  of  Vologda,  Viatka,  Yaroslav, 
Kostroma,  Novgorod,  &c.,  whence  they  are  taken  to  Archangel. 
Some  of  the  districts  produce  a  quality  of  Flax  much  superior  to 
others,  although  the  general  characteristics  of  all  are  the  same. 


RUSSIAN  LIN 

i  r  retted,  of  a  *  >ft .  silky  n.- it  lire,  and 

th.  til, iv  reducible  by  heckling  to  a  high  degree  of  fineness. 
This  nrikrv  it  adm»ral>ly  adapted  for  being  spun  into  the  higher 
n  umbers  of  yarn  All  dew-retted  Flax  is  very  apt  to  heat,  both  on 
the  voyage  and  iu  the  warehouse,  if  confined  in  a  hot  place  without 
free  circulation  of  air,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  this, 
as  it  weakens  the  Flax  very  rapidly,  and  soon  totally  destroys  it. 

The  Flax  grown  in  the  Veligodski  district  has  been  long 
famous  for  its  fineness  and  softness,  and  it  bleaches  well.  Viatka 
has  generally  a  longer  fibre,  but  it  is  hard  and  not  so  well 
cleaned,  and  it  does  not  subdivide  so  minutely  on  the  heckle  as 
the  former.  Yaroslav  produces  good  serviceable  Flax,  and  so  do 
some  of  the  other  districts  mentioned  above. 

Of  late  years  the  St  Petersburg  merchants  have  bought  consider- 
able quantities  of  Flax  in  these,  which  are  called  the  Archangel 
districts,  and  tip MV  is  no  doubt  that  their  purchases  will  yearly 
increase,  because  St  Petersburg  possesses  advantages  over  Arch- 
angel by  its  better  internal  communications  and  as  a  port  for  ship- 
ment. The  brack  of  Flax  in  Archangel,  which  is  very  strict,  is  a 
guarantee  of  quality  which  shipments  from  St  Petersburg  do  not 
possess ;  and  while  it  continues  to  be  as  honourably  performed  as 
it  has  hitherto  been,  Archangel  Flax  will  be  preferred  by  buyers, 
even  although  the  price  is  a  little  higher  than  at  its  rival  >hip- 
1'insj  port.  This  may  tend  to  preserve  a  part  of  the  trade  to 
Arcli;i!:u.  1.  » -prcially  that  of  the  districts  lying  nearest  to  it. 

Archangel  Flax  is  divided  into  Otborny  and  Crown,  but  little 
of  the  former  is  now  shipped.  The  Crown  is  classed  into  1st, 
2d,  and  3d  sorts,  4th  Crown  and  Zabrack.  The  first  sort  is 
beautifully  fine,  Imt  the  quantity  of  this  class  is  small,  and  the 
price  relatively  high.  After  laying  aside  any  strikes  fit  for  1st 
sort,  the  next  best  is  put  into  the  2d  sort,  the  next  into  3d  sort, 
and  the  worst  is  4th  Crown.  Until  1 862  there  were  only  four 
classes  in  all,  and  the  new  classification  has  not  yet  had  sufficient 
trial  to  test  its  merits.  Zabrack  was  formerly  the  4th  sort  ot 
the  growths,  but  it  is  now  let  down  a  step  in  the  brack  ladder. 
Zabrack  is  Flax  too  short,  or  which  contains  too  much  tow  to  be 
cleaned  with  the  other  qualities,  and  as  it  is  thus  the  refuse  oi 
every  growth  it  is  net  very  uniform  in  quality. 

Codillais  the  loose  fibres  which  come  off  in  sorting  the  Flax  in- 
x  2 


324  MODERN  LINEN. 

tended  for  shipment,  and  it  varies  in  quality  with  the  district  in 
which  it  is  grown.  The  tow  exported  is  taken  off  in  heckling  the 
Flax  used  in  the  home  manufactures  of  the  district  whence  it 
comes,  (formerly  it  was  taken  off  with  a  brush),  and  it  also  varies 
in  quality  with  the  Flax  from  which  it  is  taken.  Codilla  is  classed 
by  the  brackers  into  1st,  2d,  and  3  qualities,  and  tow  into  Nos.  1 
and  2  qualities  ;  and  both  tow  and  codilla,  from  their  fine  and 
soft  fibre,  possess  superior  spinning  qualities. 

The  Flax  shipped  from  Archangel  is  made  up  in  small  hand- 
fuls  or  strikes,  and  packed  in  mats  of  about  five  hundredweight. 
The  tow  and  codilla  are  also  packed  in  mats  of  about  the  same 
weight.  The  tow  is  in  small  handfuls,  as  it  comes  off  the 
heckle,  and  the  codilla  generally  in  fleeces  or  flakes,  rolled  to 
gether  at  the  one  end  and  loose  at  the  other. 

Both  Flax  and  tow  from  Archangel  are  clean,  soft,  and  silky, 
and  pretty  free  from  shives.  The  codilla,  which  is  longer  and 
stronger  in  the  fibre  than  tow,  is  also  comparatively  free  from 
shives,  excepting  the  3d  sort,  which  is  the  coarsest  of  the  scutch- 
ings  taken  off  the  Flax. 

Mr  Consul  Eenny,  in  his  report  on  the  trade  of  the  district 
of  Archangel  for  1862,  says : — "  The  export  of  Flax  and  Flax- 
tow  shows  a  decrease  for  1862,  principally  owing  to  the  fact  that 
in  the  farther  districts  which  supply  this  port,  the  Archangel 
traders  find  themselves  less  and  less  able  to  compete  with  buyers 
for  the  St  Petersburg  market,  and  for  the  Eussian  factories. 
The  advantages  which  St  Petersburg  possesses  over  Archangel 
are  a  lower  scale  of  shipping  charges  (there  being  no  charges 
for  "  brack,"  or  indirect  banking  business),  cheaper  freights  and 
rates  of  exchange.  On  the  other  hand  Archangel  boasts  of  an 
excellent  Flax  brack,  which  forms  a  guarantee  of  quality  to 
foreign  buyers,  and  where  the  difference  of  cost  is  not  too  great 
they  prefer  shipment  from  Archangel.  This  circumstance  will, 
at  all  events,  secure  to  this  port  the  export  of  Flax  from  the 
nearer  districts  of  its  growth,  and  the  quantity  will  probably  be 
sustained  about  its  present  standard."  The  average  rates  paid  for 
Flax  per  ton  in  1862  was  £48  10s,  and  for  Flax-tow  £34  3s  6d. 
In  1863  they  were  £58  5s  6d,  and  £40  13s  6d,  respectively. 

At  one  period  large  quantities  of  Hemp  were  shipped  at  Arch- 
angel, sometimes  extending  to  1500  tons  a  year,  but  the  article 


RUSSIAN  LINEN. 

is  now  almost  unknown  in  the  export  *  from  that  port.  The 
great  shipping  ports  for  the  Hemp  of  Russia  are  now  Riga  and 
8t  Petersburg. 

For  a  long  period  after  the  openini:  up  <>i 'the  trade  of  Arch- 
angel, that  city  was  the  only  port  accessible  to  Europeans,  and  the 
whole  import  and  export  trade  of  Russia  was  transacted  there. 
The  port  of  Archangel,  from  its  geographical  position,  is  only  open 
for  about  five  months,  bcin.u  eomplrhly  ice-bound  during  tin; 
remainder  of  the  year,  which  is  a  great  drawback  to  its  trade, 
mid  confines  it  to  comparatively  narrow  limits.  Peter  the  Great 
frit  thk  and  determined,  so  far  as  in  his  power,  to  obviate  such 
a  serious  himlranee  in  the  indefinite  extension  of  the  commerce 
of  his  country,  by  erecting  cities  on  the  Baltic.  None  of  the 
Russian  towns  on  that  sea  are  open  throughout  the  whole  year, 
but  the  winter  in  some  of  them  does  not  last  more  than  three 
or  four  months,  so  that  they  are  only  sealed  up  about  half  as 
lonjj  as  Arehanuel  annually  is. 

The  city  of  St  Petersburg  was  founded  in  1703,  and,  under 
imperial  patronage,  it  speedily  became  a  flourishing  emporium  of 
1 rade  and  commerce.  From  its  position  and  from  other  causes,  it 
attracted  part  of  the  trade  to  itself  which  had  previously  been 
all  transacted  at  Archangel,  among  which  was  the  export  of  Flax, 
Hemp,  and  Linens.  The  city  being  erected  at  some  distance 
ii]  i  the  Neva,  Cronstadt,  situated  on  a  small  island  about  twenty 
miles  below,  may,  in  some  measure,  be  considered  the  port  of 
St  Petersburg,  as  only  vessels  with  a  small  draught  of  water  can 
get  up  to  the  city. 

Large  quantities  of  Flax  and  Hemp  are  now  shipped  at  St 
Petersburg  yearly,  as  well  as  canvas  and  various  sorts  of  Linens, 
and  these  articles  form  a  most  important  portion  of  the  exports 
from  that  city,  and  from  its  port.  The  mode  of  bracking  and  mak- 
ing up  Hemp  has  been  detailed  in  the  chapter  whieh  treats  of  that 
fibre.  The  Flax  shipped  there  consists  of  the  white  sorts  known 
as  St  Petersburg  Flax,  and  of  the  St  Petersburg  Archangel 
qualities.  The  latter  differs  little  from  the  real  Archangel 
described  above,  excepting  that  among  the  dew-retted  or  brown 
Flax  shipped  from  this  p«.rt.  time  are  varieties  of  an  in- 
ferior quality,  such  as  Rjeff,  <fec.,  much  of  which  is  unfit  for 
the  purposes  to  which  this  description  of  Flax  is  usually 


326  MODERN  LINEN. 

applied.       The   white   Flax,   when  assorted,  is  made   up  in 
bundles  of  12,  9,  or  6  heads,  which  are  called  bobbins  ;  and  they 
are  tied  up  with  strings,  each  sort  having  a  stated  number.     It 
is  not  matted  when  shipped,  as  the  other  description  is.     It  is 
known  to  the  trade  under  these  denominations,  the  12  head 
being  the  best,  and  the  6  head  the  worst  of  the  three  qualities. 
This  Flax  is  steeped  in  ponds  to  prepare  it  for  the  process  of 
scutching,  instead  of  being  laid  on  the  grass  and  dew-retted  as 
the  Archangel  sorts  are.      It  is   grown   in   the  Governments 
around   St   Petersburg,    chiefly   in   Novgorod,   &c ,   and  it  is 
longer,  broader,  and  stronger  in  the  harle  or  fibre  than  the  dew- 
retted  sorts ;  but  it  is  not  even,  and  therefore  it  yields  less  pure  Flax 
on  the  heckle,  and  the  fibre  does  not  subdivide  so  much  in  heck- 
ling     The  Flax  raised  in  some  of  the  St  Petersburg  districts  is 
much  superior,  and  of  a  different  character,  to  what  is  grown 
in  others  ;  thus  Pskoff  or  Ostroff  12  heads  is  more  valuable 
than  ordinary  12  heads.     The  Flax  shipped  from  Narva,  a  port 
in  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  below  Cronstadt,  is  made  up  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  and  under  the  same  names  as  St  Petersburg  goods? 
and  the  quality  is  generally  preferred  to  the  latter.     The  ship- 
ments from  Narva  average  about  2000  tons  of  Flax,  and  500 
tons  of  codilla  yearly. 

Formerly  St  Petersburg  (white)  Flax  was  much  superior  to 
what  it  now  is,  the  9  heads  in  former  times  being  quite  equal  to 
the  12  heads  of  the  present  day.  Then  it  was  regularly  classified 
according  to  its  quality,  and  made  up  into  bundles  by  sworn  in- 
spectors or  brackers,  appointed  by  Government.  These  function- 
aries for  a  time  performed  their  duties  with  laudable  impartiality, 
but  latterly  buyers  lost  confidence  in  them,  and  the  brack  was 
discontinued.  Now  it  is  made  up  in  the  interior  by  the  dealers' 
own  inspectors,  who,  of  course,  follow  the  instructions  of  their 
employers.  Free  on  board  buyers  must  therefore  trust  to  the 
honour  of  the  dealers  from  whom  it  is  purchased,  as  the  mer- 
chants see  little  of  the  Flax,  and  are  very  much  at  the  mercy 
of  those  with  whom  they  may  have  contracted  for  its  delivery. 
These  dealers  go  into  the  interior  during  the  winter,  purchase 
the  Flax  from  the  farmers  and  growers,  and  bring  it  down  clas- 
sified to  the  shipping  port,  where  it  is  delivered  over  to  the  mer- 
chants, and  by  them  shipped.  Government  inspection  and  all 


327 


interference  between  the  producer  ami  pun -haaur  of  any  com- 
modity is  bad  in  principle,  and  often  injuri.niH  in  practice,  but 
th.-i-e  is  no  doubt  that  -Ik-nt  brack  in  Archangel,  and  the 

tuln-ably  fair  brack  in  Riga,  have  retained  a  character  for  the  ship- 
inents  from  these  places,  which  other  ports,  u 
has  been  discontinued,  have  lost. 

The  shipments  from  8t  Petersburg  for  the  years  mentioned 
a s  follows: — 


Flax,  Ac. 

Hemp,  Ac. 

FUx  Ac. 

Hemp,  Ac. 

Tons. 

TOM. 

TOM. 

TOM 

1MB 

1843 

6.767 

22,037 

is-.v, 

1844 

7,363 

27,530 

1897 

ll.l'.fJ 

'.597 

1840 

30003 

ISL'S 

1846 

M44J 

IStt 

6,688 

16,387 

1847 

0,389 

28,395 

mo 

'.».  :;.-,:, 

21,673 

1848 

14,793 

•Jl,C29 

1831 

4774 

•J  1,078 

1849 

,689 

30991 

IM 

29,136 

L8BO 

15,070 

28,836 

-,  680 

31,582 

ls;,i 

9,860 

29,970 

r.  :;::; 

30,035 

1862 

13311 

26,562 

1836 

8,606 

L'15 

1853 

20,569 

37,793 

L83fl 

10,657 

31,667 

1868 

18,764 

22,945 

1837 

s.  .v,:, 

31.579 

I860 

20,930 

28,900 

1638 

14,229 

35,587 

ISM 

19,117 

27,820 

1888 

3716 

35,621 

1861 

20.593 

25,298 

1S40 

7.919 

28,885 

isr.-j 

26,450 

28,'J 

1841 

7,506 

22,781 

1863 

22,591 

24,' 

1S4L' 

9.233 

20,349 

Very  large  quantities  of  Linens,  the  manufacture  of  Russia,  were 
also  exported  from  St  Petersburg,  but  of  late  years  the  shipments 
have  declined.  The  quantities  for  the  years  mentioned  were — 


Of  which  to  Great 

1807. 

Britain. 

1880.                           UK 

Havens  ducks,       PCS., 

122,060 

78,154 

PC*, 

43,506       Pc».,        8,500 

Floras,    . 

46,312 

18,418 

II 

65,327           „         1,340 

Sailcloth,       .     Arsb., 

64,«M 

310 

,, 

40,868           „        26,000 

Diaper—  broad,       „ 

393,470 

H^flU 

Awh., 

1,465,229                     i^oort 

„    —narrow,    „ 

117,806 

87,988 

,, 

56,750           *  "'       ' 

Linen—  broad,        „ 

56,000 

56,000 

11 

60           „         None. 

,,    —  narrow,     „ 

203,540 

191,540 

ii 

None.                      None. 

Crash,    .        .        „ 

1  081830 

1   (l.")S  .Yi."i 

1,111,301           „    4,425,090 

Drillings,        . 

3,889 

8,619 

M 

.487           „        None, 

Hemp—  clean,     Pds., 

1,495,522 

1,104,265 

Pd*,, 

533,363       Pds.,  1,258,527 

„    —  outahot,    „ 

•MM 

88,173 

„ 

632,731                    71,002 

„    -half  clean,, 

1  (-.1,520 

303,716 

,       222,007 

„    -codilla,     , 

30,073 

19,516 

H 

26,032 

None. 

Flax—  12  head,      . 

431.307 

M 

126,519 

604,996 

»»       ~~v       ,, 

KI,:,<N-, 

•J.MM.V,:, 

269,432 

II       "~O       >,               , 

323 

>  • 

120,14'.) 

293,104 

Tow  and  Codilla,  , 

15,481 

8,519 

ii 

94,653 

355,695 

328  MODERN    LINEN. 

Next  to  Narva,  lower  down  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  is  Revel 
and  in  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  Pernau,  both  of  which  are  Flax  ship- 
ping ports.  The  Flax  shipped  from  Revel  averages  about 
1000  tons  a  year,  and  the  codilla  about  200  tons.  It  is  mostly 
grown  in  Esthonia,  and  the  quality  is  strong  and  good.  From 
Pernau  the  shipments  of  Flax  average  about  4500  tons  a  year.  In 
1863  they  were  about  5000  tons.  It  is  chiefly  xaised  in  Esthonia 
and  Livonia,  and  considerable  attention  is  paid  to  the  classifica- 
tion and  sorting  of  the  goods  shipped.  Pernau  Flax  therefore 
stands  high  in  the  estimation  of  consumers  in  Dundee,  and  de- 
servedly so,  as  it  is  of  good  strong  fibre,  well  cleaned,  and  pos- 
sessed of  superior  spinning  qualities  The  Flax  shipped  from 
Revel  and  Pernau  consists  of  what  was  called  Crown  Marienburg, 
Marienburg  Cut,  Hoffs  Threeband,  and  Risten  Threeband.  They 
are  now  called — M,  Marienburg  ;  C,  Cut ;  R,  Risten  ;  HD,  Hoffs 
Threeband ;  D,  Threeband ;  OD,  ordinary  or  inferior  Three- 
band. 

Riga  ranks  next  to  St  Petersburg  in  the  extent  of  its  exports, 
and  in  the  important  article  of  Flax  it  has  long  taken  the  lead 
in  the  superiority  and  regularity  of  the  quality  shipped,  as  well  as 
in  the  quantity.  Formerly  the  Flax  was  distinguished  by  a  few 
well  known  names,  either  those  of  the  provinces  or  estates  in 
which  it  was  grown,  or  arising  from  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
tied  up  in  heads  or  bundles.  The  following  short  description  of 
the  old  Riga  marks  will  not  be  without  interest  to  modern 
dealers  in  Flax: — TR — Thiesenhausen  Rakitzer,  (grown  on 
the  estate  of  Count  Thiesenhausen),  was  of  a  long  harle,  strong, 
even,  clean,  white  and  soft.  From  a  custom  which  the  country 
people  had  in  wetting  their  hands  in  working  or  preparing  this 
assortment,  it  made  it  unfit  for  long  voyages  in  a  warm  climate, 
as  it  was  apt  to  heat.  The  picked  parcels  of  this  description  was 
called  PTR.  DR — Drujana  Rakitzer,  was  rather  finer  in  fibre, 
not  quite  so  long,  but  clean,  soft,  white,  and  silver  coloured,  and 
fit  for  spinning  into  the  finest  yarns.  It  was  not  prepared  with 
moist  hands,  and  was  generally  shipped  to  Spain,  Portugal,  &c. 
Lithuania  and  Courland  Rakitzer  was  not  so  good  in  quality 
as  the  other  sorts.  It  was  commonly  tied  up  in  ban  is  of  four 
handfuls,  doubled  at  one  end.  CM — Crown  Marienburg,  was 
a  description  a  little  superior  even  to  the  above  marks  with 
a  very  long  stout  harle,  white,  or  of  a  bluish  tinge  of  colour, 


RUSSIAN   ! 


ami  much  liked  in  Britain.     Since  the  names  of  the  Riga  1 
were  changed  a  few  years  ago,  these  qualities  are  now  represented 
by  the  different  marks  of  Crown  Flax,  such  as  P  K .  I  1 '  K    <fcc. 

DC— Drujann  Cut  was  the  rejections  made  in  bracking  the 
llnkit/tT,  in  consequence  of  not  being  so  well  dram-il,  or  from 
some  other  cause.  Maricnljuru;  Cut  wa-  in  like  maim- T  the  re- 
fuse of  the  CM.  This  mark  was  made  up  in  bundles,  loose  at 
both  ends,  and  tied  in  the  middle  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave 
a  gash  resembling  the  cut  of  a  knife.  They  are  now  represented 
by  the  W  marks.  RT — Risten  Threeband  was  in  like  manner 
the  refuse  of  the  DC  and  MC,  and  is  now  represented  by  the 
1)  marks.  The  Livonian  Flax  isdenomnated  at  Riga,  HD,  Hoffs 
Threeband.  This  mark  was  tied  up  in  bundles,  loose  at  both  ends, 
and  fastened  with  two  or  three  strings  in  the  middle.  Hoffs  are 
still  shipped  extensively,  and  as  the  fibre  is  strong,  and  the  yield 
on  the  heckle  considerable,  it  is  very  suitable  for  sailcloth  and 
ot  her  purposes  where  strength  is  required.  The  refuse  of  this  Flax 
is  LD,  Livonian  Threeband.  The  green  ends  on  Livonian  Flax 
is  caused  by  tying  the  end,  and  hanging  it  over  a  rope  or  pole  in 
bleaching  or  retting.  DC  cost  about  Ro.  5  less  than  TR,  and  RT 
from  Ro.  3  to  4  less  than  DC.  Riga  Flax  is  generally  shipped  in 
mats  of  from  3  to  4  cwt.  each.  The  Flax  shipped  the  year  it 
is  raised  is  called  fresh,  and  it  possesses  more  elasticity,  and 
spins  better  than  when  long  kept. 

The  exports  from  Riga  in  the  years  noted  were  as  follows : — 


Flax,  to. 

Hemp,  &c. 

Flax,  Ac. 

Hemp,  Ac. 

Tons.                   Ton*. 

TOM. 

Tons. 

1825 

23,701                 11.828 

1844 

37,528 

19,955 

ISM 

23,383 

1'  1.415 

1840 

•J  1,052 

15286 

1887 

24,758 

11,587 

IS}.', 

L'l.U'.t 

16,954 

1828 

•-'i,:*77 

li.;  i 

Is  17 

19.042 

15,168 

1889 

24,394 

10487 

IMS 

.'45 

1880 

19,807 

1888 

45,344 

IM8S 

ls;;i 

iM-.Ci 

sj3 

1808 

88J87 

13,883 

]*:;•_> 

>:» 

13,838 

IS.M 

27,529 

17,887 

1883 

25,474 

ll.7'.'7 

l.s.VJ 

33,387 

1  \«>78 

is.;t 

18,784 

K..022 

is:.:; 

8MH 

18,912 

MM 

i:.  177 

1868 

40,617 

24.901 

I8M 

28,415 

44,829 

20,412 

1887 

20.128 

13,875 

1888 

777 

20,747 

1888 

i:,.u;r, 

1888 

-l,  '.KM 

25,050 

1889 

22,257 

21,                   !*;.» 

,887 

•Jl/267 

IS  10 

20,148 

20663 

1841 

s02 

17,124 

20,295 

1849 

18086 

•-75 

.172 

17,019 

1S43 

37,782 

15,219        || 

330 


MODERN  LINEN. 


DESTINATION  OF  FLAX  AND  HEMP  SHIPPED  FROM  RIGA  IN  1860  AND  1861,  AND 
OF  CRUSHING  AND  SOWING  LINSEED  AND  HEMP  SEED  FOR  1861. 


Flax. 


Hemp. 


Countries. 

1860. 

1861. 

1860. 

1861. 

Great  Britain,                Tons. 

,  25,277 

19,452           Tons 

i,  10,188 

9,070 

5,687 

4,306 

1,570 

2  220 

9,  159 

>     vvf                               ?5 

1,486 

2 

<y?  tm\j 

442 

Sweden  and  Norwaj',        ,, 

206 

412 

1,914 

2,827 

Prussia,          .          .           „ 

497 

394 

595 

780 

Portugal,        .          .           „ 

478 

355 

264 

434 

Denmark,      .          .           ,, 

774 

351 

1,026 

949 

Holland,        .          .          „ 

139 

227 

2,946 

2,456 

Lubeck,          .           .          „ 

153 

129 

883 

1,068 

Bremen,         .          .          ,, 

3 

300 

135 

Hanover,       .          .          ,, 

78 

,, 

... 

Spain, 

16 

,, 

... 

America,        .          .          ,, 

... 

...                 ,, 

421 

282 

35,464 

27,115 

20,109 

20,663 

In  1861,              Crushing  1 

jinseed. 

•—  -ww^—  «.• 

Sowing  Linseed. 

.— 
Hemp  S 

• 
:eed. 

Great  Britain,         Imp.  Qrs. 

,  73,147 

Barrels,  45,345 

Imp.  Qrs. 

,781 

Holland,          .         .        „ 

16,346 

4,780 

» 

... 

Belgium,         .        .        ,, 

14,274 

„        50,401 

>» 

1406 

Denmark,       .         .        ,, 

2702 

„             419 

5> 

124 

Sweden  and  Norway,     „ 

1,942 

1,123 

1» 

118 

France,           .        .        „ 

1,532 

24,450 

,, 

20 

Lubeck,         .        .        „ 

278 

„        21,795 

J» 

... 

Prussia,          .         .         ,, 

5 

„        10,625 

»» 

Portugal, 

2 

„ 

J» 

7 

110,228 

158,938 

2456 

QUANTITY  OF  EACH  QUALITY  OF  FLAX  AND  HEMP  SHIPPED  FROM  RIGA 
IN  1861  AND  1862. 


1861. 

FLAX.— 1st  sort  Poods,  810,967  or  Tons,  12,872 
2d       „  510,539         „        8,104 

3d        „  386,650         „        6,137 

4th 


Poods,  1,708,156         „      27,113 
FLAX  CODILLA.— Poods,  52,909  or  Tons,        840 


1,761,065 


27,953 


HEMP.— 1st  sort  Poods,  650,105  or  Tons,  10,319 
2d       „  253,113         „        4,017 

3d        ,,  398,598         „        6,327 


1862. 

Poods,  1,159,902  or  Tons,  18,411 

„          524,547         „        8,326 

181,221         „        2,876 

151,375         „        2,403 


„       2,017,045         „      32,016 
Poods,       75,038  or  Tons,    1,191 


2,092,083 


33,207 


Poods,  683,601  or  Tons,  10,851 
221,790  „  3,520 
373,214  „  5,924 


Total  Poods,  1,301,816 


20,663 


1,278,605 


20,295 


1:1  HUM  I.INKN.  331 

The  value  of  the  exports  of  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Linseed  shipped 
from  Riga  in  1859  and  1861  was  as  follows  :— 


1861. 

Flax  .....       £1,292,326  £1,010,896 

FUxTowa,        .        .        .  <<J6 

Hemp  .....        i    UMAKA  606,610 

1    * 


HempTowa, 

Crushing  Linseed,  .        .              268,004                       240,876 

Sowing  Do.,     .  .        .              260,499                      276,880 

Hemp  Seed,  3,753 

£2,611,307  r_M  II.  :',!.; 

The  total  value  of  the  exports  from  Ki«u  in  1861  was  Ro.  24,203,320, 
which  at  the  exchange  of  30d  u  £3,630,498. 

Libau  is  the  Russian  port  farthest  down  the  Baltic  from  which 
Flax  is  shipped.  The  growths  are  distinguished  by  Four  Brand 
and  Three  Brand,  the  same  as  the  ordinary  Memel  Flax.  It  was 
generally  good,  well  prepared  Flax,  but  not  very  fine  in  the 
fibre,  and  not  well  suited  for  spinning  into  the  lighter  sizes  of 
yarn.  It  is  chiefly  raised  in  Coiirland,  in  which  province  Libau 
is  situated,  and  the  average  quantity  shipped  from  the  port 
annually  was  about  2000  tons  of  Flax,  and  200  tons  Cedilla.  Of 
late  years  the  quality  of  the  Flax  exported  from  Libau  has  dete- 
riorated greatly,  and  the  shipments  have  in  consequence  fallen  oft'. 

PBO  FORMA  INVOICES  OF  FLAX,  &c.,  SHIPPED  FROM  RUSSIA, 

1.  Flax  from  Archangel— 

630  Poods,  or  63  Berkz.,  or  10  tons,  at  s.  ro.  40  per  Berk*.        s.  ro.  2520.00 
Duty  83  cop.  per  berkz.  52.29  ;   6  per  cent. 

cent,  thereon,  2.61  .  .  .  M.'.*> 

Customs,  7  per  ceut.  thereon,   .  .  .  3.84 

Shipping  Charges,  weighing,  binding,  bracking, 

lighterage,  and  watching,  16  cop.  per  pood,         100.80 
Mat*,  80  at  19j  cop.,      .  .  .  I*.'" 

Town  dues,  }  per  cent  on  cost,  .  .  12,60 

Brokerage,  |         „ 


Commission  4  per  cent. 


Drawing  Charge*,  2$  per  cent., 

Postage*, 

Cost  (exclusive  of  guarantee  and  del  credere,  2  per 

cent,  on  s.  ro.  2720.34),  .  .  s.  ro.  2895.00 

At  Exchange,  of  36d  per  ro.,  £434  5a  per  10  ton*,,  or  £ 4*  *•  6d  a  ton. 


332  MODERN  LINEN. 

2.  Tow  and  Codilla  from  Archangel— 

G30  pooda  at  ro.  30  per  berkz.,  or  ro.  6  per  2  pooda,  viz., 

1  of  1st  sort  and  1  of  2d  sort,        .  .  .  s.  ro.  1890.00 

Duty  5  cop.  per  pood,  and  5  per  cent,  thereon,  33.05 

Customs,  7  per  cent,  thereon,   .  .  .  2.31 

Shipping  Charges,  16  cop.  per  pood,     .  .          100.80 

Mats,       ......  15.60 

Town  dues  and  Brokerage,  £  per  cent,  each,  18.90 

170.66 


s.  r».  2060.66 
Commission,  4  per  cent,         .  .  .  .  82.42 

s.  ro.  2143.08 

Drawing  Charges,  2£  per  cent.  ,       .  .  .  48.22 

Postages,  &c  ,  .  .  .  .  .  1.70 

Cost  (exclusive  of  guarantee  and  del  credere,  2  percent.)  s.  ro.  2193.00 

At  Exchange  36d  per  s.  ro.  £328,  19s  per  10  tons,  or  nearly  £32  18s  a  ton. 
3.  Flax  from  St  Petersburg— 

630  poods  at  s.  ro.  40  per  berkz.  of  10  poods,  .  .  .  s.  ro.  2520.00 

Duty  83  cop.  per  berkz.,  and  5  per  cent,  thereon,      54.90 
Entry  and  Custom  House  Charges,  4  per  cent. 

on  duty,    .....  2.19 

Receiving,  weighing,  and  shipping,  75  cop.  per 

berkz.,  ....  47.25 

Ship  brokerage,  and  Cronstadt  commission,  18 
cop.  per  ton,  .... 

Brokerage  on  Purchase,  £  per  cent.,    .  . 


s.  ro.  2638.74 
Commission,  3  per  cent.,  .  •  .  79.16 

s.  ro.  2717.90 

Drawing  Charges,  £  per  cent.,  .  .  .  13.58 

Postages,  &c.,.  .....  1.52 

s.  ro.  2733.00 

At  Exchange  36d  per  s.  ro.  £409  19s  per  10  tons,  or  nearly  £41  a  ton. 
4.  Flax  from  Riga  — 

630  poods  at  s.ro.  40  per  berkz.  of  10  poods.  .  .     s.  ro.  2520.00 

Duty  83  cop.  per  berkz.  ,  and  5  per  cent,  thereon,  54.90 

Shipping  Charges,  ro.  2.  55  per  berkz.,  .          160.65 

-  215.55 


B.  ro.  2735.55 

Commission,  2  per  cent,  .  .  54.71 

Extra  Charge,  1        „  .  27.35 

Drawing  Charges,  g  „  .  13.69 

Postages,  &c.,      .  .  .  .  1.70  97.45 

s.  ro.  2833.00 
At  Exchange  30d  p9r  s.  ro,  £424  19s  per  10  tor.s,  or  nearly  £42  10s  a  ton. 


RUSSIAN  LINEN.  333 

List  <.t  the  present  marks,  with  English  and  German  designa- 
,  of  the  various  qualities  of  Flax  shipped  from  Riga,  with 
tin  n  l.itive  value  of  the  respective  marks  in  s.  ro.  per  berkz., 
taking  s.  ro.  40  for  K.  I.  as  the  standard. 

IST— CROWN  FLAX— (KRON  FLACHS)  :— 

K,  l-Crown~(Kron), •.  ro.  40 

PK,  1-Picked  Ci-own  -  (Pink  Kron),            ...  42 

FPK,  1-Fioe  Picked  Crown— (Fein  Pink  Kron),     .            .  45 

ZK,  1— Zin§  Crown— (ZinsKiou)    ...  48 
2i>    HRACK  FLAX--(WBACK  FLACHS)  ;— 

W,  2-Brack-< Wrack) 36 

PW,  2  -Picked  Brack— (Pink  Wrack),         .  3* 
3D— THREE  BAND  FLAX— (DREIBAND  FLACHS)  :— 

D,  3— Threeband-(Dreiband) 30 

PD,  3-Pioked  Threeband  -(Pink  Dreiband),       .            .  32 

SD,  3— Slanitz  Threeband  -(Slansky  Dreiband)    .            .  30 
PSD,  3- Picked  Slanitz  Threeband-(Pink  Slansky  Dreiban  I),        32 
I  I 'S ! ).  :?     Fine  Picked  Slanitz  Threeband -( Fein  Pink  Slanaky 

Dreiband) 34 

4TH  LlVONlAN  FLAX-(LlNLANDI8CHAN  FLACHS)  :— 

HD,  2— HofTs  Threeband— (Hoffs  Dreiband,  Engligh),    .  36 

PHD,  2— Picked  Threeband— (Pink  Dreiband),  (French ),  .  40 
FPHD,  2-Fine  Picked  Threeband -(Fein  Pink  Dreiband) 

(Portuguese),        ......  43 

LD,  3    Livonian  Threeband— {Linlandischen  Dreiband),  30 
PLD,  3-  Picked  Livonian  Tbreeband— (Pink  Linlandischen 

Dreihand),              ......  32 

STH-FLAX  Tow  :— 

H-Tow-(Heide). 
SH— Slanitz  Tow—  (Slansky  Heide). 
PH— Picked  Tow- (Pinkein  Heule). 

In  these  marks  shippers  have  the  liberty  of  adding  to  the 
above,  as  hitherto,  viz. :— W,  White,  (Weiss)— H,  Light,  (JK-ll ) 
-G,  Gray,  (Grau).  DW,  4,  Threeband  Brack,  (Dreiband 
Wrack) — the  refuse  of  the  Flax  is  likewise  shipped.  Nos.  1 
and  2  are  charged  the  lowest  rate  of  freight,  and  Nos.  3  and  4 
pay  a  little  extra,  as  they  are  coarser  and  do  not  stow  so  well  as 
clean  Flax. 

The  following  statement  shews  the  total  quantity  of  Flax  and 
Tow  exported  from  Russia  and  shipped  at  the  ports  already  men- 
tioned, viz ,  Archangel,  St  Petersburg,  Narva,  Revel,  Pernau, 
Riga,  and  Libau,  for  the  years  named,  and  also  the  average  ship- 
ments for  the  three  previous  years : — 


334  MODERN  LINEN. 

Average  Three  Previous  Years. 


Tons,  27,158 
1838  59,264  Tons,  39,510 


1841 
1844 
1847 
1850 
1853 


52,166 
64,782 
46,874 
76,142 
79,656 


55,613 
54,017 
73,582 
66,306 


During  the  two  years  subsequent  to  1853,  very  few  goods 
were  shipped  at  Eussian  ports,  in  consequence  of  the  blockade 
during  the  war.  Large  quantities  of  Max  and  other  Kussiaii 
produce  then  found  their  way  to  Prussian  ports,  and  were  ex- 
ported thence.  After  the  war  the  shipment  of  goods  direct  from 
Eussia  was  again  resumed,  comparatively  little  Flax,  the  growth 
of  Eussia,  having  then  been  sent  via  Prussia. 

Previous  to  the  war  a  good  deal  of  the  Flax  grown  in  Wilna, 
and  other  Eussian  provinces  adjoining  Prussia  had  been  pur- 
chased by  Prussian  merchants,  and  shipped  from  Memel  and 
Konigsberg.  The  quantity  of  Eussian  Flax  now  shipped  at 
these  ports  is  on  the  increase,  and  from  Konigsberg  it  is  likely 
to  go  on  extending  year  by  year,  as  facilities  are  opened  up  for 
communication  with  the  interior  of  Eussia. 

Already  the  Eydlkuhu  Eailway  has  brought  Konigsberg 
much  nearer  to  some  of  the  central  provinces  of  Eussia  than 
they  are  to  any  Eussian  port,  and  as  railway  ramifications 
extend  into  Eussia,  that  port  will  become  more  and  more  an 
entrepot  for  shipping  Eussian  produce.  Konigsberg,  from  its 
position,  is  specially  suited  for  becoming  the  port  of  Poland,  as 
well  as  of  the  Eussian  provinces  more  to  the  south  and  east. 
From  its  geographical  situation  it  is  not  long  closed  with  ice, 
and  shipments  can  therefore  be  made  from  it  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  This  advantage  has  already  drawn  to  that  city 
some  of  the  Flax  usually  exported  from  Eiga,  which  is  shipped 
under  the  regular  Eiga  denominations  or  marks,  and  Flax 
from  other  districts  will  no  doubt  ere  long  find  its  way  there 
also.  In  this  way  the  Eussian  grower  in  the  interior  will  be 
benefitted  by  quicker  sales  and  better  prices,  and  the  consumer 
more  quickly  supplied  with  the  raw  material.  Some  details 
regarding  the  shipments  of  Eussian  Flax  from  Memel  and 
Konigsberg  are  given  in  the  chapter  on  German  Linen. 


EM.  336 

A  eMi,xideral»]e  quantity  of  Russian  Flax  has  for  many  years 
been  conveyed  over  land  to  Silesia  and  oil  in-  Linen  manufactur- 
ing districts,  where  it  is  used  in  addition  to  the  home  grown 
production.  Russia  may  therefore  be  said  to  supply  with  Flax, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  many  of  the  Linen  producing  countries  of 
Europe.  The  total  export  of  Flax  and  Tow  from  Russia  by 
land  and  sea  has  not  been  obtained  with  accuracy,  but  it  is 
believed  rather  to  exceed  than  be  under  100,000  tons  a  year  on 
the  average.  The  quantity  of  Flax  annually  grown  in  Russia  is 
estimated,  as  already  mentioned,  at  150,000  tons,  and  if  these 
computations  are  correct,  it  would  leave  about  one-third  of 
the  quantity  raised  for  consumption  in  the  native  Linen  manu- 
factures of  the  country.  Of  course  the  produce  of  the  crop 
is  subject  to  many  fluctuations  and  changes,  arising  from  the 
weather,  political  events,  and  other  causes.  The  value  of  the 
Flax  exported  from  Russia  varies  greatly  in  different  years,  l>ut> 
on  the  average  of  the  last  ten  years,  perhaps  £40  a  ton  would  not 
he  too  much  to  estimate  it  at,  and  this  would  give  a  sum  of 
about  four  millions  sterling,  paid  annually  to  Russia  by  the 
Linen  manufacturing  countries,  for  Flax  alone. 

The  value  of  the  crushing  and  sowing  linseed,  and  of  the 
Hemp  seed  annually  exported  from  Russia,  may  be  fairly  esti- 
mated at  about  one  million  sterling.  Hemp  and  its  products 
perhaps  amount  to  about  two  millions,  and  Linen  manufactures' 
mats,  and  other  textile  fabrics,  to  another  million  sterling. 
The  value  of  these  fibrous  materials,  and  their  products,  exported 
annually  from  Russia,  would,  if  these  estimates  are  nearly  cor- 
rect, amount  to  about  eight  millions  sterling.  It  is  therefore 
i  imense  consequence  to  Russia,  mighty  though  that  empire 
be,  to  retain  so  lucrative  and  so  vast  a  trade,  and  the  government 
ought  to  encourage  it  by  every  means  in  their  power.  In  this 
way  Russia  would  retain  the  proud  title  which  she  has  long 
held,  of  being  the  greatest  Flax  growing  country  in  the  world. 

Although  Russia  has  many  facilit  ies  for  manufacturing  Linens, 
ari-in^  from  the  irreat  quantity  of  Flax  raised  in  the  country, 
from  cheap  labour,  and  from  fiscal  protection,  she  has  never  at- 
tained to  eminence  as  a  Linen  manufacturing  nat  ion.  his  true 
she  has  supplied  her  own  wants,  the  almost  prohibitory  tariff  having 
prevented  any  foreign  made  Lin«  i  nting  small  quantities 


336  MODERN  LINEN. 

of  the  very  finest  fabrics,  from  entering  the  country.  She  has 
also  exported  Linen  for  many  years,  but  considering  the  capa- 
bilities of  the  country,  her  exports  of  these  textiles  when  at  the 
greatest  would  have  been  trifling  although  they  had  been  quad- 
rupled in  quantity. 

Linens  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  are  made  in  many  of  the 
governments  of  Russia,  some  of  which  are  widely  apart,  which 
shows  the  universality  of  the  trade,  if  not  its  magnitude.  Yar- 
oslav,  Novgorod,  Viatka,  and  all  the  Archangel  Flax  growing 
districts,  make  Linens  extensively,  chiefly  for  domestic  purposes. 
The  tow  shipped  at  Archangel  and  St  Petersburg  is  the  pro- 
duce of  the  Flax  heckled,  spun,  and  manufactured  in  those 
districts,  and  it  is  evidence  of  the  large  quantity  of  pure  Flax 
goods  made  there.  In  addition  to  the  tow  exported,  there  are 
many  spinning  mills  in  these  districts  where  Flax  and  tow  are 
consumed  extensively,  the  quantity  of  Flax  used  in  the  manu- 
factures of  these  governments  must  therefore  be  great.  A  good 
deal  of  the  yarn  is  yet  spun  by  the  hand-wheel,  but  this  ancient 
mode  of  spinning  is  being  rapidly  superseded  by  Flax  spin- 
ning mills,  now  scattered  throughout  these  governments,  the 
number  of  which  is  on  the  increase.  The  Linens  are  still 
mostly  weaved  by  hand,  but  power-looms  are  not  now  unknown 
there,  and  their  introduction  is  extending  gradually  and  re- 
gularly. 

One  very  large  establishment,  the  Alexandrosky  Works,  not 
far  from  St  Petersburg,  was  formerly  worked  by  the  Govern- 
ment, or  under  their  auspices  ;  but  the  Government  interest  or 
patronage  was  recently  terminated,  and  it  is  now  conducted 
by  private  enterprise  and  skill.  In  the  interior  the  great  bulk  of 
the  Linens  produced  are  required  to  supply  the  domestic  wants 
of  the  various  districts,  but  for  many  years  a  large  quantity  of 
the  cloth  made  at  the  Government  works  near  St  Petersburg 
was  exported.  The  goods  chiefly  made  in  Russia  are  sail-cloth, 
ducks,  Russia  sheetings,  crash,  and  other  fabrics,  some  of  which  are 
adapted  more  for  local  consumption  than  for  export.  In  1860 
a  Flax  spinning-mill  was  started  in  the  environs  of  Riga,  being 
the  first  in  that  district.  It  then  employed  118  hands,  and 
the  value  of  the  manufacture  for  that  year  was  £5920. 

Linens  are  also  manufactured  in  several  of  the  provinces  of 


RUSSIAN  LINEN. 

central  and  southern  Russia,  as  well  as  in  some  of  those  near 
tin-  Haiti.'  ;  but  perhaps  the  largest  private  establishment  of  the 
kind,  which  embraces  both  spinning  and  weaving,  is  that  of 
Baron  Steiglitz,  near  Narva,  where  sail-cloth  is  made  to  a  large 
nt,  as  well  as  several  other  fabrics.  In  1836  there  were 
3742  Flax  mills  and  manufactories  in  Russia ;  in  1842,  3696  ; 
and  in  1850,  3967.  The  number  at  the  present  time  has  not 
been  ascertained,  nor  have  any  reliable  particulars  been  got  as  to 
the  number  of  spindles  or  looms  in  operation. 

The  Russian  made  Linens  have  generally  been  more  celebrated 
for  the  superior  quality  of  the  Flax  of  which  they  were  made, 
than  for  beauty  of  workmanship,  or  the  sightly  appearance  of 
the  cloth.     The  quality  of  the  material  used  has  always  been  re- 
markably good,  but  the  yarn  has  neither  been  so  well  spun  nor 
cleaned  as  in  this  country,  and  the  appearance  of  some  of  the 
fabrics  made  is  coarse  and  unsightly.      They  have  not,  conse- 
quently, been  so  well  liked  in  this  market,  as,  from  their  in- 
trinsic merits,  might  have  been  expected.    Some  Russian  Linens, 
however,  are  as  good  in  appearance  as  they  are  excellent  in 
quality.     Real  Russia  sheetings  are  a  well  known  article  in  many 
markets,  and  although   they  are   now   well   imitated  in   this 
country  by  mixed  fabrics,  which  can  be  sold  cheap,  many  still 
prefer  the  genuine  Russias,  even  at  the  additional  price.     Crash 
is  another  article  which  was  and  still  is  largely  made  in  Russia, 
and  it  also  has  been  successfully  imitated  in  Dundee  and  else- 
where.     Ravens-duck  and  sail-cloth  have  long  been  famous 
articles  of  Russian  manufacture,  but  both  fabrics,  of  a  quality 
equal  in  material  and  superior  in  workmanship,  have  been  made 
in  the  Dundee  district,  and  in  other  parts  of  this  country  for  many 
years.        These  imitations    have   of  late  years  interfered  so 
largely  with  the  sale  of  Russian  Linens  in  foreign  markets,  as 
greatly  to  curtail  their  manufacture  in  Russia  for  export.     Jute, 
and  mixtures  of  Jute,  being   cheap  and  sightly,  have  done 
much  to  banish  Russian  Linens  from  the  markets  of  the  world, 
and  probably  they  are  destined  ultimately  to  supplant  them  en- 
tirely. 

The  absolute  and  arbitrary  character  of  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment, and  their  jealousy  of  the  introduction  of  liberal  ideas  into 
the  country,  have  done  more  to  retard  the  progress  of  manufac- 


338  MODERN  LINEN. 

tures,  including  those  of  Linens,  in  Bussia,  than  their  prohi- 
bitory tariff  has  aided  it,  and  so  long  as  such  a  system  exists,  trade 
cannot  prosper.  The  severe  restrictions  upon  commerce,  and  the 
unwise  fiscal  regulations  of  government,  curb  private  enterprise, 
and  until  more  enlightened  principles  prevail,  trade  must  lan- 
guish, or  die.  Did  the  Government  know  its  true  policy,  and 
study  the  best  interests  of  the  nation,  it  would  allow  the  people 
freedom  of  thought  and  action.  Manufactures  and  commerce 
would  then  extend  rapidly,  and  Russia  become  great  and  ex- 
alted. The  country  would  speedily  grow  rich  in  material  wealth, 
and  the  Emperor  happy  in  the  love  and  affection  of  a  prosperous 
and  contented  people. 

By  a  recent  ukase,  the  tariff  on  Jute  goods  has  been  arranged. 
Jute  cloth  may  now  be  imported  into  the  Russian  Empire  and 
into  Poland,  including  the  ports  in  the  Black  Sea,  at  a  duty  of 
9s  the  pood.  Jute  sacks  are  admitted  at  a  duty  of  9s  the  hun- 
dred by  the  ports  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  7s  2d  by  land,  into 
Russia  and  Poland,  and  into  the  ports  of  the  Black  Sea  they 
are  admitted  free. 

The  following  report  of  the  Linens  from  Russia,  shown  in  the 
International  Exhibition  of  1862,  will  conclude  the  chapter  : — 

"  Russia  exhibits  very  many  samples  of  Flax  from  the  various 
Flax-growing  districts  of  that  country.  Some  of  them  are  in 
the  rough,  and  others  heckled  and  ready  for  spinning.  Many 
of  the  specimens  are  of  fine  quality,  and  such  as  would  be  very 
suitable  for  our  manufactures,  but  very  few  of  them  could  com- 
pare in  money  value  with  the  French,  Belgian,  or  Irish  sam- 
ples shown.  A  few  samples  of  yarns  are  exhibited,  but  they  are 
not  of  much  importance  in  any  respect,  and  some  of  the  speci- 
mens of  Linen  shown  possess  little  excellence.  The  display 
of  sail-cloth  made  by  Baron  Stieglitz,  is,  however,  well  worthy 
of  inspection.  It  is  made  both  of  Hemp  and  Flax  material, 
bleached  and  boiled,  24  and  30  inches  in  width,  in  various  quali- 
ties, and  of  all  numbers.  The  material  is  generally  very  good, 
the  yarns  well  spun,  carefully  boiled  or  bleached,  and  the  cloth 
well  manufactured.  The  collection  is,  on  the  whole,  of  great 
excellence,  and  well  worthy  of  the  famous  establishment  which 
produced  them.  Some  indifferent  specimens  of  sheetings  and 
diapers  are  shown,  but  there  are  others  of  most  superior  quality 


VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

in  the  spin  of  the  yarn,  bleach,  manutactmv.  ami  iini>h  of  tin- 
goods.  The  damasks  are  generally  good,  and  in  some  cases  of 
very  pretty  designs." 

[Some  of  tho  particulars  given  in  this  chapter  were  kindly 
furnished  by  William  Wrongham  and  William  Warden  Benny 
of  Dundee,  gentlemen  who  resided  long  in  Russia,  and  have  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  (lax  trade  there.] 


CHAPTER  IX. 

VABIOUS       COUNTRIES. 

HAVING  now  given  some  account  of  the  progress  and  present 
condition  of  the  Linen  trade  in  the  great  Flax  growing  and 
Linen  producing  nations  of  continental  Europe,  only  a  few  of 
the  others  will  be  mentioned,  and  that  briefly,  as  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  trade,  which  is  almost  entirely  of  a  domestic  cha- 
racter in  all  of  them,  does  not  require  a  lengthened  notice. 


DENMARK,  NORWAY,  AND  SWEDEN. 

These  countries  all  manufacture  Linens  to  a  moderate  extent, 
and  the  trade  is  no  new  one  in  Scandinavia.  Flax  was  one  of 
the  chief  articles  of  import  into  Bergen  in  Norway  about  the 
end  of  the  1 3th  century,  and  since  that  period  Linens  have  been 
manufactured  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  that  country.  In 
1764,  Sweden  exported  Flax  and  Hemp,  canvas  and  Linen. 
Latterly  the  governments  of  Sweden  and  Norway  have  given 
much  encouragement  to  the  manufacture  of  Linens,  but  the 
trade  has  not  been  prosperous.  The  peasants  cultivate  Flax, 
but  not  extensively,  end  they  spin  and  weave  it,  chiefly  for  home 
consumption,  very  little  being  exported.  There  are  Linen  manu- 
facturing establishments  at  Copenhagen,  Vordinborg,  <fec.,  in 
y  2 


340  MODERN   LINEN. 

Denmark ;  Gothenburg,  Gefle,  Hernb'sand,  &c.,  in  Sweden ;  and 
Christiana,  Bergen,  &c.,  in  Norway.  There  are  also  Flax  spinning 
mills  at  some  of  these  places,  but  none  of  them  are  very  exten- 
sive, and  much  of  the  Flax  is  still  spun  by  the  hand  wheel,  which 
is  yet  common  in  these  countries.  The  goods  produced  are  of 
fair  quality,  and  will  bear  comparison  with  similar  fabrics  made 
in  other  countries.  The  Linens  manufactured  throughout  all 
the  three  great  divisions  of  Scandinavia  are  almost  wholly  for  the 
supply  of  the  local  demand,  the  trade  may  therefore  be  called  a 
domestic  one.  Denmark  does  not  grow  much  Flax,  and  her 
Linen  manufactures  are  of  little  importance.  The  following 
statement  of  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  imports  into  Denmark, 
bearing  on  the  subject,  shows  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
trade  there : — 

1859.  I860. 

Flax,         .        .        Tons,  525        £26,070  Tons,  553        £27,576 

Hemp,      .        .           „    2568          80,050  „    2668          83,260 

Linen  Yarn,     .            „      304          48,486  „      345          53.675 

Linen  Manufactures,   ,        985          92,721  „    1221        106,574 

In  1861,  the  quantity  of  Linen  manufactures  imported  was 
1243  tons. 


PORTUGAL, 

The  Linen  trade  of  Portugal  is  of  old  standing,  dating  back 
to  the  time  of  the  Cassars,  or  perhaps  to  a  period  long  anterior 
to  it.  When,  or  by  whom,  the  manufacture  was  first  intro- 
duced into  the  country  is  not  known,  but  it  may  bave  been  by 
the  Phoenicians  or  Carthagenians,  both  of  these  maritime  nations 
having  traded  with  Spain  and  Portugal. 

In  more  modern  times  Flax  is  grown  and  Linen  manufac- 
tured in  various  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  although  not  exten- 
sively in  any  of  them.  In  addition  to  the  Flax  raised  in  the 
country,  a  considerable  quantity  is  annually  imported,  spun  and 
weaved.  There  are  several  Flax  spinning  mills  at  work  in 
Portugal,  but  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  yarn  manufactured 


VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

is  still  spun  by  hand.  The  chief  Linen  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments are  at  Braga,  Aveiro,  Coimbra,  Lisbon,  <fec.,and  there 
various  fabrics  are  made,  some  of  which  are  of  superior  quality, 
both  in  point  of  material  and  workmanship.  The  goods  manu- 
factured are  almost  all  consumed  in  Portugal,  and  being  for 
local  use,  they  are  made  to  suit  the  taste  and  wants  of  the  people. 
Only  a  small  quantity  of  Linens  are  exported,  and  these  go  to 
the  Portuguese  colonies  in  Africa  and  elsewhere. 

The  extent  of  the  external  trade  will  be  seen  by  the  following 
statement  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  Flaxen  fibres  and  fabrics, 
for  the  years  1855  and  1856,  and  although  a  little  progress  has 
been  made  since  then,  the  difference  is  not  very  material. 

IMPORTa 

is:,:,.  1856. 

Flax  and  Hemp,        TODS,  2896    Value,  £110,692    Tons,  2631    Value,  £82,891 
Linen  Manufacture*,    „       403         „          30,024        „      437          „        33,847 


£140,616  £116,738 

Of  the  Flax  and  Hemp  imported  fully  one-third  is  from  Great 
Britain,  fully  one-half  from  Russia  and  Prussia,  and  the  balance 
from  Spain,  <fec.  About  five-sixths  of  the  total  Linen  manufac- 
tures are  from  Great  Britain,  and  about  one-twentieth,  chiefly 
sail-cloth,  is  from  Hamburg. 

EXPORTS* 

The  total  value  of  the  Flax  fibres,  and  manufactures  thereof, 
exported  for  same  years  were — 

1865. 

Domestic  Produce,          .        .        .         £22,398 
Foreign  Produce,  .        .        .  5097 

£27,495  £28,768 

The  Portuguese,  by  their  continued  prosecution  of  the  nefarious 
slave  trade  in  their  African  possessions,  have  miserably  murdered 
myriads  of  the  poor  negroes,  and  brought  indelible  disgrace  and 
infamy  upon  themselves.  Were  they  to  encourage  the  peaceful 
arts,  and  teach  the  natives  to  rear  Flax  and  cotton,  for  which 
some  of  their  territories  there  are  admirably  adapted,  they  would 


342  MODERN  LINEN. 

honourably  enrich  themselves,  help  to  spread  civilization  in  the 
dark  places  of  the  earth,  and  benefit  mankind. 


SWITZERLAND. 

The  Swiss  are  an  industrious  people,  and  they  have  long 
made  Linens,  not  only  for  their  own  use,  but  also  for  export. 
A  century  ago  Zurich,  Basle,  and  especially  Appenzell,  manu- 
factured Linens,  the  latter  extensively.  At  present  the  Linen 
manufacture  takes  an  important  place  among  their  industrial 
pursuits,  and  large  quantities  are  exported  to  Italy  and  to  other 
countries.  Much  of  the  Flax  is  imported,  and  it  is  spun  into 
yarn,  and  weaved  in  the  different  Cantons.  The  Linens  made 
are  varied  in  kind,  and  of  praiseworthy  quality.  If  the  Swiss 
had  a  sea  board  of  their  own,  or  better  means  of  transport,  they 
would  soon  become  formidable  rivals  to  other  Linen  producing 
countries,  as  they  are  frugal  and  very  industrious  ;  but  the  Geo- 
graphical position  of  the  country  is  a  serious  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  their  ever  becoming  a  great  Linen  manufacturing  people. 


TURKEY. 

The  Turkish  Empire  includes  some  of  the  finest  countries  of 
Europe,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  central  parts  of  Western 
Asia.  Its  territories  are  picturesque  and  beautiful,  its  soil  rich 
and  fertile,  and  its  climate  mild  and  salubrious.  Under  a 
liberal  and  enlightened  government,  the  country  might  rank 
high  among  European  nations,  physicially,  commercially,  and 
socially.  With  all  its  natural  advantages  Turkey  has  never 
attained  commercial  distinction,  nor  is  it  likely  to  become  a 
great  trading  nation,  because  the  Moslem  faith  is  antagonistic 
to  progress  in  every  shape. 

In  early  times  the  Moors  ruled  the  destinies  of  the  greater  part 


v  \  KIOU8  COUNTRIES.  343 

of  Spain,  and,  pouring  through  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  pene- 
trated  France,  but  they  were  defeated  with  terrible  slaughter,  by 
Charles  Martel  and  his  Franks,  in  732,  and  driven  back  to 
Spain,  whence  they  were  ultimately  expelled  760  years  there- 


In  1350  Solyman  the  Turk,  with  a  few  warriors,  crossed  the 
1  1(  llespont  one  night,  and  seized  a  castle  on  the  European  shore  ; 
and  since  then  they  have  never  lost  their  hold.  In  1453  they 
captured  Constantinople,  when  Constantino  Paheologus,  the  last 
of  the  Caesars  fell,  and  with  him  the  Eastern  Empire.  For  more 
than  200  years  the  Moslems  pushed  their  way  westward  into 
Europe,  until  in  1683  John  Sobieski  of  Poland  defeated  them 
before  the  walls  of  Vienna,  and  the  cross  once  more  triumphed 
over  the  crescent.  Had  Europe  been  overrun  with  the  followers 
of  the  false  prophet,  either  from  Spain  on  the  south  or  from 
Turkey  on  the  east,  it  would  have  been  blighted  and  blasted, 
and  without  a  Linen  trade,  but  Providence  willed  it  otherwise. 
The  tide  of  invasion  was  driven  back,  but  the  sick  man  still 
holds  the  lovely  regions  on  both  sides  of  the  Bosphorus  under 
his  sway,  and  while  he  continues  to  do  so  their  resources  will 
not  be  developed,  their  manufacturing  powers  fostered,  or  their 
commerce  unfolded, 

Turkey,  in  many  parts,  is  well  adapted  for  growing  Flax, 
but  its  capabilities  are  little  tried.  The  people  wear  Linens 
largely  and  like  the  fabric,  but  they  are  not  encouraged  to  manu- 
facture them.  A  progressive  government  would  draw  wealth 
from  the  soil,  and  an  enlightened  people  would  enrich  themselves 
by  the  sale  of  its  product*.  The  fatalism  of  the  Turks  makes 
too  many  of  them  live  only  for  the  day,  and  the  rapacity  and 
cupidity  of  the  Pashas  prevent  or  retard  enterprise,  the  wealth 
acquired  by  labour  and  industry  being  too  often  made  an  excuse 
for  treating  its  possessors  with  cruelty,  and  depriving  them  of 
what  they  have  justly  earned.  Were  the  people  secure  in  the  pos- 
session of  their  gains,  even  the  apathetic  Turk  might  take  courage, 
and  benefit  the  world  1  »y  learning  t  o  become  rich.  Dormant  though 
the  Linen  trade  be  under  Mahomedan  rule,  it  is  not  altogether  ex- 
tim't,  and  the  little  life  which  it  still  displays  proves  that,  under 
happier  circumstances,  it  might  be  revived,  and  become  as 
famous  as  it  was  under  Christian  sway  in  the  days  of  the  Eastern 


344  MODERN  LINEN. 

Empire.  With  fostering  care  Turkey  might  supply  the  mills 
of  Western  Europe  with  Flax,  if  she  did  not  clothe  the  in- 
habitants with  Linens. 

In  the  Pashalick  of  Trebizond  about  150  tons  of  Hemp  and 
50  tons  of  Flax  are  grown  annually,  and  the  lower  classes  manu- 
facture Linen  shirting,  sheeting,  and  towelling  for  home  consump- 
tion. All  the  beautiful  Linens  used  in  the  harems  of  the  rich  are 
manufactured  at  Kizeh,  to  the  extent  of  from  50,000  to  75,000 
pieces  annually.  They  are  sent  to  Constantinople,  Egypt,  Bagdad, 
Mosul,  and  other  Mahomedan  countries  and  cities.  20,000  to 
30,000  pieces  of  a  coarser  kind  are  annually  consumed  in  this 
and  other  provinces.  The  finest  is  worth  from  £7  to  £9  per 
piece  of  two  shirts,  and  the  coarse  about  6s  or  7s  per  piece  of 
one  shirt.  Rizeh  also  manufactures  about  1500  bales  of  Linen 
thread,  and  250  bales  of  fishing  nets  annually,  which  are  chiefly 
exported  to  Constantinople.  In  the  province  of  Uscop,  Hempen 
and  Linen  cloths  are  made  of  native  produce.  The  Linens  are 
bleached  by  repeated  washing  and  exposure  to  the  sun,  and 
though  coarse,  they  are  durable.  There  are  also  manufactures 
made  of  silk  and  native  Flax,  and  also  some  of  silk,  Flax,  and 
English  cotton  twist,  called  "  Meless,"  which  is  used  for  shirts 
and  sheets,  and  wears  well.  The  "Konapno,"  Hemp,  and 
"  Lineno,"  Linen  cloths  are  also  made  and  much  used.  These 
fabrics  are  manufactured  by  both  Turks  and  Christians  through- 
out the  district.  What  is  done  there  on  a  small  scale  might  be 
done  extensively  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  it  would  be 
well  for  Turkey  if  it  were  so. 

Jute  manufactures  are  finding  their  way  into  many  new  coun- 
tries, in  some  of  which  they  are  applied  to  strange  usages.  In 
Crete  twilled  Jute  sacks  are  now  employed  for  packing  soap  in, 
and  they  have  quite  superseded  the  woollen  sacks  of  native  manu- 
facture, which  were  formerly  exclusively  used  for  this  purpose. 


It  was  intended  that  this  part  should  be  devoted  solely  to  the 
Continent  of  Europe,  as  distinguished  from  the  British  Islands. 
It  will  not  materially  alter  the  arrangement  to  include  in 
this  chapter  a  short  notice  of  the  great  Saxon  Eepublic  of 
North  America,  and  a  brief  paragraph  upon  an  Asiatic  city. 


\  .vinous  COIM  KII  I,  345 

This  will  accordingly  be  done.  Several  other  countries,  which 
are  large  consumers,  if  not  producers  of  Linens,  might  with 
propriety  have  been  noticed,  but  as  the  work  has  already  ex- 
it-mini ^rrally  beyond  what  in  the  outset  was  proposed,  they 
must  be  excluded.  It  is,  however,  the  less  necessary  to  enlarge 
«'ii  this  point,  as  the  extent  of  their  trade  in  Linens  with  the 
United  Kingdom  is  shown  by  the  Board  of  Trade  Returns,  gin  n 
in  the  volume. 


CHINA. 

The  city  of  Yarkand  or  Yarkiang,  the  capital  of  Chinese 
Turkestan,  pays  annually  to  the  Government  34,000  sacks  of 
corn,  57,509  pieces  of  Linen,  and  15,000  pounds  of  cotton,  be- 
sides some  gold,  silver,  oD,  copper,  &c.  The  population  of  the 
city  is  estimated  at  200,000.  It  thus  appears  that  Flax  must 
be  cultivated  extensively  in  that  country,  and  large  quantities  of 
Linen  made  in  the  city.  It  is  a  proper  subject  of  inquiry  by  the 
merchants  of  this  country,  whether  or  not  the  Linens  produced  in 
the  United  Kingdon  could  be  profitably  introduced  to  this  Linen 
wearing  people.  If  their  admission  could  be  arranged,  a  wide 
door  might  be  opened  for  their  consumption,  as  it  would  appear 
that  Linens  must  be  largely  used  in  that  country. 

China  has  not  yet  imported  many  Linens,  but  as  trade  pro- 
gresses the  consumption  of  Linen  goods  will,  no  doubt,  increase. 
In  1860  there  were  imported  into  Shanghai  2343  pieces  of 
Linen,  valued  at  £3045,  and  2718  pieces  of  canvas,  valued  at 
£6625.  The  importation  into  the  other  ports  of  China  was 
altogether  unimportant. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

There  are  more  Linens  used  in  the  United  States,  in  proportion 
to  the  population,  than  in  almost  any  other  country  in  the  world. 


346  MODERN  LINEN. 

For  a  long  period  a  very  large  quantity  of  Flax  has  been 
grown  in  the  United  States,  but  the  fibre  is  nearly  all  sacrified 
to  the  seed,  very  little  of  it  being  saved  for  textile  purposes. 
The  quantity  of  Flax  raised  in  the  States  in  1850  was  3442 
tons,  but  in  1852  it  had  decreased  to  1688  tons.  The  linseed 
produced  in  1850  was  562,312  bushels,  and  in  1852,  611,927 
bushels.  This  shows  that  in  the  latter  year  the  plant  had  been 
grown  more  for  the  seed  than  in  the  former,  but  in  both  years 
linseed  appears  to  have  been  the  great  object  for  which  Flax 
was  cultivated. 

In  Ohio  alone  the  crop  of  Linseed  in  1862  was  estima- 
ted at  a  million  bushels,  and  in  1863  it  was  expected  that, 
as  grain  prices  being  low,  as  much  Linseed  would  be  grown 
in  the  West  as  would  supply  the  entire  demand  of  the 
United  States.  How  much  this  may  be  is  unknown,  but  it 
must  be  very  large,  as  between  two  and  three  million 
bushels  are  imported  annually  into  Boston  and  New  York 
from  the  East  Indies  alone.  Were  the  fibre  of  the  Flax  grown 
in  the  United  States  all  saved,  as  it  ought  to  be,  and  might  be- 
as  well  as  the  seed,  it  would  supply  the  material  to  keep  many 
large  spinning  mills  going  either  in  that  country  or  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  price  which  western  linseed  brought  in  New 
York  in  Sept.  1862  was  $1.85  per  bushel,  without  bags. 

In  1820  there  were  two  Flax  spinning  mills  in  Paterson,  New 
Jersey,  wholly  employed  spinning  yarn  for  sail-cloth,  which 
then  sold  at  $25  a  piece,  being  about  double  what  British  can- 
vas of  better  quality  could  then  have  been  sold  for.  It  was 
chiefly  made  from  Irish  Flax,  American  being  of  bad  quality, 
probably  owing  to  its  being  allowed  to  stand  too  long  in  the 
ground  in  order  to  mature  the  seed.  "  The  machinery,"  says  a 
person  from  Dundee,  who  then  visited  the  works,  and  sent  a  de- 
scription of  them  to  the  Dundee  Advertiser,  "  was  in  bad  order, 
and  the  works  were  conducted  in  a  slovenly  manner.  The  yarn 
was  doubled  and  twisted  immediately  after  being  spun,  both  for 
warp  and  weft,  and  instead  of  being  retted  or  boiled,  it  was  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  steam,  in  a  close  vessel,  three  different 
times  for  fully  a  day  each  time.  The  cloth  was  coarse-looking 
but  strong.  Flax-dressers  were  paid  4s  6d  per  cwt.,  spinning  girls 
from  9s  to  10s  a  week,  and  weavers  13s  6d  a  piece.  There  were  ten 


VARIOUS  COUNTRIES.  347 

es  in  the  one  mill,  and  thirteen  in  the  other  ;  and  th<> 
two  works  used  between  them  about  three  tons  of  Flax  weekly." 

In  1828  the  Americans  were  making  sail-cloth  of  cotton.  It 
was  said  to  be  then  preferred  for  fore  and  aft  rigged  vessels,  be- 
cause they  could  sail  from  a  half  to  three  quarters  of  a  point 
nearer  to  the  wind  with  it  than  with  Hemp  or  Lint  sails ;  and  be- 
cause it  did  not  stretch  nor  shrink  so  much  as  Flax  canvas. 
The  stoutest  sort  weighed  about  1  Ib.  a  yard,  and  sold  for  20d. 

Some  Flax  and  Hemp  are  still  spun,  and  Linen  weaved  in  the 
New  England  States,  but  the  quantity  is  not  large,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  Linens  consumed  being  imported. 

Mr  Stuart,  Secretary  of  Legation,  in  his  report,  dated  Wash- 
ington, 25th  May,  1 863,  says — "  The  manufacture  of  Linens  in 
this  country  has  made  little  progress,  but  Mr  Kennedy,  superin- 
tendent of  the  eighth  Census  Report  of  the  United  States,  anti- 
cipates future  success  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics  from  Flax- 
cotton,  consequent  on  the  invention  of  cheap  machinery  for  the 
preparation  of  the  Flax-cotton  for  spinning."  Judging  from  the 
little  progress  hitherto  made  in  the  application  of  Flax-cotton 
to  any  practical  textile  manufacture,  it  is  very  doubtful  if  Mr 
Kennedy's  anticipations  of  success  from  this  article  will  ever  be 
realized,  either  in  the  United  States  or  elsewhere.  To  cottonizo 
Flax  is  an  unnatural  process,  as  it  is  converting  a  superior  fibre 
into  an  interior  one,  a  proceeding  which  has  no  merit.  Want 
of  success  in  such  experiments  is  perhaps  real  gain. 

Gunny  bags  and  gunny  cloth  have  been  articles  of  import 
into  the  U  nited  States  for  about  seventy  years.  Some  years  the 
importation  was  of  small  extent,  but  at  other  times  it  rose  to 
considerable  magnitude.  The  cloth  was  used  chiefly  for  cotton 
bagging,  and  the  bags  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  Jute  has  also 
been  imported  for  a  long  series  of  years,  and  it  was  begun  to 
be  manufactured  there  at  an  early  period,  perhaps  before,  but 
if  not,  certainly  not  long  subsequent  to  its  introduction  into  the 
manufactures  of  Dundee.  The  following  tables  and  particulars 
regarding  the  trade  in  these  articles  for  the  last  four  years  is 
taken  from  Consul  Lousada's  report,  dated  Boston,  20th  Feb- 
ruary, 1863:— 


348 


MODERN  LINEN. 


IMPORTS  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  THE  ARTICLES  SPECIFIED,  DURING  THE  YEARS 
NAMED,  AND  STOCKS  AT  SlST  DEC.  EACH  YEAR  :— 


IMPORTS. 

1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 

Jute, 
Manila 
Hemp,  &c. 

Gunny   Bags. 

Gunny    Cloth. 

Boston,  &c. 

At  Boston. 

Other  Prts. 

Total. 

At  Boston. 

Other  Prts. 

Total. 

Bales. 

80,926 
66,049 
64,102 
59,561 

Bales. 

10,988  " 
8,480 
8,737 
11,071 

Bales. 

3,931 
3,073 
7,397 
4,280 

Bales. 

14,919 
11,553 
16,134 
15,351 

Bales. 

58,755 
32,381 
25,734 
7,375 

Bales. 

16.100 
32,847 
26,573 
10,500 

Bales. 

74,855 
65.228 
52,307 
17,875 

STOCKS    IN    BOSTON. 

At  31st  Dec.                   Jute. 

Gunny   Bags.           Gunny   Cloth. 

1859                  Bales    7,350 
1860                        „       1,200 
1861                        „      2,186 
1862 

Bales    6,808                 Bales    6,780 
.,      4,000                      „      8,300 
„      5,350                      „    37,600 
„      9,400                     „    42,300 

In  1862,  the  imports  of  Jute,  Manila  Hemp,  &c.,  were  from 
the  following  places  : — 


Manila, 
Calcutta,     . 
Liverpool, 
London, 
Other  Places, 


Total  Bales, 


Bales,    29,160 

8,743 

4,072 

120 

„       17,466 

"  59,561 


From  January  to  September  1862,  the  price  of  Jute  ruled 
from  $100  @  $115  ty  ton.  Subsequently  a  speculative  demand 
raised  the  price  to  $160  @,  $190,  duty  paid.  The  lowest  price  of 
Manila  Hemp  in  1862  was  7  cents,  and  the  highest  9J  cents  <$ 
ft>. ;  in  1861, 4|  and  7J ;  in  1860, 5f  and  6J  ;  and  in  1859,  6J  and 
7  cents  «$  ft>.  In  the  first  eight  months  of  1862  gunny  bags 
ranged  from  12  to  14  cents.  Afterwards  the  scarcity  and  high 
price  of  all  kinds  of  bagging  led  to  an  active  demand,  partly  for 


VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 


349 


consumption  and  partly  on  speculation,  and  in  the  beginning  of 
November  they  touched  25  cents  cash,  the  highest  price  gunny 
bags  ever  reached  in  Boston.  The  sales  and  re -sales  within  a  few 
weeks  at  that  period  reached  10,000  bales,  but  after  the  middle 
of  November  prices  fell  to  21 J  to  22  cents  a  bag.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  1862  there  was  a  speculative  demand  for  gunny 
cloth,  and  10,500  bales  changed  hands,  prices  having  advanced 
from  11  to  14  cents  a  yard.  Afterwards  sales  became  very 
dull,  and  prices  fell  to  11  cents.  In  November  they  again  rose 
to  14}  to  15  cents. 

The  lowest  price  of  gunny  cloth  in  1862  was  11  cents  and  the 
highest  15  cents  per  yard ;  in  1861,  7J  and  llj  ;  in  18KO,  8J 
and  17;  and  in  1859,  11  and  13  cents  per  yard ;  and  of  gunny 
bags,  in  1862,  12  and  25  cents  ;  in  1861,  10J  and  14  ;  in  1860, 
8j  and  14  ;  and  in  1859,  9  and  12 £  cents  per  bag.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  war  between  the  Federal  and  Confederate  States, 
deliveries  of  gunny  cloth  for  consumption  in  1862  were  very 
limited,  the  cloth  being  chiefly  used  for  cotton  bagging,  <fcc., 
the  exportation  of  which  was  stopped  by  the  blockade  of  the 
Confederate  ports,  and  the  stock  on  hand  at  the  end  of  that  year 
was,  as  shown  above,  42,300  bales  in  Boston  alone. 

The  following  statement  of  the  value  of  the  articles  enume- 
rated, imported  into  America  in  the  years  ending  30th  June 
1859  and  1860,  is  taken  from  official  sources  : — 


Flax,       . 

Linieed, 

Linen  Manufactures, 

Other  Kind*,  do., 

Hemp.  3,378  tons. 

Jute,  Coir,  &c.,  22,538 

Gunny  Bags,  &c., 

Of  the  Linens  imported  in  1860,  £1,871,856  was  from  Great  Britain.  The  Hemp 
exported  from  the  United  States  in  1859  was  108  tons,  value,  £1,933 ;  and  in  1860, 
186  tons,  value,  £1,935.  Linens  re-exported  in  1859,  value,  £7,122,  and  in  I860, 
£24,871. 

The  following  table,  taken  from  the  United  States  Economist, 
shows  the  value  of  the  Linens  imported  into  New  York,  the 
great  emporium  of  the  commerce  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
for  the  periods  specified  : — 


isr,o. 

1860. 

Value,  £30,564 

Value,  £44,518 

503,175 

573,627 

1,866,453 

1,926,210 

287,839 

335,366 

84,411 

2,273  tow, 

67,884 

449,561 

23,279    ,, 

409,530 

337,268 

433,884 

350 


MODERN  LINEN. 


VALUE  OF  THE  LINENS  IMPORTED  INTO  NEW  YORK  IN  1859,  1860, 1861,  1862, 
AND  FROM  1ST  JANUARY  TO  30TH  NOVEMBER  1863. 


Entered  for 
Home  Consump- 
tion. 

Entered  for 
Warehousing. 

I 

Total  Entered 
at  the  Port. 

Withdrawn 
from  Ware- 
house. 

Total  Thrown 
on  the  Market. 

Dollars. 

Dollars 

Dolla-  s. 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 

10,173,127 
6,415,345 
2,142,653 
6,711,360 
6,630,049 

947,357 

1,498,807 
1,437,650 
955,271 
210,043 

11,120,484 
7,914,152 
3,  58'),  303 
7,666,631 
6,840,092 

1,033,065 
839.488 
1,878,081 
1,612,414 
2,304,644 

11,208,192 
7,254,833 
4,020,734 
8,323,774 
8,934,693 

This  tabular  statement  is  important,  as  showing  the  effect  of 
the  unnatural,  fierce,  and  protracted  war  in  that  country  upon 
the  Linen  trade.  At  first  the  demand  for  Linens  fell  off  greatly, 
and  the  value  of  the  importation  in  1861  was  less  than  half  the 
value  the  previous  year,  and  less  than  one-third  that  of  1859. 
In  1862  the  stock  of  cotton  goods  became  exhausted,  and  Linens 
had  to  be  used  instead,  which  greatly  extended  their  consump- 
tion. The  requirements  of  the  army  and  navy  meanwhile  in- 
creased enormously,  and  vast  quantities  of  Linens  were  used  for 
war  purposes.  To  supply  these  wants  the  importation  of  1862 
was  greatly  beyond  that  of  the  previous  year,  and  almost  equalled 
the  value  in  1860,  when  both  the  Federals  and  Confederates 
were  consumers.  The  consumption  continued  to  increase  in 
1863,  and,  judging  from  the  first  eleven  months  of  the  year,  to 
which  this  statement  extends,  the  importation  will  be  greater  than 
for  either  of  the  complete  years  specified,  excepting  1859.  What 
the  future  wants  of  the  country  may  be  it  is  impossible  to  pre- 
dict, but  the  war  hitherto,  by  curtailing  the  supply  of  cotton, 
has  given  a  mighty  impulse  to  the  Linen  trade  of  Great  Bri- 
tain and  Ireland,  especially  to  that  branch  of  it,  the  centre  of 
which  is  Dundee,  This  table  does  not  show  the  full  effect  of  the 
war  on  the  Linen  trade,  because  many  Linens  are  sent  to  various 
places  in  the  West  Indies,  &c.,  which  find  their  way  into  the 
Confederate  States.  The  war  has  also  indirectly  increased  the 
consumption  of  Linens  in  all  countries,  as  the  Board  of  Trade 
Returns  show. 


(    :< 


PART     II. 

THE     UNITED     KINGDOM. 

THE  Limn  trade  is  a  very  important  branch  of  the  indus- 
try of  the  British  Isles.  In  each  of  the  grand  divisions  of  this 
great  country,  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  the  Linen  manu- 
facture is  of  ancient  standing,  and  now  of  important  extent. 
Though  these  countries  are  now  politically  united  in  one  impe- 
rial whole,  yet  they  were  long  separate  kingdoms,  with  antago- 
nistic interests,  and  while  so,  this  branch  of  the  trade  possessed 
distinct  features,  in  each  peculiar  to  itself  alone.  In  some  re- 
spects the  Linen  trade  in  the  respective  sub-divisions  of  the 
kingdom  are  now  identical,  but  in  others  they  still  differ,  and  it 
is  perhaps  better  for  the  general  prosperity  that  they  should  do  so. 
Each  has  struck  out  a  path  for  itself,  which  may  be  prosecuted 
successfully  without  injury  to  the  others,  and  each  can  therefore 
without  jealousy  rejoice  in  the  prosperity  of  their  brethren. 
The  general  weal  will  be  best  served  by  each  kingdom  con- 
tinuing to  prosecute  assiduously  its  own  adopted  fabrics.  This 
will  engender  no  rivalry,  excepting  the  very  legitimate  one  of 
each  of  three  kingdoms  trying  which  will  cast  the  brightest 
halo  around  the  Linen  trade  of  the  Empire. 

Notwithstanding  the  union  of  Scotland,  England,  and  Ireland 
into  one  empire,  the  history  of  the  Linen  trade  in  the  United  King- 
dom naturally  divides  itself  into  its  component  parts.  It  will 
therefore  be  better  and  more  clearly  elucidated  in  distinct  chap- 
ters. The  introduction  of  the  manufacture  of  Linen  into  the 
several  divisions  of  the  United  Kingdom  dates  back  to  a  far  distant 
period,  but  little  is  known  of  the  trade  in  either  until  comparatively 
modern  times.  England,  from  its  proximity  to  the  Continent, 


352  MODERN  LINEN. 

might  naturally  be  expected  to  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the 
art  first,  and  history  appears  to  support  this  conclusion.  Of  the 
three  kingdoms  it  takes  the  highest  rank  in  extent,  population, 
wealth,  and  general  importance,  and  to  it  therefore  the  first 
chapter  will  he  devoted.  Unlike  England  and  Scotland,  which 
draw  the  greater  part  of  the  supply  of  the  raw  materials  for  their 
Linen  manufacture  from  abroad,  and  pay  for  much  of  it  in  hard 
cash,  Ireland  produces  its  Linen  within  itself.  It  grows  its  own 
Flax,  spins  and  weaves  it,  and  exports  the  products,  thereby 
drawing  many  millions  of  gold  to  the  country  annually,  and 
thus  enriching  both  its  agricultural  and  manufacturing  popula- 
tions. Some  account  of  this  trade,  valuable  not  only  to  Ireland, 
but  to  the  kingdom  at  large,  will  be  given  in  the  second  chapter. 
The  third  chapter  will  relate  to  Scotland,  and  as  it  is  intended 
to  give  a  more  minute  account  of  the  trade  in  it  than  in  other 
countries,  the  chapter  will  contain  such  sub-divisions  as  may 
be  necessary  for  the  proper  illustration  of  the  subject.  The 
last  chapter  in  this  part  will  contain  details  common  to  the 
United  Kingdom,  including  general  statistics  not  already  given. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ENGLISH      LINEN. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Phoenicians  visited  England  at  a 
very  remote  period,  and  for  many  ages  supplied  the  inhabitants 
with  the  productions  of  Eastern  countries,  in  exchange  for  tin  and 
other  metals  from  the  mines  of  Cornwall. 

They  were  unquestionably  the  first  people  who  visited  Britain 
for  the  purposes  of  trade,  as  this  is  positively  affirmed  by  Strabo, 
and  acknowledged  by  many  other  authors.  After  visiting  all 
the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  they  passed  the  Straits  of  Gib- 
raltar about  1250  B.C.,  built  Cadiz,  sailed  along  the  west  coasts 


i  v.r.i-n    CM 

of  Gaul,  discovered  the  Cassiterides  or  Scilly  Isles,  and  th. 
south-west  coast  of  Britain,  Bochart  says  904  B.C.,  but  otli.-ix 
think  only  MX)  B.C.  This  much  is  certain  that  Herodotus,  who 
1;\ . -.1  1 10  B.C.,  speaks  of  the  Cassiterides  as  the  place  from  which 
nil  t ho  tin  came,  but  declares  he  does  not  know  where  they  are. 

Tin*  Li iu  n  of  Egypt  was  an  important  article  in  the 
trade  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  no  doubt  formed  one  of  the 
commodities  given  in  barter  for  the  highly  prized  metals 
and  minerals  of  England,  although  Strata  only  enume- 
rates salt,  earthenware,  and  brass  trinkets,  as  then  British 
imports.  This  Linen  was  much  valued  by  all  the  nations 
of  antiquity  to  whom  it  was  known,  and  doubtless  the  natives 
of  Britain,  although  uncivilized,  would  also  prize  it.  It  is 
fair  to  suppose,  therefore,  that  Linen  may  have  been  first 
introduced  into  England  by  this  maritime  people,  although  there 
is  nothing  certain  kuown  on  the  subject. 

After  the  Phoenician  commerce  was  destroyed,  for  many  ages 
the  rude  and  barbarous  natives  of  this  country  had  little  inter- 
course with  other  nations,  and  the  very  existence  of  Linen,  if 
ever  known,  seems  to  have  been  forgotten  by  many  of  them. 

Caesar  says  that  the  Britons  in  the  interior  of  the  country 
were  clothed  with  skins.  Pliny  and  others  say  that  the  ancient 
Britons  still  continued  to  besmear  their  bodies  with  paint  long 
after  the  people  of  Spain,  Gaul,  and  even  Germany  had  aban- 
doned that  practice  and  were  tolerably  clothed.  It  would  appear, 
however,  that  some  of  the  people  of  Britain  not  only  wore  various 
kinds  of  cloth  at  the  time  the  Romans  first  visited  the  country,  but 
that  they  were  then  well  acquainted  with  the  art  of  dressing, 
spinning,  and  weaving  both  Flax  and  wool,  and  that  they  prac- 
tised these  arts  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the  people  of 
Gaul.  Not  only  was  this  the  case,  but  they  were  even  the  in- 
ventors of  some  particular  descriptions  of  cloth.  One  of  these 
was  made  of  fine  wool,  dyed  of  different  colours,  and  woven  in 
checks  or  squares,  like  the  Scottish  tartan  of  the  present  time. 
Of  this  the  people  made  summer  mantles  and  other  garments. 
Pliny  says  the  ancient  Gauls  and  Britons  were  acquainted  with 
the  art  of  dyeing  woollen  yarn  and  cloth.  The  material  chiefly 
used  was  the  glastum  or  woad,  with  which  in  former  times 
they  had  dyed  their  bodies  ;  and  deep  blue  long  continued  to  be 
z 


354  MODERN  LINEN. 

the  favourite  colour  with  which  the  ancient  Britons,  and  also  the 
Caledonians,  dyed  their  clothes.  The  dress  of  the  Druids  was 
white,  and  probably  of  Linen  cloth.  Pliny  mentions  that  the 
priest,  arrayed  in  a  surplice  or  white  vesture,  climbeth  up  into 
the  tree  (misletoe),  and  with  a  golden  hook  or  bill  cutteth  it 
off,  and  they  beneath  receive  it  in  a  white  soldier's  cassock,  or 
coat  of  arms. 

Burnt  bones  have  been  found  in  British  barrows,  secured  by  a 
Linen  cloth.  Some  specimens  of  the  Linen  were  of  a  reddish- 
brown  colour,  the  filaments  at  first  appearing  like  hair.  Sir  K.  C. 
Hoare  found  in  a  barrow  some  bits  of  cloth  so  well  preserved 
that  the  size  of  the  threads  could  be  distinguished,  and  shewed  it 
to  be  what  is  now  termed  a  Kersey  cloth. 

The  following  description  of  the  habit  of  the  greatBritish  hero- 
ine, Boadicea,  is  given  by  Dido  and  other  historians.  "  She  wore 
a  loose  robe  of  changeable  colours  over  a  thick  plaited  kirtle,  the 
tresses  of  her  hair  hanging  down  to  her  very  skirts,  with  a  chain 
of  gold  about  her  "neck,  and  carrying  in  her  hand  a  short  spear  or 
dart."  What  Tacitus  says  of  the  German  women  may  also  be 
true  of  the  Britons — "  Their  dress  differed  little  from  that  of  the 
men,  excepting  that  the  women  wore  more  Linen,  but  left  their 
arms  and  part  of  their  bosoms  bare." 

The  art  of  making,  and  the  custom  of  wearing  Linen,  were 
probably  brought  into  England  by  the  Belgic  colonies,  about  a 
century  before  the  Roman  invasion,  or  perhaps  earlier,  and  at 
the  same  time  with  agriculture,  and  it  kept  pace  with  that  most 
useful  of  arts  in  its  progress  northwards.  There  is  direct  evi- 
dence that  the  Belgse  manufactured  Linen,  as  well  as  cultivated 
their  lands  on  the  Continent,  and  there  is  thus  good  reason  to 
conclude  that  they  continued  to  do  the  same  after  they  settled 
in  this  Island. 

Although  the  Belgae,  the  most  civilized  of  the  ancient  Britons, 
were  not  altogether  unacquainted  with  the  most  essential  branches 
of  the  clothing  art  before  they  were  subdued  by  the  Eomans,  yet 
these  arts  were  improved  in  England  by  that  event.  The 
Komans  learned  all  the  useful  and  ornamental  arts  practised  in 
the  different  countries  throughout  their  vast  empire,  and  readily 
taught  them  to  their  subjects  in  other  countries  where  they  were 
unknown,  or  imperfectly  practised.  The  Roman  invasion  of 


ENGLISH  LINEN. 

England  must  therefore  have  been  the  means  of  reviving  and 
•idiiig  the  use  of  Linen  there,  as  the  Britons  were  then, 
or  very  shortly  afterwards,  partial  to  Linen,  and  used  it  for 
many  purposes. 

1 'liny  describes  the  different  «{iialitios  of  Flax  respectively 
produced  by  each  country,  with  a  minuteness  which  shows 
that  tin-  manufacture  of  Linen  was  then  an  important  branch 
of  trade  among  the  Romans,  and  that  wherever  their  arms  pene- 
t  rated  Linen  would  soon  be  known.  It  appears  from  the  Notitia 
Iniperii  that  there  was  an  Imperial  college  or  manufactory  of 
woollen  and  Linen  cloth  for  the  use  of  the  Roman  army  in  Bri- 
tain established  at  Venta  Belgarum,  now  Winchester.  After 
the  Romans  left  England,  much  of  the  civilization  which  they 
had  introduced  followed  in  their  train,  and  again  went  with  them ; 
and  the  natives  relapsed  into  at  least  semi-barbarism. 

After  the  retreat  of  the  Britons  into  Wales  aud  Cornwall,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Saxons  in  England  as  masters  of  the 
country,  greater  attention  began  to  be  paid  to  the  arts  of  peace, 
ju nl  particularly  to  trade  and  commerce.  The  retrograde  move- 
ment which  began  with  the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions 
was  stopped,  and  a  gradual  improvement  manifested  itself  in 
the  country. 

Macpherson  in  his  "  Annals  of  Commerce"  says,  that  about  A.D. 
500,  it  appears  from  the  chronicles  of  the  period  fine  Linen, 
(probably  imported),  was  possessed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Britain 
and  Ireland.  The  bodies  of  the  dead,  at  least  those  of  eminent 
rank,  were  wrapped  in  fine  Linen. 

By  the  ancient  laws  of  Wales,  all  the  officers  of  tlie  household 
were  appointed  to  be  clothed  thrice  every  year,  the  King  fur- 
nishing the  woollen  and  the  Queen  the  Linen  cloth  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  several  parts  of  the  dress  of  the  King  and  nobility 
are  enumerated,  among  which  are  sheets,  stockings,  shoes,  and 
boots.  The  stockings  were  of  woollen  or  Linen  cloth  wound 
round  the  legs  and  feet,  and  fastened  in  different  ways. 

Before  the  end  of  the  7th  century,  the  art  of  weaving  had  at- 
tained remarkable  perfection  io  England,  for  in  a  book  written 
by  Bishop  Aldhelm,  about  A.D  680,  in  praise  of  virginity,  he 
speaks  of  "  webs  woven  with  shuttles,  filled  with  threads  of 
purple  and  many  other  colours,  flying  from  side  to  side,  and 
z2 


356  MODERN  LINEN. 

forming  a  variety  of  figures  aiid  images  in  different  compart- 
ments with  admirable  art."  These  figures  were  sometimes  em- 
broidered upon  the  cloth  with  threads  of  gold,  silver,  and  silk 
of  purple  and  other  colours,  as  the  nature  of  the  figures  to  be 
formed  required  ;  and  to  render  them  the  more  exact,  they  were 
first  drawn  with  colouring  matter  by  some  skilful  artist.  They 
were  commonly  executed  by  ladies  of  the  highest  rank  and 
greatest  piety,  and  were  designed  for  ornaments  to  the  churches, 
or  for  vestments  to  the  clergy. 

The  garments  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  Linen  and  woollen, 
and  the  Flax  and  the  fleece  were  spun  in  winter  by  the  females 
of  every  family,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  rank.  From 
this  universal  practice  the  term  spinster  came  to  be  applied  to 
an  unmarried  woman,  and  the  trace  of  this  custom  still  re- 
mains. The  Saxon  ladies  were  very  skilful  with  their  needles, 
particularly  in  embroidery  and  ornamental  work,  and  celebrated 
events  were  often  represented  by  them  with  great  truth  on  tapes- 
tried hangings  and  similar  works. 

The  four  princesses,  daughters  of  King  Edward  the  Elder,  and 
sisters  of  King  Athelstane,  are  highly  celebrated  by  historians 
for  their  assiduity  and  skill  in  spinning,  weaving,  and  needle- 
work, which  was  so  far  from  spoiling  the  fortunes  of  these  Koyal 
spinsters,  that  it  procured  them  the  addresses  and  the  hands  of 
the  greatest  princes  then  in  Europe.  William,  of  Malmsbury, 
mentions  that  Harold,  King  of  Norway,  sent  to  Athelstane  of 
England  a  fine  ship,  with  a  gilded  stern  and  purple  sails. 

The  celebrated  Bayeaux  tapestry,  executed  by  the  Queen 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  her  maidens,  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  conquest  of  England,  is  of  Linen  cloth,  worked  with 
wool.  It  was  presented  by  Queen,  Matilda  to  the  Cathedral 
of  Bayeaux,  of  which  William's  brother  was  bishop.  This 
tapestry  is  20  inches  wide  by  214  feet  long,  divided  into  72 
compartments,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  specimens  of 
industry  in  existence.  It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  munici- 
pality of  Bayeaux,  by  whom  it  is  highly  valued  and  religiously  pre- 
served. It  begins  with  the  embassy  of  Harold  to  the  Norman 
court,  A.D.  1065,  and  ends  with  his  death  at  the  battle  of  Hastings, 
the  following  year.  The  many  important  transactions  of  these 
two  busy  years  are  represented  in  the  clearest  and  most  regular 


ENGLISH  LIN  357 

in  this  piece  of  needlework,  which  contains  many  hundred 
ires  of  men,  horses,  herds,  trees,  castles,  churches,  <fec.,  &c., 
all  executed  in  their  due  proportions  and  proper  colours,  with 
i  1 1 M  T i  i  )t  ions  over  them  to  throw  light  on  the  history.      Though 
'•n   .Matil.la  diivete.l  this  w.»rk.  yet  ihe  greater  part  of  it 
prohahly  p'-rtormed  by  English  women,  as  a  contemporary 
\\riter  says  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  ladi.-s  were  so  famous  t  r  th« -ir 
skill  in  needlework  and  embroidery  in  gold,  that  those  elegant 
manufactures  were  ealled  Au'jlirnin  Opus. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  of  this  period  were  far  from  being  strangers 
to  the  use  of  Linen,  for  all  persons  of  any  consi  !. -ration  among 
tin-in  \v«>iv  vhirN  of  it  next  their  skin.  These  were  considered 
so  pleasant  and  necessary,  that  a  woollen  shirt  was  then,  accord- 
ing to  Johnson's  Canons,  reckoned  among  those  things  which 
constitute*!  penance  for  very  great  sins.  Above  the  shirt  they 
wore  a  tunic,  and  Alcuinus  says,  "  those  of  the  soldiers  are  com- 
monly made  of  Linen,  and  exactly  fitted  to  the  shape  of  their 
bodies."  The  Anglo-Saxons  also  wore  breeches,  either  of  Linen 
or  woollen  cloth,  reaching  below  the  knee,  very  much  like  the 
trousers  of  the  sailors  of  the  present  time.  The  upper  cover- 
ing or  mantle  of  princesses  and  ladies  of  distinction  was  made 
of  silk  or  fine  Linen.  They  had  their  sceta  or  sheets,  and 
in  a  foreign  charter,  dated  1069,  lintrius  is  a  term  used  for 
bed  Li  iien,  and  elsewhere  lintheamina.  It  would  thus  ap- 
pear that  lareje  quantities  of  Linens  were  consumed  by  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  manufacture  had 
been  chiefly  of  a  domestic  character.  It  may  be,  however, 
that  part  of  them  were  imported,  especially  those  of  the  finest 
quality. 

The  Flax  plant  appears  to  be  indigenous  to  Britain.  Its  pro- 
per ties  have  been  long  known  to  the  inhabitants,  and  it  mu-t 
have  been  raised  from  an  early  dut< -.  During  the  Roman,  and 
also  the  Saxon  period,  it  was  grown  to  some  extent,  but  the 
troubles  consequent  on  the  incursions  and  invasions  of  the  Danes 
seem  to  have  interfered  with,  and  perhaps  in  a  great  measure  to 
have  stopped,  its  cultivation.  It  is  reported  that  at  the  time  of 
Norman  conqih-t  very  little  Flax  was  grown.  Very  many 
manufacturers  of  cloth  from  Flanders  came  over  with  the  Nor- 
mans  and  settled  in  England,  and  others  followed  at  later  periods. 


358  MODERN  LINEN. 

These  industrious  people  pursued  their  trade  with  much  assi- 
duity, and  with  great  advantage  to  their  adopted  country,  as  well 
as  profit  to  themselves.  The  production  of  both  woollen  and 
Linen  fabrics  experienced  considerable  improvement  soon  after 
the  Flemings  arrived,  and  of  the  skill  of  this  people  an  ancient 
historian  has  said  that  "  The  art  of  weaving  seemed  to  be  a  pe- 
culiar gift  bestowed  upon  them  by  nature." 

In  a  list  of  titheable  articles  made  out  in  1070,  being  the 
fourth  year  of  William  the  Conqueror,  neither  Flax  nor  Hemp 
are  enumerated.  It  would  thus  appear  that  their  cultivation  had, 
for  a  time  at  least,  been  discontinued.  They  must,  however, 
have  been  resumed  within  a  century  thereafter,  as  they  are  both 
enumerated  by  the  Council  of  Westminster  in  1175,  among  the 
things  annually  reproduced  as  subject  to  tithe. 

William  the  Conqueror  published  a  proclamation  for  the  en- 
couragement of  trade,  promising  foreign  merchants  who  fre- 
quented the  ports  of  England  the  most  perfect  security  for  their 
goods  and  persons.  King  John,  for  the  encouragement  of  the 
clothing  arts,  and  the  improvement  of  commerce,  established  in 
the  great  towns  of  England,  guilds,  or  corporations  of  merchants, 
bestowing  upon  them,  by  royal  charter,  various  privileges  and 
immunities,  for  which  they  paid  certain  fines  into  the  Exche- 
quer ;  and  the  making  and  selling  of  cloth  was  regulated  by 
statute.  At  this  period  the  shirts  of  all  persons  of  rank  and  for- 
tune, and  even  of  the  great  body  of  the  people,  were  of  Linen, 
which  had  then  become  so  common  that  it  was  no  longer  taken 
notice  of  by  historians  as  a  singularity.  As  this  part  of  dress  is 
not  much  seen,  it  has  been  less  affected  by  the  tyranny  of  cap- 
rice and  fashion  than  other  parts  of  the  clothing,  and  it  still 
remains  nearly  what  it  then  was. 

It  is  related  inMadox's  "  History  of  the  Exchequer/'  that  fine 
Linen  was  first  made  in  Wilts  and  Sussex  in  1253 ;  and,  in  order 
to  patronize  the  infant  manufacture,  Henry  III.  ordered  the 
Sheriffs  of  each  of  these  counties  to  buy  for  him  one  thousand 
ells  of  fine  Linen,  and  to  send  it  to  his  wardrobe  at  Westmin- 
ster. Notwithstanding  this  royal  patronage,  woollen  was  worn 
in  nearly  all  garments  until  the  age  of  the  Tudors,  when  Linen 
began  to  come  into  more  general  use.  In  1272  it  is  recorded 
that  Irish  Linen  was  usel  at  Winchester. 


IUBH  Ul 

In  the  latter  pail  .>f  the  i:Jth  eriitury  the  people  wore  woollen 
shirts,  but  now  (in  the  14th  0-ntury),  says  La  Flamma,  we  wear 
I. in. -n.     Table  Linen  was  then  scarce  in  England .     The  manu- 
facture of  Linen  must  have  been  pretty  generally  established  in 
Wak's  in  the  heLrinning  «.f  ihe  1  I'h  century,  as  its  use  was  tli.-n 
common  in  tlie  country.      Barbmir.  in  his  Lift-  .,!' 
'-'nice,  says  that  the  men  of  Wales,  in  1  li  1 4,  were  mostly  clot 
in  Linen.      During  this  century  most  of  the  fine  Linen  used  in 
Kn-land  was  supplied  by  Khcim-. 

In  1331  Kdward  III.  resolved  to  establish  manufactures,  and 
for  that  purpose  invited  over  weavers  from  Flanders  to  settle  in 
England.  In  1351  the  king  regulated  the  places  of  meeting  of 
the  foreign  weavers  for  the  sale  of  their  cloth.  Those  who  had 
come  t'miii  Flanders  were  to  meet  in  the  churchyard  of  St  Law- 
rence, Pulteney.  and  tli<»cfrom  Brabant  in  the  churchyard  of  St 
Mary  Somerset.  Afterwards  the  cloth  fair  was  removed  to 
West  Sinithticld.  It  is  stated  in  "  Londinopolis"  that  there  were 
then  weavers  of  divers  sorts,  viz.,  of  drapery  or  tapery  and 
napery,  i.e.  of  woollen  ami  Linen. 

There  is  a  regular  account  extant  of  the  imports  and  exports 
which  paid  duty  in  England  in  1354,  an  I  among  the  former 
Linen.  In  1378  an  Act  was  parsed  tor  the  encouragement 
of  foreign  merchants,  and  Linens,  canvas,  &c.,  are  enumerated 
among  the  articles  then  imported.  From  these  and  similar 
notices  it  would  appear  that  few  Linens  had  then  been  manu- 
factured in  the  country,  the  greater  part  ot  them  having  been 
imported,  chiefly  from  Flanders  and  France.  The  principal 
manufacture  uf  textile  1  a bries,  before  and  for  some  time  after 
this  period,  was  woollen  cloth,  and  considerable  quantities  of  it 
were  exported. 

In  1386  a  company  or  guild  of  Linen  weavers  was  first  estab- 
lished in  London.  e«.n>i>ting  of  such  as  had  been  brought  over 
fn>m  the  Netherlands  by  Edward  III.  They  \\vre  much  mo- 
le>ted  by  the  weavers' company  of  London,  aad  never  attained  a 
great  degree  of  success. 

The  Tailors  or  "  Fraternity  of  Scissors,"  now  called  "  Mer- 
chant Tailors,"  dates  as  a  chartered  company  in  the  city  of 
London  from  the  year  1399.  Anciently  they  made  all  kinds  of 
apparel,  whether  of  wool  OT<rf  Linen,  and  also  the  padding  of 


360  MODERN  LINEN. 

armour,  hence  their  designation  in  several  charters  as  "  Linen 
armourers/' 

Many  foreign  merchants  in  England  were  at  this  time  formed 
into  companies,  such  as  "  Merchants  of  the  Steel  Yard,"  "  Mer- 
chants of  the  Staple/'  &c.  The  foreign  trade  was  then  on  an 
extensive  scale,  and  fine  Linen  was  imported  from  Venice,  Pisa, 
Genoa,  Bretagne,  Flanders,  Holland,  and  other  places,  chiefly  of 
Egyptian  and  German  manufacture.  The  Linen  cloth  made  in 
England  would  seem  to  have  been  generally  coarse,  and  only 
worn  by  the  very  poorest,  the  fine  Linens  for  the  use  of  the 
rich  being  imported. 

It  appears  from  the  roll  of  the  king's  wardrobe  in  1415,  that 
the  greatest  part  of  the  Linen  then  used  in  England,  especially 
by  those  of  the  higher  ranks,  was  imported,  and  was  chiefly  from 
Keynes  or  Eennes  and  Champagne  in  France,  and  from  Flanders 
and  Brabant  in  the  Netherlands.  The  excellence  of  these  Linens 
is  celebrated  in  many  romances  and  poems  composed  shortly  be- 
fore this  period. 

In  1415  King  Henry  V.  invaded  France  with  a  fleet  of  large 
vessels,  and  gained  the  battle  of  Agincourt.  The  ship  in  which 
he  himself  embarked  carried  a  sail  of  purple  silk. 

In  1445  the  price  of  fine  Linen  for  surplices  and  the  altar, 
was  8d  an  ell  in  England. 

D'Amay  says  that  Linen  was  not  common  in  the  west  in  the 
8th  century  ;  that  table  Linen  was  very  rare  in  England  in 
the  13th  and  14th  centuries  ;  and  that  La  Flamma,  a  writer  of 
the  14th  century,  says,  the  Emperors  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and 
Frederick  II.  wore  shirts  of  serge,  not  of  Linen,  at  Milan. 

Sturtt  observes  that  the  manufacture  of  Linen  in  this  country 
was  not  carried  to  any  extent  before  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  was  in  its  infancy  even  in  the  times  of  Charles  II.  At 
that  time  it  was  imported  from  Flanders,  and  was  very  dear. 
Gems  were  frequently  inserted  in  Linen,  and  he  says  of  cloth 
of  Eayne,  the 

"Head  shete  of  pery  pight, 
With  diamonds  set  and  rubies  bright  " 

Anderson,  in  his  "  History  of  Commerce,"  quoting;  from 
"Richard  Hakluyt,  says,  in  1430  England  imported  from  Flan- 
ders, "  fine  cloth  of  Ypres  and  of  Courtray  of  all  colours, 


361 

mucli  fustian,  and  t&u  l.in«u  el.-ih;"  Brctagne,  "Bait,  wines, 
Linen,  and  canvas  ;*  Cologne,  via  Flanders,  "  thread,  wool- 
en nU,  fustians,  canvas  and  buckram;"  Brabant,  "mercery,  ha- 
IM  nlashery,  and  grocery;"  Ireland,  "hides,  fish,  wool,  Linrn 
el"th,  and  skins  of  wild  beasts."  The  same  author  says,  in  l.~.7l> 
"  there  are  persons  in  Panift  who  si^in  Linen  cloth.  It  hath 
been  an  old  trade  in  England,  whereof  some  excellent  <•!<  (hi  yd 
rriuain,  1ml  the  art  is  now  lost  in  this  realm" 

The  silk  inaiiufaeture  was  intn>dmvd  about  the  beginning  of 
th«  if,th  eentury.  At  this  period,  according  to  a  curious  pam- 
phlet called  the  "  Prologue  of  English  Policy,"  crest-cloth  or 
Linen,  and  canvas  were  imported  from  Brittany  ;  Flax,  Hemp, 
thread,  and  canvas  from  (Germany  and  Prussia. 

I  n  an  act  passed  in  the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Henry 
VII.,  (1497),  mention  is  made  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  for- 
( -i^n  commerce  of  the  country  ;  Linen  forms  but  a  very  small  part 
of  the  exports,  as  it  is  scarcely  mentioned  ;  nor  does  it  hold  a  more 
prominent  place  among  the  exports  of  1511.  About  this  time 
Linen,  even  the  very  coarsest  dowlas,  was  derived  from  Flanders. 
The  English  had  then  a  factory  at  Antwerp,  whence  they  had 
removed  it  a  few  years  before  from  Bruges. 

In  "  Nicholl's  Illustrations"  is  an  inventory  of  the  goods  of 
"  John  Port,  late  the  king's  servant,"  who  died  in  1524.  His 
house  consisted  of  "  a  hall,  parlour,  buttery,  and  kitchen,  with  two 
chambers,  and  one  smaller  in  the  floor  above,  a  napery  or  Linen 
room,  and  three  garrets  IK  sides  a  shop." 

In  1531  the  legislature  seems  to  have  become  more  alive  to  the 
importance  of  the  Linen  trade,  a  statute  having  been  enacted 
ivi|iiirin«r  that,  under  certain  penalties,  "for  every  sixty  acres  of 
land  fit  for  tillage,  one  rood  should  be  sown  with  Flax  and  Hemp 
seed/'  and  in  the  register  of  Pulham,  St  Mary,  fines  paid  for  the 
non-fulfilment  of  this  law  are  recorded.  By  the  5th  E'i/aheth, 
c.  5,  that  Queen  had  power  by  her  proclamation  to  revive  this 
law  in  such  counties  as  she  should  judge  proper,  "  for  the  better 
provision  of  nets  for  help  and  furtherance  of  fishing,  and  for 
eschewing  of  idleness,"  but  no  mention  is  made  of  the  Linen 
manufacture. 

About  1540  a  trade  was  opened  up  by  England  with  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  first  article  enu- 


362  MODERN  LINEN. 

merated  amongst  the  exports  is  Linen.  In  1553  the  trade 
between  England  and  Kussia  was  begun,  and  among  the  exports 
to  Archangel,  and  also  to  Narva,  coarse  Linen  cloth  is  mentioned. 
In  1588  the  first  voyage  from  London  to  Benin  was  made,  and 
Linens  are  the  first  of  the  commodities  named  among  the  exports 
to  that  country.  As  related  in  Guiciardini's  picture  of  Antwerp, 
in  1560,  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  in  common  with  many 
other  countries,  drew  supplies  of  Linen  from  that  city,  which 
was  then  the  great  emporium  of  the  Linen  of  Flanders.  Mis- 
senden,  in  his  (t  Circle  of  Commerce,"  mentions  that  in  1612, 
among  the  principal  imports  into  England  from  Europe,  Linens 
held  a  prominent  place,  and  that  during  a  great  part  ot  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries,  they  were  largely  imported.  In  the  17th 
century  England  imported  vast  quantities  of  Hemp,  Flax,  &c., 
from  Carolina,  in  North  America. 

About  the  middle  of  the  1 6th  century  the  growing  of  Hemp 
and  Flax  met  with  more  encouragement  from  the  Government 
than  that  of  hops,  yet  it  appears  to  have  totally  failed.  Toward 
the  end  of  this  century  (1 597),  the  monopoly  of  the  "  steelyard" 
was  abolished.  The  foreign  merchants,  in  revenge,  managed  to 
force  the  English  merchants  to  remove  their  staple  town  on  the 
continent  from  place  to  place,  until  at  last  they  found  a  kind  re- 
ception at  Hamburg.  To  this  city  they  exported  woollen 
cloth,  &c.,  and  imported  from  the  Hanse  Towns,  jewels,  silk, 
Linen,  tapestry,  &c. 

In  1552  an  Act  was  passed  confirming  the  manufacture  of 
dornocks,  (coarse  Linen  diaper) ,  and  some  other  things  to  Nor- 
wich, and  to  all  corporate  and  market  towns  in  that  county. 
To  that  and  to  the  neighbouring  counties  the  persecuted  Flemish 
manufacturers  fled  in  crowds,  scared  by  the  inhumanities  of  the 
execrable  Duke  D'  Alva,  his  popish  priestly  bloodhounds,  and 
savage  soldiery.  This  act,  passed  by  the  amiable  Edward  VI., 
enabled  these  poor  people,  some  twenty  years  afterwards,  the  more 
easily  to  prosecute  their  diligent  labours  in  these  districts  ; 
and  to  their  industrious  pursuits,  among  which  was  the  making 
of  Linen,  England  owes  much  of  her  present  superiority  in 
manufactures,  trade,  and  commerce. 

The  manufacture  of  sail-cloth  was  established  in  England  in 
1590,  as  appears  by  the  preamble  of  1st  James  I ,  cap.  23 : — 


JBNG1  l    il   II-  303 

Whereas  the  cloth  called  Mfldernix&nd  Towel  Davits,  whereof 

sails  and  other  furniture  tor  the  navy  and  shipping  are  made, 
heretofore  altogether  brought  out  of  France  and  other  parts 
beyond  sea,  and  the  skill  and  art  of  making  and  weaving  "l  tlie 
said  cloths  never  known  or  used  in  England  until  about  the 
thirty-second  year  of  the  late  Queen  Elizabeth,  al.  ait  what  time 
and  not  before  the  perfect  art  or  skill  of  making  or  weaving  of 
the  said  cloths  was  attained  to.  and  since  practi.-  niinued 

in  this  realm,  to  the  great  benefit  and  commodity  the  roof." 

In  1622  a  special  commission  was  appointed  to  enquire  into 
the  decline  of  trade  in  England  : — "  Consider  also  that  whereas 
our  East  land  merchants  did  formerly  load  their  ships  with  un- 
dressed Hemp  and  Flax  in  great  quantities,  which  set  great 
numbers  of  our  people  to  work  in  dressing  the  same,  and  con- 
verting them  into  Linen  cloth,  which  kind  of  trade,  we  under- 
stand, is  of  late  almost  given  over  by  bringing  in  Hemp  and  Flax 
ready  dressed,  and  that,  for  the  most  part,  by  strangers.  How 
may  this  be  redressed  ?  And  as  much  treasure  is  yearly  spent  in 
Linen  cloth  imported  at  dear  rates,  and  for  that  of  the  fishery 
so  much  desired  by  us  be  thoroughly  undertaken,  and  our 
shipping  increased,  it  will  require  a  much  greater  production  of 
Hemp  for  cordage,  <fcc.,  in  the  fishery,  which  would  set  an  infinite 
number  of  our  people  to  work.  Consider  how  the  sowing  of 
J  lax  and  Hemp  may  be  encouraged." 

Parliament  in  1643  laid  a  duty  on  damask  table  Linen.  In 
IGGiJ  statute-  \\vre  passed  tor  the  encouragement  of  the  Linm 
and  tapestry  manut act  ures  of  England,  and  t  he  discouragement  of 
the  very  great  importation  of  foreign  Linens  and  tapestry.  In 
h'i.S  England  was  almost  wholly  supplied  with  Linens  from 
1  ranee.  At  this  time  the  French  Protestants  settled  at  Ipswich 
made  Linen  at  15s  per  ell.  In  1670  "  the  wear  of  ilimsey  mus- 
lin ''  was  introduced  into  England,  before  which  time  our  more 
natural  and  usual  wear  were  cambrics,  Silesia  canvas,  and  such 
kinds  of  Flaxen  Linens  from  Flanders  and  (  u  rmany. 

Table  cloths  were  sometime^  made  of  very  valuable  Linen. 
Mrs  Otter,  in  Ben  Johnson's  "Silent  Woine.ii,"  mentions  a 
damask  tablecloth  which  cost  £18.  The  good  man  of  the 
house  sat  at  the  upper  end  of  the  board  "  with  a  i'ayre  napkin 
laydc  before  him  on  the  table  lyke  a  master."  At  the  close  of 


364 


MODERN  LINEN. 


Henry  VIII/s  reign,  the  breeches  worn  were  trussed  out  to  an 
enormous  size  with  horse  hair,  and  a  law  was  made  against  this. 
In  the  pedigree  of  the  English  Gallant,  related  that  a  man  who 
was  cited  for  disobeying  this  law,  gave  occular  demonstration  to 
the  Judge  that  it  was  a  storehouse  for  his  spare  Linen,  and  was 
dismissed.  Shirts  were  articles  of  great  expense  and  elegance.  They 
were  made  of  "  Cainericke  Hollande  lawn,  or  els  of  the  finest 
cloth  that  may  be  got,"  and  were  so  wrought  with  "  needleworke 
of  silke  and  so  curiously  stitched,  with  other  knache  besides,"  that 
their  price  would  sometimes  amount  to  £10. 

These  short  notices  of  the  import  and  export  of  Linens  show 
that  the  manufacture  in  this  country  had  been  on  a  very  trifling 
scale,  and  on  the  whole  not  sufficient  to  supply  the  home  de- 
mand, as  the  imports  seem  to  have  exceeded  the  exports.       In- 
deed from  the  passing  of  the  statute  in  1531,  already  referred  to, 
up  to  the  year  1767  many  attempts  were  made  to  extend  and 
improve  the  cultivation  of  Flax  in  England,  and  protection  was 
afforded  to  the  grower  of  the  plant  in  various  ways.      Success 
does  not  appear  to  have  attended  the  efforts  of  the  Government, 
and  in  the  latter  year  £15,000  were  proposed  to  be  distributed 
among  the  successful  cultivators  of  the  plant.     For  fifteen  years 
no  candidate  came  forward  to  claim  a  premium,  which  shows 
that  little  interest  was  taken  in  the  matter  ;  and  that  little  Flax 
was  grown,  notwithstanding  the  encouragement  offered  by  Go- 
vernment.   About  1798  a  bounty  of  4d  a  stone  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  growth  of  Flax  in  England,  was  given  to  claimants. 
Andrew  Yarranton  in  a  publication  issued  in  1677,  entitled 
"  Englands  Improvement  by  Land  and  Sea/'  proposed  "  To 
outdo  the   Dutch  without  Fighting.      To  pay  Debts  without 
Monies/'  &c.     His  plan  was  to  establish  the  Linen  manufacture 
in  England,  and  by  this  means  give  employment  to  the  people, 
and  at  the  same  time  make  the  country  independent  of  foreign 
nations.     He  mentions  that  vast  quantities  of  Linens  are  yearly 
brought  into  England,  some  of  it  used  there  and  the  rest  exported 
to  our  islands  and  other  places  ;  as  well  as  threads,  tapes,  twines, 
for  cordage  and  wrought  Flax. 

Flax,  he  says,  was  grown  in  the  upper  parts  of  Germany, 
Saxony,  and  Bohemia,  where  victuals  were  cheap,  and  as  the  pul- 
ling, watering,  dressing,  spinning  and  winding  the  Flax  gave  much 


'.•yinent.  there  were  no  beggars  there.  In  :ill  the  towns  in 
( iei  many  tliere  were  schools  for  little  girls  from  six  years  old  and 
upwards,  where  they  were  taught  to  spin,  and  by  this  early 
trainin-j;  they  were  enabled  to  produce  a  very  fine  thread  more 
easily  than  it'  they  had  learned  when  older.  The  win 
moved  l.y  the  foot,  and  went  easily  with  a  delightful  motion, 
and  the  mode  of  teaching  the  children  was  as  follows : — Around 
a  lar-c  room  a  number  of  benches  were  placed,  in  which  sat  }•< T- 
hajts  two  hundred  children  spinning.  In  the  centre  stood  a  ]  ul- 
pit,  in  which  the  mistress  sat  with  a  long  while  wand  in  her 
hand,  watching  the  spinners.  When  any  one  was  seen  idle  she 
was  tapped  with  the  wand,  but  if  that  did  not  do  a  small  bell 
was  rung,  which  brought  out  a  woman,  to  whom  the  offender 
was  pointed  out,  and  who  took  her  into  another  room  where  she 
was  chastised.  All  this  was  done  without  speaking  a  word,  and 
this  training,  the  author  thought,  would  do  good  in  England, 
where  tin  young  women  were  so  given  to  chatting.  In  a:i 
adjoining  room  a  woman  prepared  and  put  the  Flax  on  the 
distatl's,  and  when  a  maid  had  spun  off  the  Flax,  the  bell  was 
rung,  the  rod  pointed  to  her,  another  distaff  given,  and  the  bob- 
bin with  the  threads  removed,  and  put  into  a  box  with  others  of 
the  same  size  to  make  cloth.  As  the  children  learned  to  spin 
finer,  they  were  raised  to  higher  benches,  and  great  care  was 
taken  to  sort  the  thread  and  keep  it  uniform,  and  so  to  make 
regular  cloth. 

The  thread  or  yarn  was  brought  down  the  Elbe  or  Rhine  in 
dry  fats  for  Holland  and  Flanders,  where  it  was  weaved  into 
fine  Linen  and  bleached,  and  then  exported.  The  people  in 
these  countries  paid  high  rents  for  their  houses  and  for  provi- 
sions, but  the  weaving  and  bleaching  of  the  cloth  was  not  more 
than  a  tenth  part  of  the  labour,  which  made  high  charges  for 
these  processes  less  felt  on  the  cloth.  This  va>t  trade  it  was 
said  would  continue  in  Holland  and  Flanders  unless  the  Linen 
trade  were  promoted  in  England,  and  due  care  taken  of  the 
s«  >rt  ing  of  the  yarn  there,  which  had  not  been  the  case. 

In  England,  a  good  housewife  had  six  or  eight  spinners  be- 
longing to  her  ;  and  sometimes  she,  her  servants,  and  children 
span,  the  yarn  being  all  put  together,  some  for  warp  and  some  for 
weft  to  one  piece  of  cloth,  which  made  the  Linen  unequal 


366  MODERN  LINEN. 

throughout.  He  recommended  the  training  of  the  girls  in  spin- 
ning schools  for  three  years  as  in  Germany,  which  would  teach 
them  industrious  habits,  and  by  the  time  they  reached  their 
ninth  year  they  would,  he  says,  earn  eightpence  a  day,  and  thus 
enrich  their  father  instead  of  beggaring  him,  as  they  did  when 
running  about  idle. 

The  author  had,  from  1665  until  he  wrote  the  book  in  1677, 
often  travelled  through  Warwickshire  on  his  way  to  London,  and 
observed  how  suitable  much  of  the  soil  there  was  for  rearing  Flax. 
He  therefore  recommended  the  establishment  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  Linens  in  Warwick,  Leicester,  Northampton,  and  Oxford- 
shires,  because  these  countries  had  then  no  staple  trade,  and  the 
land  was  rich  and  dry,  and  such  as  Flax  grows  best  in.  Bleach- 
fields,  he  says,  should  be  put  down  by  the  banks  of  rivers  near  the 
great  towns,  as  it  then  was  in  South wark  by  the  help  of  the  flow- 
ing of  the  Thames.  He  recommended  each  county  to  raise  money 
to  start  the  manufacture  at  first.  After  it  was  established  in  these 
counties  and  encouraged  by  a  public  law,  they  would  soon  be- 
come what  Germany  was  to  Holland  and  Flanders,  as  the  yarn 
would  be  sent  down  the  navigable  rivers  to  the  several  towns  to 
be  woven,  along  with  such  of  the  Flax  as  was  not  spun  in  the 
counties. 

In  this  way  employment  would  be  provided  for  the  unemploy- 
ed, of  which  there  were  so  many  in  these  counties,  and  at  least  two 
millions  of  money  a  year  kept  in  the  country,  which  was  then 
sent  out  for  Linen  cloth.  This,  he  supposed,  would  keep  the 
people  at  home  who  then  went  beyond  the  seas,  and  it  would 
make  the  country  populous  and  rich,  and  greatly  benefit  the 
landlords  and  all  classes  of  the  community. 

He  thus  shows  that  bleaching  had  then  been  carried  on  by  the 
side  of  the  Thames  in  Southwark,  and  that  the  central  counties 
in  England  had  no  trade,  and  no  means  of  employing  the  popu- 
lation, excepting  at  agricultural  labour  and  work  incidental 
thereto ;  and  as  this  did  not  yield  employent  to  all  the  people, 
many  had  to  emigrate  to  other  lands.  The  author  points  to 
some  large  tracts  of  fine  land  suitable  for  growing  Flax,  and  in 
one  case  mentions  3000  acres,  near  Stratford-upon-Avon,  of  the 
value  of  about  £3000  a  year,  which  exhibits  the  rent  of  such 
land  at  that  period.  This  land,  he  says,  would  bear  three  cwl 


MM  367 

Flax  an  aciv,  which,  w,  11  wmild  make  1400  ells  of 

i,  worth  three  shilling  the  rll.  «>r  when  manutaetnivd  >ixty 
pounds  an  acre.  Three  people  he  says  are  required  to  nianufac- 
ture  the  produce  of  an  acre  of  Flax,  and  therefore  these  3000 
acres  alone  would  employ  :»000  persons.  Tims  by  growing 
Flax  extensively  all  the  poor  in  Kngland  would  be  employed, 
and  the  country  enriched. 

This  is  a  very  inteiv«t  ing  account  of  the  Linen  trade  at  that 
period  in  Germany,  Holland,  Ac.,  and  it  would  have  been  ol 
immense  advantage  to  Fnirland  ha.l  tin-  recommendation  of  tin- 
am  hor  been  curried  out.  The  description  of  the  spinning  schools 
is  curious. 

A  regulation  at  one  time  existed  in  England,  something  akin 
to  the  stamping  of  Linens  in  Scotland.  It  was  called  a  com- 
misvinM  f..r  the  sealing  lace,  buttons,  and  Linen  cloths,  and  it 
appears  to  have  been  abolished  by  King  Charles  I.,  in  the  fol- 
lowing proclamation,  made  at  York  in  1G39: — "  Whereas  divers 
Brants,  licenses,  privileges,  and  commissions  had  been  procured 
from  him,  on  pretence  for  the  common  good  and  profit  of  his 
subjects,  which  since,  upon  experience,  have  been  found  to  be 
prejudicial  and  inconvenient  to  his  people,  and  in  their  execu- 
tion have  been  notoriously  abused,  he  is  now  pleased,  of  his 
mere  grace  and  favour,  with  the  advice  of  the  Privy  Council,  to 
declare  these  following  to  be  utterly  void  and  revoked."  <fec. 

In  1085,  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  by  Louis 
XIV.,  drove  about  600,000  Protestant  artificers  from  France, 
of  whom  about  70,000  settled  in  England.  There  they  intro- 
duced new  manufactures  and  improved  old  ones,  Linen,  for 
which  they  had  Km  long  famous,  being  among  the  latter. 

An  act  was  passed  in  li'.TS  prohibiting  the  importation  of 
French  merchandize  ;  but  on  the  accession  of  James  II.,  who, 
for  Popish  i-nds.  wished  to  conciliate  Louis  of  France,  this  act 
was  repealed,  in  consequence  of  whi ch  there  was  an  inundation 
of  French  commodities.  In  1686,  as  shewn  by  the  Custom 
House  books,  the  value  <>f  Linen  imi>orted  was  £398,611  11- 
lOd,  and  the  average  annual  importations  of  Linen  for  that  and 
the  two  following  years  was  estimated  at  £700,000. 

Anderson  says  that  in  1696  "the  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish 
Linen  manufactures  met  with  all  due  encouragement,  King 


368  MODE  UN  LINEN. 

William  and  the  late  Queen  Mary  honouring  them  with  their 
names,  which  made  their  fame  to  rise.  Abundance  of  people  of 
condition  came  into  them,  some  of  lucre,  and  others  from  love 
to  their  country." 

In  1698  Dupin,  one  of  the  French  refugees,  was  instrumental 
in  advancing  the  manufacture  of  fine  Linen,  thread,  ropes,  lace, 
&c. 

About  the  end  of  the  17th  century  it  was  doubtful  if  the 
Linen  trade  would  prove  successful  in  England,  and  it  was  then  a 
question  if  it  would  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  country  that  it  should, 
as  it  might  interfere  with  what  was  called  "  our  noble  and  ancient 
woollen  manufacture."  It  was  said  that  it  required  about  20 
acres  of  land  to  breed  wool  for  setting  on  work  the  same  number 
of  hands  which  an  acre  of  Flax  would  employ,  and  yet  in  the 
end  the  woollen  manufacture  would  be  found  to  employ  by  far  the 
greatest  number  of  hands,  and  yield  the  most  profit  to  the  public, 
as  well  as  to  the  manufacturers.  Even  in  Holland,  where  the 
Linen  manufacture  was  so  prosperous,  it  was  said  the  Dutch 
had  only  the  easiest  and  most  profitable  part  of  the  trade,  viz  , 
the  weaving  and  whitening  of  it.  Most  of  the  yarn  was  spun  in 
Germany,  Prussia,  &c.,  where  the  people,  being  poor,  could  spin 
cheaper  than  the  people  of  Holland  or  England  can  do.  But  in 
countries  where  labour  and  land  are  cheap,  as  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  the  Linen  manufacture  had  been  found  to  be  profitable 
to  the  community. 

In  1669  Linen  yarn  weighing  23,680  Ibs.  was  imported  into 
the  port  of  London  from  Scotland.  In  the  month  of  May  1730 
London  imported — fine  Linen  from  Holland,  66,286  ells  ;  from 
Hamburg  and  Bremen,  1,232,209  ells ;  Irish  Linen,  179,114 
yards ;  and  Linen  Yarn  from  Hamburg,  73,450  Ibs.  On  23d 
October,  1738,  151,219  yards  of  Linen  manufactured  in  Scot- 
land, and  3000  sps.  of  yarn  were  imported  into  London.  In 
1731  the  quantity  of  all  kinds  of  Linen  imported  into  the  port 
of  London  alone  was  nearly  14,000,000  ells,  the  greater  part  of 
which  was  again  exported  to  the  plantations  in  America,  and  to 
the  factories  in  Africa. 

In  1703  a  bounty  of  £6  a  ton  was  allowed  on  the  importation 
of  Hemp  from  America.  This  must  have  been  discontinued,  be- 
cause in  order  to  obtain  a  cheaper  and  surer  supply  of  Flax  and 


ENGLISH  LINEN.  369 

and  to  encourage  their  cultivation  in  the  American  colo- 
t  he  parliament  granted  a  bounty  of  £8  on  every  ton  of  clean 
in- n  ant ile  Hemp,  or  rough  Flax,  imported  fn»m  the  liritish 
American  colonies  from  24th  June,  1764,  to  24th  June,  1771, 
t'mm  tin-lire  to  22d  June,  1778,  £6;  and  thereafter  to  2-lth 
June,  1785,  £4.  The  pre-emption  of  all  such  Flax  and  Hemp 
In-ill^  oH'.-ivd  to  the  commanders  of  tin-  navy,  and  twenty  days 
allowed  for  their  determination,  before  the  importer  could  be  at 
liberty  to  sell  it  to  a  pri\ate  buyer. 

About  1605,  Sir  \V.  Morrison  says  that  nearly  all  the  nations 
of  Europe,  including  England,  took  Flax,  Hemp,  <fec.,  from  the 
Turks,  and  in  Munn's  treatise  in  favour  of  the  East  India  trade, 
published  in  1621,  he  makes  the  same  statement. 

In  1717  the  duty  of  6d  on  every  piece  of  forty  ells  of  British 
made  Linen  exported,  which  had  been  laid  on  by  the  tonnage 
and  poundage  act,  was  taken  off,  "  the  said  manufacture  employ- 
many  thousands  of  the  poor  of  this  kingdom/' 

About  1720  great  complaints  were  made  by  the  weavers  of  the 
change  of  fashion  in  dress,  caused  by  the  French  commercial 
treaty  of  1713,  and  by  the  subsequent  introduction  of  Indian 
cotton  and  cotton  cloth.  "  The  Weavers'  True  Cause"  says,  that 
instead  of  the  women  of  the  gentry  wearing  English  brocades 
and  Venetians  as  of  late,  they  were  now  clothed  with  outlawed 
India  chintz.  The  common  traders'  wives  had  changed  their 
slight  silk  damasks  for  English  and  Dutch  printed  calicoes. 
The  good  country  dames  had  superseded  worsted  damasks, 
flowered  russets,  and  ll< -\\vivd  eal i ma ncoes,  with  ordinary  calicoes 
and  printed  Linens;  and  the  meanest  of  them  ha  1  _i\<u  up 
plain  worsted  stuffs  for  ordinary  printed  Linens,  whereby  these 
famous  branches  of  the  weaving  trade  had  almost  become  ex- 
tinct. The  weavers  were  stricken  with  horror  at  the  gro^ 
frenzy  of  English  women  for  printed  calicoes,  and  declared  that 
"  the  weaving  of  printed  or  painted  commodities  puts  all  degrees 
and  orders  of  woman  kind  into  disorder  and  confusion.  The 
lady  cannot  be  well  known  from  her  chambermaid.  l.ut  \\ 
our  womenkind  were  clothed  with  silk  and  woollen  commodities, 
these  mistakes  were  avoided,  and  a  tolerable  order  observed." 
However  fallacious  such  reasoning,  it  was  powerful  enough  to 
procure  an  enactment  in  1721,  which  made  it  penal  to  sell  or  to 
A  A 


370  MODERN  LINEN. 

weave  calico.  When  that  enactment  was  no  longer  tenable,  it 
was  in  1736  still  penal  to  weave  calico,  unless  the  warp  was 
wholly  of  Linen,  and  this  continued  to  be  British  law  until 
1784. 

On  Sunday,  30th  Dec.,  1722,  a  woman  was  seized  near  Lon- 
don Wall,  in  the  city  of  London,  for  wearing  a  gown  faced  with 
calico,  and  being  carried  before  a  magistrate,  and  refusing  to 
pay  the  penalty  inflicted  by  the  statute,  she  was  committed  to 
the  Compter.  So  says  a  London  newspaper,  published  on  Tues- 
day, 1st  January,  1723. 

To  prevent  the  use  of  calicoes  from  interfering  with  the  de- 
mand for  Linens  and  woollens,  a  statute  was  passed  in  1721 
imposing  a  penalty  of  £5  upon  the  weaver,  and  £20  upon  the 
seller,  of  a  piece  of  calico.  Fifteen  years  afterwards  this  statute 
was  so  far  modified  that  calicoes  manufactured  in  Great  Britain 
were  allowed  to  be  worn,  "  provided  the  warp  thereof  was  entirely 
made  of  Linen  yarn."  In  1774  a  statute  was  passed  allowing 
printed  goods  wholly  made  of  cotton,  to  be  used  upon  paying  a 
duty  of  3d  a  yard,  &c.  The  statute  continued  in  force  many 
years. 

In  a  report  by  Alexander  Somerville  of  a  journey  made  through 
the  counties  of  York,  Lincoln,  Cambridge,  and  Norfolk,  in  1773, 
to  observe  the  management  of  Flax  and  Hemp  there,  the  vaJue 
of  the  quantity  raised  was  estimated  as  follows : — 

Hemp. 
£10,000 
27,800 
2,000 
19,000 


Yorkshire, 
Lincoln, 

Flax. 
£70,000 
31,800 
8,000 

Norfolk, 

1,000 

Other  English  counties, 

£110,800 
190,000 

£58,800 
150,000 

£300,800  £208,800 

In  1745,  an  act  was  passed,  18  Geo.  II.,  c.  36,  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  native  Linen  trade,  by  which  it  was 
enacted  "  that  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  in  Great 
Britain  to  wear  any  cambric  or  French  lawn  under  the  penalty 
of  £5,  and  the  like  penalty  on  the  seller  thereof."  Another  short 


ENGLISH  LIN  371 

act,  21  Geo.  II.  c.  26,  was  passed  for  explaining,  mm nding,and 
enforcing  the  previous  act,  by  farther  extending  the  penalties  to 
tin-  \vmlors,  and  also  to  the  milliners  making  up  such  fabrics. 
These  acts,  lik«-  many  other  which  .-till  cnmhcr  the  statute  IxDok, 
must  have  been,  in  a  great  measure,  imperative,  if  indeed  they 
were  ever  seriously  intended  to  be  enforced,  and  they  ought 
never  to  have  been  passed. 

In  order  still  farther  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  sail- 
cloth in  Great  Britain,  which  was  then  in  a  prosperous  and  im- 
proved state,  and  had  previously  been  fostered  by  many  acts  of 
parliament  imposing  duties  on  foreign  cloth  imported,  <fcc.,  an 
act  was  passed  in  1746, 19  Geo.  II.,  c  27,  confirming  previous 
acts,  and  ordaining  that  every  vessel  built  in  Great  Britain,  and 
in  1 1  is  Majesty's  plantations  in  America,  must,  at  her  first  sail- 
in  ir,  he  furnished  with  one  full  and  complete  set  of  new  sails 
made  of  sail-cloth  manufactured  in  Great  Britain,  under  the 
penalty  of  £50 :  and  any  sailmaker  in  Great  Britain  or  the 
plantations  shall  on  every  new  sail  affix  in  words  at  length,  a 
stamp  of  eight  inches  diameter,  whereon  his  name  and  place  of 
abode  shall  plainly  appear,  under  the  penalty  of  £10. 

A  manufacture  of  cambric  in  imitation  of  the  French  cam- 
bric was  established  at  Winchelsea  in  1761.  In  1764,  the 
English  Linen  Company  was  established  as  a  corporate  body, 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  making  cambric  and  lawns  of  the  kind 
called  French  Lawns,  with  a  joint  capital  stock  which  should 
not  exceed  £100,000  ;  the  goods,  in  order  to  certify  them  to  be 
of  English  manufacture,  to  be  sealed  at  each  end  of  the  piece 
by  proper  officers  before  they  were  taken  out  of  the  loom.  This 
company  may  have  been  intended  to  supply  the  void  caused  by 
the  prohibition  to  wear  French  cambric  by  the  acts  of  1745. 

This  year,  1764,  a  great  improvement  in  the  spinning-wheel 
was  invented  by  Mr  Harrison,  whereby  it  was  said  a  "  child  may 
spin  twice  as  much  as  a  grown  person  can  do  with  the  com- 
mon wheel."  The  Patriotic  Society  for  the  encouragement  of 
arts  and  commerce  gave  him  a  premium  of  £50. 

In  1764,  Linens  were  exported  from  the  following  places  in 
England,  viz.,  as  appears  from  a  report  made  up  at  that  time  by 
Dr  Busching,  of  Gottengen — Stafford,  in  Staffordshire ;  Dar- 
lington, in  Durham;  Manchester  and  Warrington,  in  Lancashire. 
A  2 


372  MODERN  LINEN. 

In  "  The  Progress  of  Commerce  from  1700  to  1800"  it  is 
mentioned  that  Great  Britain  imported  Flax  and  Hemp,  &c., 
and  exported  Linen  manufactures ;  that  Ireland  exported 
Linens  to  Portugal,  and  that  German  and  Irish  Linens  were 
sent  as  far  as  to  Timbuctoo ! 

For  the  establishment  of  a  fund  of  £15,000  a  year  to  encour- 
age the  cultivation  and  dressing  of  Hemp  and  Flax,  additional 
duties  were  in  1767  laid  on  foreign  canvas  and  lawns,  to  be  re- 
paid on  such  as  should  be  exported.  In  1770  it  was  enacted 
that  £8000  of  this  sum  should  be  for  England,  and  £7000  for 
Scotland.  Should  the  funds  fall  short  of  £15,000,  England  to 
have  8-15ths  and  Scotland  7-15ths  of  the  amount  collected. 
By  the  thirteenth  Keport  of  the  Commissioners  for  Examining 
the  Public  Accounts,  dated  18th  March  1785,  it  appears  that 
no  claims  had  at  that  date  been  made  from  England,  but  that  a 
few  had  been  made  from  Scotland. 

In  1767  an  additional  duty  of  3d  was  laid  on  every  ell  of  dril- 
ling and  Linen  above  one  yard  wide  imported. 

Linens  imported  into  England  from  foreign  countries : — 

1762  18.827,853  Yards.  Duty,  £134,031  14    1 

1765  25,497,795  „                        „  182,997    0  11 

1770  27,101,343  „                       „  221,333    8    9 

1771  28,243,121  „                        „  230,951  14    2 

Total  quantities  of  Flax,  Hemp,  Flax  seed,  and  Linen  yarn, 
imported  into  England  from  5th  January  1764  to  5th  January 
1772,  being  eight  years : — 

Hough  Flax,          .           .            .           Cwts.,  1,130,719 

Rough  Hemp,                                                 „  2,639,236 

Linseed,      ....         Bushels,  1,792,465 

Linen  Yarn,  Raw,      .           .  .        Lbs.,  55,006,029 

In  1773  there  was  great  stagnation  in  the  Linen  trade 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  owing  to  serious  over  trading 
in  1771,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  the  loaded  state  of  the  for- 
eign markets  from  excessive  exports  in  1770, 1771,  and  1772,  and 
many  failures  in  the  latter  year.  Mr  Paine,  G  overnor  of  the 
Bank  of  England,  in  his  examination  before  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, estimated  that  the  importation  of  foreign  Linens,  which 
in  1772  had  been  27,000,000  yards,  had  fallen  in  1773  to 
17,000,000  yards. 


iLIBII  LINi  BH 

By  the  Act  22  George  III.,  cap.  40  (1782),  the  crime  of  cm 

or  destroying  woollen,  silk,  cotton,  or  Linen  goods,  or  of  any 
iitt -nsils  used  in  their  manufacture,  was  made  &  felony  without 
benefit  of  clergy. 

( )nan  average  of  the  three  years,  17C8  to  1770,  the  quantity 
of  Flax  seed  imported  from  America  was 

To  Great  Britain,  .  12,436  bathe?* 

To  Ireland,         .  .  265,8:>l 

268,287        „      at  2s  3d    £30,232  5t  90. 

On  the  average  of  the  three  years  from  1777  to  1779,  th. 
value  of  Flax  seed  imported  from  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
chiefly  from  Holland  and  Russia,  was 

To  England,  ....  £239,869    5    3 

To  Scotland,  ....  186,941  18    6 


£426,811    3    9 

From  the  period  of  the  introduction  of  the  cotton  manufac- 
lure  into  England  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century,  down  to 
the  year  1773,  the  weft  or  transverse  threads  of  the  web  only 
were  of  cotton,  the  warp,  or  longitudinal  threads  being  wholly  of 
Linen  yarn,  principally  imported  from  Germany,  Ireland,  and 
Scotland.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  manufacture,  the  weaver?, 
dispersed  in  cottages  throughout  the  country,  provided  the  yarn 
for  their  webs,  and  carried  them  to  the  market  when  they  were 
finished.  About  1700,  Manchester  merchants  began  to  send 
agents  into  the  country,  who  employed  weavers,  and  furnished 
them  with  the  Linen  yarn  for  warp,  and  raw  cotton  for  weft,  th.' 
latter  having  to  be  carded,  and  then  spun  with  the  common 
spindle  and  distaff  by  the  weaver's  family.  The  latter  was  per- 
haps an  improvement  on  the  former  plan,  but  both  were  slow 
and  tedious,  and  the  quantity  of  cloth  which  could  be  so  produced 
was  necessarily  of  limited  extent.  The  invention  of  the  spin- 
ning Jenny  by  James  Hargraves,  in  1767,  superseded  the  spindle 
and  distaff,  and  subsequent  improvements  on  it,  and  the  inven- 
tion of  the  spinning  frame  by  Richard  Arkwright,  in  1770,  ob- 
viated the  necessity  of  using  Flax  yarn  for  warp.  After  this 
period  calicoes  and  other  fabrics  were  made  wholly  of  cotton. 


374  MODERN  LINEN. 

The  introduction  of  the  cotton  manufacture  into  England 
was  a  severe  blow  to  the  Linen  trade  in  that  country,  and 
since  that  period  cotton  and  Linen  have,  in  a  great  measure, 
been  antagonistic  to  each  other.  The  invention  of  machinery 
for  spinning  the  cotton  made  the  competition  all  the  stronger, 
and  gave  cotton  a  great  advantage  over  Flax.  At  first,  cotton 
strong  enough  for  warp  could  not  be  spun  by  machinery,  and  for 
some  time  calicoes  were  made  with  Linen  warp  and  cotton  weft. 
While  this  continued  large  quantities  of  Flax  yarn  were  used, 
but  Arkwright's  invention,  and  improvements  thereon,  speedily 
enabled  cotton  spinners  to  produce  yarn  strong  enough  for  warp, 
and  Flax  yarn  was  then  discarded.  After  that  period  King 
Cotton  ruled  supreme,  until  the  fratricidal  war  in  America  com- 
pelled him  to  bow  his  head,  and  give  his  rival  Flax  a  moment's 
breathing  space.  This  has  been  of  immense  benefit  to  the 
Linen  trade,  and  may  prove  of  permanent  advantage  to  it,  al- 
though in  many  markets  it  cannot  be  expected  to  supersede 
cotton,  should  that  article  go  back  to  the  prices  of  1860  again. 

In  a  curious  letter,  signed  Samuel  Homespun,  in  the  Gentle- 
mans  Magazine  of  1742,  some  calculations  are  given  to  show 
the  value  of  one  acre  of  ground  sown  with  Flax  seed.  He  goes 
on  to  say  "  that  though  the  quantity  of  Flax  an  acre  will  pro- 
duce depends  entirely  upon  the  quality  of  the  soil  and  cultiva- 
tion of  it,  yet  the  fineness  of  the  Flax  depends  almost  solely  on 
the  conduct  of  reaping,  watering,  and  grassing  it.  This  fact 
is  very  little  known,  but  it  is  absolutely  certain.  Great  Bri- 
tain produces  not  only  the  largest  crop  of  Flax,  but  the 
toughest  and  finest  of  any  in  the  world.  Our  soil  is  so  proper 
for  it,  that  unless  the  farmer  mismanages  his  Flax  in  reaping, 
watering,  or  grassing,  it  is  not  in  his  power  to  raise  coarse 
Flax." 

On  the  supposition  that  the  farmer  employs  suitable  skill  in 
choosing  the  land  proper  for  a  crop  of  Flax,  an  acre  will  pro- 
duce at  a  medium  50  stone  Dutch  weight  of  Flax.  Some  bad 
land  will  only  produce  30  stone,  but  very  superior  he  says  will 
produce  100  stones.  Suppose,  he  then  says,  the  produce  50 
stone  Dutch  weight  of  Flax  per  acre,  this  will  produce  25  stone 
English  of  fine  Flax,  12J  of  medium,  and  12J  of  coarse.  The  25 
atone  will  yield  2000  spindles  yarn,  at  5  spindles  in  the  lb. ;  which 


ENGLISH  LINEN.  375 

wrought  in  the  finest  reed,  viz.,  a  2400,  will  produce  2838  yards 
cambric  at  10s  a  yard,  or  £1,194.  The  12}  stone  second  sort 
will  produce  200  spindles  yarn,  which  wrought  in  a  1500  reed 
will  yield  452  yards  Linen,  at  2s  6d,  or  £56  10s.  The  12} 
stone  coarse  spun  into  yarn,  at  2  Ib.  a  spindle,  and  wove  in  a 
600  reed,  will  yield  1129  yards  Linen,  at  8d,  or  £32  10s,  being 
in  all  £1,283  2s,  as  the  produce  of  a  single  acre  of  Flax.  If 
manufactured  into  coarser  Linen,  50  stones  of  Flax  will  produce 
25  stones  of  fine  dressed  Flax,  12}  stone  of  medium,  and  12} 
stone  of  coarse  ;  25  stone  fine  dressed  Flax  will  yield  800 
spindles  of  yarn,  2  spindK-s  in  the  pound,  which  wrought  in  a  2100 
reed,  will  yield  1238  yards  of  Linen,  at  4s  6d,  or  £278  11s ;  12} 
stone  medium  will  produce  100  spindles,  at  10  cuts  to  the  pound, 
which  wrought  in  a  1200  reed,  will  produce  206  yards  of  Linen, 
at  Is  8d,  or  £22  3s ;  12}  stone  coarsest  will  produce  60  spindles, 
at  two  pounds  of  Flax  per  spindle,  which  wrought,  in  a  400 
reed,  will  yield  576  yards  of  Linen,  and  this  made  into  buckram, 
at  7d  a  yard,  is  £16 1 6s,  or  in  all  £317 10s  an  acre.  For  the  truth 
of  the  yield  of  Flax  to  an  acre  he  appealed  to  all  the  Flax  raisers 
in  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire ;  of  the  value  of  cambric  he  ap- 
pealed to  the  Linen  drapers  in  London  ;  and  of  the  produce  of 
the  yards  from  the  quantities  of  Flax  and  yarn,  he  appealed  to 
all  the  spinsters  and  weavers  in  Great  Britain. 

In  1781,  the  cultivation  of  Flax  in  England  was  recommended 
on  the  score  of  increasing  the  population,  by  inducing  "  numbers 
from  the  Continent  to  settle  in  England,  as  a  great  national  ad- 
vantage." 

In  the  same  year,  a  Dorsetshire  gentleman  wrote  the  Bath  Agri- 
cultunil  Society,  strongly  recommending  the  cultivation  of  Flax 
and  Hemp  on  the  rich  marshy  lands  lying  west  of  the  Mendiss 
Hills,  for  which  it  wa-  \  vry  suitable.  He  said  the  vast  quantities 
of  these  plants  which  had  been  raised  on  the  same  kind  of  land  in 
the  Lincolnshire  marches,  and  in  the  Fens  of  the  Isle  of  Ely  and 
Huntingdonshire,  were  a  full  proof  ut  it.  In  t  lux- places  much  land, 
which  for  grazing  was  worth  20s  to  25s  per  acre,  had  been  readily 
let  at  £4  the  first  year,  £3  the  second,  and  £2  the  third,  and 
that  the  produce  had  lu-on  from  50  to  70  stone  per  acre,  which, 
when  dressed,  brought  from  7s  to  9s  a  stone,  or  £24  an  acre. 
Poor  soils  also  grew  Flax  and  Hemp  well,  and  Spalding  Moor 


37G  MODERN  LINEN. 

in  Lincolnshire,  which  although  a  barren  sand,  yet  with  proper 
care  and  culture  produced  the  finest  Hemp  in  England,  and  in 
large  quantities.  In  the  Isle  of  Axholme,  in  the  same  county, 
the  culture  and  management  of  these  fibres  was  the  chief  em- 
ploy of  the  inhabitants,  and  large  quantities  were  produced. 
According  to  Leland  it  was  the  same  there  so  long  ago  as  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII. 

The  writer  goes  on  to  say  that  the  Hemp  raised  in  this 
Kingdom  is  not  of  so  dry  and  spongy  a  nature  as  that  from  St 
Petersburg,  and  does  not  take  in  so  much  tar,  but  that  of  equal 
dimensions  it  is  stronger  and  more  durable.  One  peculiar  ad- 
vantage, he  says,  attending  the  cultivation  of  Hemp  and  Flax  is, 
that  a  crop  of  the  former  prepares  the  land  for  the  latter,  and 
therefore  a  crop  of  Hemp  was  a  clear  gain  to  the  farmer.  That 
these  plants  impoverish  the  soil  is  a  mere  vulgar  notion,  a  pre- 
judice devoid  of  all  truth,  and  unsupported  by  any  authority,  as 
these  crops  really  meliorate  and  improve  the  soil.  He  farther 
stated  that  the  quantity  of  Flax  and  Hemp  yearly  imported  into 
this  Kingdom  about  the  year  1763  was  estimated  at  11,000 
tons,  to  raise  which  in  this  country  would  require  about  60,000 
acres  of  land,  and  which  could  be  grown  at  home,  in  the  manner 
suggested  by  him,  without  interfering  much  with  other  crops. 

A  cultivator  of  Flax,  in  writing  to  the  Dundee  Advertiser,  in 
February,  1803,  recommends  an  extended  cultivation  of  Flax, 
in  order  to  give  employment  to  women  in  weeding,  &c.,  and,  as 
an  inducement  to  do  so,  he  says,  "  the  trade  in  the  west  of  Eng- 
land can  at  present  get  as  much  English  Flax  grown  as  they 
need,  better  and  cheaper  than  St  Petersburg  12-head.  The 
extent  to  which  the  English  have  so  successfully  carried  the 
raising  the  crops  should  encourage  the  folks  here  to  do  so  also." 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  from  time  to  time  about  the 
propriety  of  growing  Flax  more  extensively  in  Britain,  and  it  is 
asserted  by  Warnes  that  it  would  be  a  great  saving  to  the  far- 
mer, and  at  same  time  enrich  the  country.  To  attempt  to  grow 
cotton  here,  he  says,  would  be  fruitless,  but  the  cultivation  of 
Flax  would  be  highly  advantageous.  He  also  says  Flax  is  "  a 
plant  for  which,  including  the  seed,  oil,  and  cake,  £400,000  per 
week  are  expended  with  foreigners." 

Samuel  Druce,  jun.,  of  EvesLam,  furnishes  the  following  state- 


ENGLISH  LIN  377 

in. -ill  of  the  pro.lm-i'  and  expenses  of  Flax  grown  by  him  in 
1845,  on  4  acres,  1  rood,  and  24  poles  of  land  :  — 

KXI'KNMX 

Ploughing,  nt  Hta  an  Acre,        .               .               .  £340 
104  Bushels  of  Linseed,  54  to  55  1U.  per  bushel,  at 

7s  M,                 .               .               .              .  3  18    9 

i*  and  Harrowing,  do.,     .               .               .  0  10    0 

Weeding,       .               ,               .               .               .  120 
Tailing  and  tyiug  up  the  stalks,  thn-shing,  spread- 
ing and  turning,  and  preparing  for  scutch  in  •, 

30»peraci                         .               .  6  12    0 

Expense  of  Carting,  Stacking  in  Barn,  I                 .  1  15    0 

ind  T«xe«,  50a  per  acre,    .                                .  11     0    0 

Scutching  1,455  Ib.  of  Flax,  at  2d  per  IK  .               .  12    2    6 

Do.      372  IK  of  Tow,  at  Id  per  IK,  .                .  1  11    0 

£40  15    3 

PRODUCE. 
1,349  Ibs.  Flax,  sold  in  Leeds,  for  (after  deducting 

expenses),          .  .  .  .  £25  10    6 

106  Ibs.  do.,  sold  in  Evesham,  .  .  .  2  13    0 

:;7L'  Mn.  Tow,         d-».,  .  .  .  4  13    0 

104  bush.  Linseed,  54  (a.  55  Ibs.  per  bush.,  @  7s  6d 

bushel,  .... 

Small  quantities  of  tail  1  haff,  and  refuse 

from  Scutching, 

-         £73    6    6 


Profit,  .         .         I"?:.'   11 


Warncs  says  regarding  this  statement,  "the  cost  of 
ih«'  Flax  is  excessive,  and  the  quantity  of  tow  and  consequent 
waste  immense." 

The  same  author  farther  says  that  his  late  Royal  Highness  the 
Prince  Consort  at  one  time  resolved  to  grow  Flax  upon  his 
estates,  not  so  much  because  the  cultivation  was  in  itself  profit- 
able, as  because  it  gave  employment  to  the  working  classes,  and  if 
grown  largely  throughout  the  country  would  be  highly  advan- 
t.-i-vous  to  them,  ami  also  benefit  the  mercantile  community, 
by  providing  the  raw  materials  for  their  mills  and  factor 

Marshall  &  Co.  of  Leeds,  in  writing  to  Warnes,  says,  —  "  We 
believe  both  the  soil  and  climate  of  KtiLrlaml  aiv  suitable  for 
the  plant.  At  one  time  the  Flax  grown  in  the  east  of  York- 
shire was  of  as  good  quality  as  that  grown  in  Belgium;  but 
the  growth  sinix-  then  has  fallen  very  much  off,  chiefly  owing 


378  MODEBN  LINEN. 

to  the  farmers  managing  the  cultivation  and  preparation  in 
a  slovenly  manner,  and  partly  to  the  landlords  having  a  pre- 
judice against  the  crop  as  an  exhausting  one,  which  would  not 
be  the  case  if  your  plan  was  adopted  of  using  the  seed  for  feed- 
ing cattle  on  the  farm  where  the  Flax  was  grown."  They  say 
the  seed  should  be  sown  thick,  (3  to  3  J  bushels  per  acre)  to  pro- 
duce fine  Flax.  The  effect  of  retting  on  running  water  is  to 
produce  Flax  of  a  light  yellow  colour,  but  the  same  effect  is 
produced  in  large  ponds  or  lakes  of  fresh  water.  This  Flax 
fetches  a  higher  price  in  the  market  than  when  retted  in  stag- 
nant pools,  &c.  This  firm  were  reported  to  have  imported  Flax 
to  the  amount  of  one  million  sterling  annually.  Supposing  the 
produce  of  an  acre  to  be  £20,  it  would  thus  take  50,000  acres  to 
grow  the  Flax  required  by  this  one  firm.  Warnes  calculated 
that  it  would  require  500,000  acres  annually  to  produce  the  Flax 
required  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

Warnes  also  calculated  that  a  woman  could  spin  20s  to  30s 
of  yarn  for  fine  lace,  lawn,  cambric,  &c.,  out  of  6d  worth  of 
Flax,  which  shows  the  immense  amount  of  labour  the  manu- 
facture of  this  description  of  goods,  if  largely  prosecuted,  would 
give  to  females  throughout  the  country. 

For  several  years  Warnes,  both  by  precept  and  practice, 
urged  the  farmers  of  England  to  cultivate  Flax,  and  he  proved 
very  satisfactorily  that  it  was  a  highly  profitable  crop  whether 
raised  for  its  seed,  or  for  its  fibre,  or  for  both.  Notwithstanding 
his  most  laudable  exertions,  his  very  proper  example  has  not  been 
largely  followed,  and  at  the  present  time  the  quantity  of  Flax 
grown  in  England  is  insignificantly  small.  Many  counties  pro- 
duce none  at  all ;  Dorset,  Somerset,  Norfolk,  and  a  few  others 
grow  small  quantities,  and  in  certain  portions  of  Yorkshire  a 
little  more  attention  is  paid  to  the  cultivation,  but  even  there 
the  crop  is  not  appreciated,  and  although  the  quality  of  what 
is  raised  is  good,  the  quantity  is  very  much  less  than  it  ought 
to  be. 

English  grown  Flax  is  very  suitable  for  the  mills'of  Leeds  and 
other  Linen  manufacturing  districts  of  the  country,  and  it  is  there- 
fore surprising  that  so  little  has  been  done  by  those  engaged  in  the 
trade  to  induce  farmers  to  grow  the  plant.  It  is  true,  as  already 
mentioned,  that  Government  at  different  times  insisted  upon  a 


LINKS'. 

certain  quantity  bring  grown  annually,  but  it  may  well  be 
ilnuhtcd  if  compulsion  be  the  best  mode  of  accomplishing  such 
an  ul.ject.  A  more  legitimate  plan  is  to  show  farmers  that  it  is 
profitable  to  grow  it,  as  the  pocket  is  an  excellent  incentive,  and 
the  hope  of  gain  would  stimulate  them  to  earn  it 

Much  of  the  land  of  England  is  admirably  adapted  for  raising 
1  lax.  ami  t«>  the  agriculturists  individually  it  is  undoubtedly  a 
profitable  crop,  and  in  a  national  point  of  view  it  is  a  highly  ne- 
cessary  and  proper  one.  Unfortunately  there  are  no  national 
statistics  to  show  the  quantity  grown,  or  the  districts  which  pro- 
duce it,  and  this  is  much  to  be  regretted,  as  it  keeps  the  country 
very  much  in  the  dark  regarding  what  it  is  doing,  and  makes  it 
all  the  more  difficult  to  extend  the  growth  of  this  truly  valuable 
national  cm  p. 

Mi  the  factory  inspector,  in  his  annual  report,  says: — 

"  We  can  neither  produce  from  abroad  nor  induce  our  farmers 
to  grow  the  raw  material  in  sufficient  quantity.  The  same  com- 
plaint  is  made  in  the  Federal  States  of  America,  where  the  pro- 
duction has  fallen  off  enormously.  It  is  to  Ireland  at  present, 
and  even  eventually  to  India,  that  the  Flax  spinners  are  looking 
for  a  supply  which,  if  ever  the  time  arrives,  is  to  render  the 
Flax  trade  of  comparative  importance  with  cotton."  Mr  Baker 
thinks  there  is  yet  much  to  be  learned  in  the  manufacture  of 
machinery  adapted  for  general  farming  purposes,  and  to  the 
scutching  of  Flax.  He  thinks  the  gradual  introduction  into 
Ireland  of  the  Scotch  and  English  system  of  tillage  farming  on 
a  large  scale,  operates  against  an  increase  of  Flax  culture  in 
Ireland. 

In  his  first  half  yearly  report  for  18G3  he  says: — "The 
growth  of  Flax  appears  to  be  decreasing  everywhere  whence  we 
have  hitherto  been  accustomed  to  be  supplied  ;  and  though  an 
animal  knowledge  of  the  acreage  sown  is  as  essential  to  the  vi- 
tality of  the  Linen  trade  as  where  cotton  is  to  come  from  is  to 
the  cotton  trade,  the  growth  of  Flax  is  exciting  no  very  extra- 
ordinary attention.  The  changes  taking  place  in  agriculture, 
and  the  diminution  of  cottier  farms,  which  are  peculiarly  favour- 
able to  Flax  cultivation,  owing  to  the  cheapness  of  home  labour, 
and  the  facility  with  which  Flax  can  be  prepared  in  the  first 
instance,  make  the  matter  more  important.  In  England  we 


380  MODERN  LINEN. 

have  no  statistics  of  Flax  ;  in  Scotland  they  have  been  given 
up :  in  Ireland  they  have  been  collected  for  years  by  Mr  Donelly 
in  the  most  satisfactory  manner — a  proof  of  what  might  be  done 
elsewhere.  So  with  regard  to  English  wool ;  we  guess  that 
there  is  a  sheep  to  an  acre  on  all  the  farm  lauds  in  England,  but 
whether  it  is  so  or  not  we  are  totally  in  the  dark.  But  for  Aus- 
tralia, and,  even  with  Australia,  but  for  rags  reduced  to  wool 
again,  and  re-manufactured,  many  of  our  woollen  mills  would 
long  ago  have  been  at  a  stand-still ;  and  with  regard  to  Flax,  if 
there  should  be  a  Flax  famine  as  there  has  been  a  cotton  famine, 
we  should  again  suffer  extremely,  with  a  consciousness  that 
by  a  little  timely  forethought  those  sufferings  might  have  been 
alleviated  if  not  averted.  A  company  was  started  in  Yorkshire 
a  few  months  ago,  including  some  Flax  millowners,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  collecting  Flax  in  this  country  from  the  farmers,  and 
preparing  it  for  the  trade,  but  the  company  has  been  broken  up 
for  want  of  encouragement  even  from  the  trade  itself."  It  would 
thus  appear  that  the  trade  is  highly  culpable  for  their  indiffer- 
ence on  so  vitally  important  a  subject. 

From  a  table  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  Great  Britain  in 
1800,  it  appears  the  imports  bearing  on  the  Linen  trade  were, 
— from 

Russia— Flax  and  Hemp  ;  Linen?,  viz.,  Diapers,  Drillings,  and  Sheetings. 
Poland — Some  Linen. 
Prussia — Flax  and  Hemp. 

Germany — Flax  and  Hemp,  Linens,  viz.,  Cambrics,  Lawns,  Canvas,  Hol- 
lands, Tablings,  &c.,  and  3,000,000  Ibs.  Linen  Yarn. 
Holland— Flax  and  Hemp,  and  a  few  Linens. 
Ireland— Some  Flax,  and  32,152,399  yards  of  Linen  Yarn. 

The  exports  were — to 

Denmark— Scotch  Linens. 

Russia,  Germany,  and  Portugal — A  few  Irish  Linens. 

Madeira — Linens. 

New  England— Linens,  and  Irish  Linens. 

New  "Vork — Linens— Scotch,  and  Irish,  and  Russian. 

Pensylvania — Linens  and  Sailcloth  ;  a  few  Irish  and  Russian  Linens. 

Virginia  and  Maryland — British,  Irish,  Russian,  and  German  Linens. 

South  Caiolina,  Georgia,  Newfoundland,  Canada,    New  Brunswick,   Nova 

Scotia,  Bermuda,  Bahama,  aud  British  West   India  Islands — Some 

Linens— Irish,  Russian,  and  German. 
Florida  and  Bay  of  Honduras — Irish  Linens 
East  Indies  and  China—Linens  of  all  kinds  and  Sailcloth. 
New  Holland — Linens— British  and  Russian. 
Africa,  Sierra  Leone,  and  Capejof  Good  Hope—  British,  Irish,  and  otbeijLinens. 


ENGLISH  I.lsT.V. 


381 


Return  of  the  number  of  square  yards  of  calicoes,  muslins, 
Linens,  and  stuffs  made  either  of  cotton  or  Linen,  printed, 
painted,  stained,  or  dyed  in  Great  Britain  (»  xcc-pt  such  as  shall 
.  been  dyed  of  one  colour  throughout),  with  the  amount  of 
Excise  duties  collected  thereon  in  England  and  Scotland,  in  tin- 
three  years  ending  5th  January  1830 : — 


Number  of  Yard*. 

Cali 

coMandMualini.  Linens  and  Stofl 

t        Amount  of  Dntj. 

England, 

115,636,321           1,376,779 

11,706,986    8    3 

Scotland, 

22,863,883                31,965 

3:13,897  15    8 

Yew  ending  5th  Jan.  1828, 

138,500.204           1,408,74  t 

£2,040,88  1 

England.           .        .        . 

lliM'.»s.:,js           1,654,457 

£1,665,110  12    1 

Scotland, 

25,971,724               23,252 

',09:>    8    0 

Do.     5th  January.  18 


Et.-l.iMd, 

Scotland, 


102,256,792 
26.105550 


Do.     6th  January,  1830,      128,362,342 


1,677,709 

.  . 

1,704,761 
8,755 

1,713,516 


£2,044,204    0    1 

£  I.. 110, 431  14  10 
380,833  12    3 

£1,897,265    7    I 


EXPORTS  OF  SAME— 
To  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  To  IRELAND. 

Yds.  of  Calicoes,  Muslins,        Amount  of        Yds.  of  Calicoes,  Muslins,    Amount  of 
Linens,  and  Stuns.  Drawback.  Linens,  and  Stuns.         Drawback. 

England,         81,193,826         £1,184,379    2    7  3,268,707          £47,668  12  10 

10,215    1    5 

£57,883  14    3 


1829. 

Inland, 
Scotland, 


Scotland, 
1828. 

England, 
Scotland, 

8,751,365 

127,624    1    5 

80,945*191 

82,609,216 
7.440,349 

Jfi,:;i->,oo3    4    o 

£1,204815    5    4 
108,505    1    9 

700,4»>2 
8,989,160 

6,197,326 


90,049,565         £1,313,320    7    1 


81,449,096 
8,417,009 


£1,187,852  17    4 
,748    0  11 


1830.         89,866,105         £1,310,600  18    3 


£90,:*77  13    5 
16,369    9    8 

7,319,805        £106,747    3    I 


£75.391    4    2 
12,678    2    9 


6,039,041          £88,069    6  11 


Before  the  introduction  of  Flax  spinning  by  power  into  Eng- 
land, the  manufacture  of  Linens  was  general  in  many  districts  of 
the  country.  Since  that  period  the  trade  has,  in  a  great  measure, 
become  concentrated  in  a  few  localities,  in  some  of  which  it  is 
prosecuted  vigorously  and  most  successfully. 

The  invention  of  Flax  spinning  machinery  by  John  Kcndrew 


382  MODERN  LINEN. 

and  Thomas  Porthouse  at  Darlington  in  1787,  will  be  specially 
referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  Flax  spinning.  It  was  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  era  in  the  Linen  manufacture,  and  mighty  results 
have  followed  from  the  rude  spinning  frames  first  set  in  motion 
by  these  men.  Their  memory  ought  to  be  held  sacred  by  every 
one  interested  in  the  trade,  as  their  bloodless  triumph  of  mind 
over  matter  has  done  more  good  to  their  fellow  men  than  many 
warriors  who  have  been  ennobled  for  wading  in  the  blood  of  the 
vanquished  slain. 

For  many  years  subsequent  to  1787  Flax  spinning  was  carried 
on  in  the  vicinity  of  its  birth.  So  late  as  1838  there  was  a  small 
work  at  Darlington,  and  another  at  Houghton-le-Skerne,  employ- 
ing fifty  to  sixty  hands  each,  and  some  others  in  different  parts 
of  the  county,  but  all  are  silent  now  ;  there  being,  according  to 
the  Factories'  Return  of  1862,  no  Flax  spinning  mills  in  Durham, 
and  only  two  weaving  factories,  employing  sixty-nine  hands  in  all. 

Shortly  after  the  invention  was  brought  out  at  Darlington, 
machinery  on  the  same  principle  was  started  in  Leeds  and  in 
other  districts  in  the  West  Biding  of  Yorkshire.  Within  a 
comparatively  limited  period  great  improvements  were  effected 
on  the  original  machinery  in  Leeds,  and  that  town  speedily 
became  the  head  quarters  of  Flax  spinning  in  England.  John 
Marshall,  a  name  famous  in  the  annals  of  Flax-spinning,  applied 
himself  assiduously  to  the  prosecution  of  the  new  trade,  and 
by  his  ability  and  perseverance  soon  carried  Flax  spinning  to 
high  perfection,  and  to  a  vast  extent.  To  that  gentleman 
Leeds  is  indebted  for  much  of  its  present  prosperity.  His 
spinning  mills  continue  at  this  day  a  monument  of  enter- 
prize  and  skill,  and  his  family  have  hitherto  maintained  the 
superiority  which  he  so  long  ago  established,  The  name  of  the 
Marshalls  of  Leeds  are  houshold  words  in  the  Flax-spinning 
trade,  and  their  works  are  the  greatest  in  the  world,  whether 
as  regards  the  number  of  spindles  of  yarn  spun,  or  the  value  of 
their  annual  production.  The  celebrated  Scotch  Flax  spin- 
ning firm,  the  Baxters  of  Dundee,  perhaps  surpass  the  Marshalls 
in  the  weight  of  material  annually  consumed  in  their  works, 
but  the  yarn  and  cloth  produced  by  them,  being  of  a  coarser 
description,  is  of  comparatively  less  value  in  the  manufactured 
state. 


IA.,1  MI   TJSEK.  383 

The  great  Flax  mill  erected  by  tin  Mar>halls  is  nut -d 'the  most 
striking  buildings  reared  by  private  enterprise  in  Leeds,  and,  from 
its  unique  character,  the  following  description  is  given:— It  is 
one  hundred  ami  thirty-two  yards  long  and  seventy-two  yunU 
wide  (inside  measure),  and  twenty  f.-.-t  hiirh.      The  roof  consists 
of  seventy-two  brick  arches,  supported  on   as  many  iron  pil- 
lars, and  secured  together  by  strong  iron  work.      The  brick  roof 
has  a  thick  coating  of  composition,  to  prevent  the  water  from  com- 
ing through,  and  it  is  covered  with  earth  from  which  has  sprung 
up  a  beautiful  grass  sward.       There  are  sixty-six  glass  domes 
in  the  roof,  each  forty-eight  feet  round,  eleven  feet  six  inches 
hi^li.  containing  ten  tons  of  glass,  in  iron  window  irames.    The 
total  weight  of  the  roof  is  4,000  tons.      There  are  four  steam 
engines,  of  100  horse-power,  and  two  of  80   horse-power  each  ; 
and    one    engine  of  7  horse-power,  which  does  nothing  but 
blow  hot  or  cold  air  into  the  room.      The  building  covers  more 
than  two  acres  of  ground,  and  it  is  supposed  that  80,000  persons 
might  stand  in  the  room.      This  hall  is  occupied  for  spinning 
and  weaving  by  power,  and  the  whole  processes  incidental  to  the 
trade  subsequent  to  heckling  is  performed  in  it,  the  Flax  going 
in  in  bundles  and  the  Linen  out  in  bales.    To  non-practical  peo- 
ple it  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  sights  which  can  be  witness  <  1 . 
both  as  regards  the  beautiful  machinery  with  its  many  and 
curious  motions,  and  the  immense  number  of  active  and  apparent  ly 
happy  male  and  female  workers  who  guide  its  operations,  and 
turn  out  the  beautiful  yarns  and  Linens,  the  production  of  which 
have  rendered  the  Marshalls  of  Leeds  so  famous.    To  those  prac- 
tically acquainted  with  the  trade  this  work  is  a  sight  worth  see- 
ing, as  even  the  most  advanced  would  learn  much  both  as  to  the 
construction  of  the  machinery  and  its  arrangement. 

There  are  several  large  establishments  devoted  to  the  Linen, 
manufacture  in  Leeds  besides  those  of  Messrs  Marshall, 
but  none  of  them  will  at  all  compare  with  the  one  de- 
scribed, in  extent  or  completeness ;  indeed  there  is  no  other 
work  in  the  United  Kingdom  of  a  like  description  with 
it.  The  goods  made  in  Leeds  comprise  the  better  class  of 
Linens,  and  they  are  mostly  of  a  strong  durable  character,  well 
adapted  for  family  use.  They  include  sheetings,  damasks, 
towellings,  drills,  sackings,  and  a  variety  of  other  descriptions 


384  MODERN  LINEN. 

of  Linens  of  a  highly  superior  quality,  suited  both  for  the  home 
trade  and  for  export.  Very  large  quantities  of  the  finer  numbers 
of  yarn  are  exported,  and  extensive  manufactures  of  excellent 
thread  have  long  been  carried  on  in  the  town  and  district. 

In  1821  there  were  in  and  around  Leeds  nineteen  Flax  spin- 
ning mills,  with  an  aggregate  steam  power  of  about  700  horses, 
containing  36,000  spindles  for  spinning  only,  and  producing  about 
9,000  spindles  of  yarn  per  day.  The  sorts  chiefly  spun  were  1 J- 
to  3  Ib.  line,  and  3  to  7  or  8  Ib.  tow,  mostly  spun  wet,  on  the  long 
fibre  cold  water  system.  There  were  besides  a  number  of  twisting 
frames  in  the  mills.  From  slow  driving  and  hard  twisting  the 
production  per  spindle  was  only  about  half  as  much  as  was  then 
taken  off  in  Dundee,  and  therefore  Leeds,  with  six  times  the 
number  of  spindles  which  Dundee  possessed,  only  threw  off 
from  three  to  four  times  as  much  yarn.  Of  the  Flax  spinning 
works  in  Leeds  at  that  period,  four  of  them  belonged  to  Mr 
Marshall,  forming  in  extent  one  third  of  the  whole,  and  equal- 
ling Dundee  entirely. 

For  a  number  of  years  after  the  period  referred  to  Leeds  made 
slow  progress  in  Flax  spinning,  as  there  were  only  twenty-four 
engines,  with  an  aggregate  of  705  horse- power  at  work  in  1831. 
Shortly  thereafter  the  spirit  of  extension  must  have  entered,  be- 
cause in  1838  the  number  of  Flax  mills  had  increased  to  forty, 
four,  employing  2,127  males  and  4,303  females,  in  all  6,430 
hands.  In  all  Yorkshire  at  the  same  period  there  were  ninety- 
one  Flax  spinning  mills,  employing  3,230  males  and  6,414  fe- 
males, making  together  9,644  persons. 

Eight  years  ago  there  were  thirty-seven  works  in  Leeds  de- 
voted to  the  Linen  manufacture,  with  an  aggregate  of  1831 
horse-power,  containing  198,076  spindles,  and  140  power-looms, 
and  employing  9,458  hands. 

Previous  to  the  erection  of  Flax  spinning  mills  the  manu- 
facture was  in  a  very  distressed  condition.  The  German  and 
Belgian  spinners  were  so  much  superior  to  the  English,  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  Linen  required  for  home  consumption  was 
imported  from  Flanders  and  the  north  of  Europe.  The  intro- 
duction of  machinery  and  the  improvements  made  in  bleaching, 
&c.,  turned  the  scale  in  favour  of  England,  and  not  only  enabled 
the  manufacturers  to  supply  the  home  demand,  but  also  to  ex- 


1.1MI   MNKN. 

port  Linens  largely.  Flax  spinning  v  ro  also  erected  at 

irly  date  in  Lancashire,  Dorset,  Durham,  Salop,  and  oiln-r 
(-..unties,  ami  they  an-  -till  OH  to  a  considerhale  extent 

in  various  dislri< 

The  Linen  manufacture  is  one  of  the  most  important  branch-  •<< 
of  the  trade  of  Barnsley.  Tart  of  tlio  yarn  manufactured  is 
spun  there,  Imt  larire  <|Uautities  are  procured  from  Leeds, 
r.anislev  In -ing  one  of  the  best  customers  of  that  town.  There 
are  still  many  hand-looms  at  work  in  tin-  town,  Imt,  as  in 
ether  places,  the  power-loom  is  now  fast  superseding  the  hand- 
loom,  and  it  is  well  adapted  for  the  fabrics  for  which  Barnsley 
has  been  so  long  famous.  These  are  drills,  strong  sheetings, 
damasks,  ticks,  huckabacks,  towelling,  ducks,  plain  and  fancy 
Hollands,  and  kindred  descriptions  of  fine, heavy  Linens.  The 
trade  of  the  district  has  enj<>\vd  a  considerable  degree  of  pro- 
sperity throughout  1863,  and  good  progress  has  been  made  and 
is  still  making  in  it.  Already  there  aro  a  number  of  po  vver-loom 
works  in  full  operation,  some  of  which  are  of  large  extent,  and 
contain  several  hundred  looms,  and  the  trade  is  still  extending. 

Brown  and  bleached  Linens  are  manufactured  extensively  in 
several  other  places  in  Yorkshire.  Doncaster,  Northallerton, 
Hull,  \Vhitby,  and  other  towns  produce  superior  goods  of  vari- 
ous descriptions.  Indeed  Yorkshire  is  the  great  seat  of  the 
Linen  manufacture  in  England,  as  Forfarshire  is  in  Scotland, 
and  Antrim  in  Ireland.  Establishments  abound  in  various 
parts  of  each  of  these  counties  for  spinning  and  weaving,  Leeds, 
Dundee,  and  Belfast  being  respectively  the  centres  of  the  Flax 
manufacture  in  the  three  countries.  In  1850  there  were  sixty 
Flax  factories  in  operation  in  Yorkshire,  containing  82,768 
spindles,  and  911  power-looms.  Since  then  great  progress  has 
been  made,  the  present  condition  of  the  trade-  in  the  county  18 
highly  satisfactory,  and  the  prospects  for  the  future  bright  and 
onging, 

Lancashire  ranks  next  to  Yorkshire  in  the  extent  of  its  Flax 
manufactures,  the  spinning  of  Flax  having  been  long  carried  on 
extensively  there.  In  1838  there  were  seventy  horse-power  cm- 
ployed  in  Flax  spinning  in  Salford.  In  Preston  there  were  in 
the  same  year  six  mills  at  work,  employing  13D2  hands  ;  in  Kirk- 
ham,  two  mills,  with  542  hands ;  in  Wigan,  two  mills,  with  400 

B  B 


386  MODERN  LINEN. 

hands  ;  in  Boston,  one  mill,  with  261  hands ;  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  county,  five  mills,  employing  in  all  286  hands.  Latterly 
the  spinning  of  Flax  has  not  made  much  progress  in  Lancashire, 
the  number  of  works  in  operation  having  decreased,  hut  there 
are  still  some  large  spinning  mills  at  work,  and  power-loom 
weaving  is  on  the  increase.  Within  the  last  few  years  some 
Jute  spinning  mills  have  been  established  in  Liverpool  and  other 
places  in  the  county,  one  at  least  of  which  is  conducted  vigorously. 

Norfolk  has  long  grown  Flax,  but  not  to  a  very  great  extent. 
A  small  quantity  of  Hemp  is  also  raised  there,  and  also  in  a 
few  other  counties  in  England,  but  the  quantity  cultivated 
throughout  the  whole  country  is  not  large,  and  from  various 
causes  it  is  decreasing.  Norfolk  also  manufactures  a  few  Linens 
in  one  or  two  places,  but  the  trade  is  now  of  little  importance 
compared  with  what  it  was  formerly.  Gloucester,  Hants,  Devon, 
and  several  other  counties  have  each  a  few  small  works,  the  bulk 
of  the  Linen  made  being  for  local  consumption. 

In  Somerset  some  Flax  is  raised  yearly,  and  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  Flax  mills  and  Linen  manufactories,  which  produce  a 
considerable  quantity  of  sailcloth  and  other  goods.  In  1838 
there  were  thirteen  Flax  mills  in  active  operation,  and  three  or 
four  large  weaving  establishments,  besides  several  smaller  ones. 
Dorset  contains  many  works,  both  for  spinning  and  weaving, 
and  it  grows  a  good  deal  of  Flax,  and  some  Hemp,  which  are 
consumed  in  the  local  manufactures  of  the  county.  The  num- 
ber of  spinning  mills  in  the  county  in  1838  was  eighteen, 
but  they  were  all  small,  and  placed  in  various  distinct  loca- 
lities. At  that  period  there  were  many  weaving  establish- 
ments in  Dorset,  and  the  sailcloth  made  in  and  around  Brid- 
port  has  long  been  highly  celebrated  for  excellence  of  mate- 
rial and  superiority  of  workmanship.  In  the  year  mentioned, 
Mr  Austin,  in  his  report  on  hand-loom  weaving,  remarks  "  th 
80  tons  of  Flax  were  used  weekly  in  a  circuit  of  20  miles  round 
Bridport,  one-tenth  of  which  was  home  growth.  Besides  the 
Flax  mills  there  were  then  420  hand-looms  in  the  Linen  trade. 
The  manufacture  was  principally  sailcloth.  Bridport  is  the 
chief  seat  of  it,  and  that  year  employed  206  looms  upon  it  ;  and 
120  looms  were  employed  at  Beauminster  and  adjoining  vil- 
lages. Very  little  variation  had  taken  place  in  the  trade  for 


2 
>d 


|fl 

many  \vars.  Canvas,  ducks,  <fee.,  \\cr<  also  woven  <  liinly  by 
women."  The  manufacture  of  sailcloth,  tu  .,  in  IJridpnrt 

ha>  IOULT  been,  and  still  is,  in  u  very  ilmirisliinu  <-"ii.lit  inn.  and 
tlit  pivsent  prospects  of  the  trade  are  quite  as  encouraging  as 
they  have  hern  at  any  previous  period. 

Cumberland  had  nine  I  lax  spinning  mills  in  1838,  and  many 
weaving  factories.  Sailcloth  ha>  i  a  made  exteiiM\'ly  in 

the-  county,   and    ( '« •ckernmnth    has  acquired    no  little  odfl 
for  the  superior  quality  of  its  cloth.     The  sailcloth  made  : 
i-  ivally  excellent,  and  the  lame  earned  is  well  deser\<-d.    \Y 
inoreland  has  long  had  some  extensive    1  lax  spinning  works. 
In    NYwcMMlc   there  are   several    sailcloth    factories,    and    other 
Linens  arealsn  made  there  to  a  small  extent.     Lincolnshire  raises 
both  Flax   and    Hemp,  and   eun>idrral.le  quantities  of  what  is 
grown   in   the   neighbourhood  of  Spalding  are  taken  for   sale 
to  a    Kair,   held    there  on   27th   April   yearly.     Another    Fair 
i"  held  at  same  place,  and  for  a  like  olyect,  in  December,  and 
the  bnlk  of  the  supply  is  purchased  for  account  of  the  Yorkshire 
spinners,  there  In-ini;-  little  Flax  used  in  the  county; 

There  are  still  some  sackings  and  other  coarse  fabrics  manu- 
factured at  Abingdon,  but  the  trade  there  has  decreased  greatly 
within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  and  it  is  still  waning.  In 
L"iidon  a  l'r\v  coarse  Linens  are  made,  but  the  quantity  is  un- 
important. A  work  for  spinning  and  weaving  Jute  is  to  be 
ereccted  there  this  year  (1864),  which  may  be  the  nnclen.s  of 
other  establishments  of  a  similar  kind  in  the  future. 

Formerly  Flax  spinning  occupied  more  attention  than  weav- 
ing in  England,  the  chief  works  IK-MILT  devoted  to  that  import- 
ant branch  of  the  trade  ;  and  the  progress  made,  and  excellence 
attained  in  it,  has  been  of  no  ordinary  chara< -NT.  Latterly 
the  spindles  employed  have  decreased,  the  number  in  1857 
I  ill  7.M),  and  in  ISiiJ,  :  Ml,  308,  showing  a  diminution  of 
1*7. 1  ")1  between  these  years.  While  this  is  the  case  with  spin- 
ninLT.  power- loom  weaving  has  taken  a  great  start,  the  number 
of  looms  having  increased  from  41  in  1835,  to  1987  in  1857,  and 
2160  in  18G2.  Since  then  the  number  of  power-looms  has 
increased  still  faster,  and  the  progress  making  is  not  likely  to  be 
soon  anvsted.  Indeed  the  hinen  manutaetnre,  as  already  men- 
tioned, is  in  a  highlv  .siti>tact.»ry  state,  not  only  throughout 
B  b  2 


388 


MODERN   LINEN. 


Yorkshire,  but  also  in  several  other  parts  of  England,  and  it 
gives  good  promise  of  continued  extension  year  by  year.  The 
prospects  of  the  future  of  the  Linen  trade  in  England  were  never 
brighter  than  now,  and  there  is  no  doubt  the  intelligent  gentle- 
men engaged  in  it  throughout  the  various  parts  of  the  country 
will  take  full  advantage  of  the  present  opportunity,  and  benefit 
the  kingdom  while  enriching  themselves. 

Details  regarding  the  extent  of  the  trade  in  the  various  coun- 
ties throughout  the  country,  in  the  beginning  of  1862,  made  up 
up  by  the  Inspector  of  Factories,  will  be  given  hereafter. 

COMPARATIVE  NOTE  OF  IMPOST  OF  FLAX,  &0.,  INTO  HULL,  FOE  YEAR  ENDING  31 ST 

DECEMBER. 


I860. 

1861. 

1862. 

1863. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Fiom  Riga,    . 
Archangel, 

3,813 
103 

2,840 

3,958 

.    3,902 

Petersburg, 

3,127 

1,355 

2,571 

1,520 

Narva,  . 

405 

163 

371 

127 

Revel,  . 

195 

78 

Holland, 

4,081 

2,791 

2,898 

3.227 

Belgium, 
France, 

5,175 

856 

3,060 
556 

2,636 
1,466 

'830 

Piussiii, 

467 

126 

547 

165 

Sundries, 

52 

190 

316 

155 

Total, 

18,274 

11,081 

14,763 

12,677 

CHAPTER  II. 

IRISH      LINEN. 


THE  old  Irish  or  Celtic  name  for  Flax  was  Lhin,  and  the 
term  poll  a  Ihin,  yet  applied  to  places  in  the  country,  shows  that 
the  steeping  of  Flax  in  pools  was  practised  in  Ireland  at  a  very 
remote  period.  It  is  probable  that  Linen  was  first  introduced 


1KISII  LINEN.  389 

into  the  country  by  the  PhciMiicitms,  but  of  this  nothing  certain 
ir.  known.  The  I'.rehon  laws  enjoin  the  Krughaids  or  farmers 
to  acquaint  themselves  with  tin*  niethod  of  cultivating  and 
managing  Flax;  and  it  is  stated  that  Linen  dyed  yellow  was 
much  worn  by  the  ancient  Irish. 

Macpherson,  in  his  "  Annals  of  Commerce",  says,  "  We  learn 
from  the  chronicles  of  the  p.-riod  that  about  A.D.  500,  fine  Linen 
was  possessed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
bodies  of  the  dead,  at  least  those  of  eminent  rank,  were  wrapped 
in  tine  Linen." 

Previous  to  the  conquest  of  Ireland  by  the  English  in  1156, 
it  would  appear,  fmm  a  list  of  exports  furnished  by  Geraldus 
Cambrensis,  that  there  were  then  no  Linen  manufactures. 

Linen  was  woven  in  Ireland  as  early  as  the  llth  century,  but 
perhaps  the  first  mention  on  record  of  Irish  Linen  occurs  in  the 
li'th  ivntury,  it  being  said  that  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  in 
1 1'72,  Irish  Linen  was  used  in  Winchester.  It  is  recorded  that 
Ireland  exported  Linen  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century. 
In  the  "  Picture  of  Antwerp,"  published  in  1560,  it  is  said  that 
Linen  were  exported  to  Ireland.  Leland  states  respecting  Liver- 
pool, that  in  1545,  "  Yrisch  merchants  cum  much  thither,  and 
moch  yrisch  yarn  that  Manchester  men  do  by  there/' 

About  the  year  1641  a  considerable  quantity  of  Flax  yarn 
had  been  spun  in  Ireland,  as  Manchester  then  bought  large 
quantities  of  Linen  yarn  from  the  Irish,  and,  weaving  it,  re- 
turned the  cloth  to  Ireland  for  sale. 

It  does  not  appear  that  much  improvement  had  taken  place  for 
some  time,  because  in  1673  England  imported  from  France  Linen 
to  the  value  of  £507,207,  which  she  would  not  have  done  if  Ireland 
could  have  supplied  it.  Among  the  earliest  notices  extant  of 
the  Irish  trade,  Linen  and  woollen  cloths  are  mentioned  as  two 
of  the  most  particular  articles  of  export,  but  no  details  are 
irivcn,  so  far  as  known,  to  show  the  relative  extent  of  either.  No 
doubt,  however,  the  quantity,  although  perhaps  large  when  com- 
pared with  the  other  exports  of  the  day,  were  tritHng  when  con- 
trasted with  tli.  exports  of  the  present  period.  It  was  not  until 
the  17th  century  that  the  Linen  trade  attained  any  national  im- 
portance in  Ireland. 

Although  Ireland  exported  Linen  goods  at  a  very  early  period, 


390  MODERN  LINEN. 

yet  this  manufacture  cannot  be  regarded  as  her  staple  one,  or  as 
having  contributed  much  to  her  foreign  commerce,  until  it 
flourished  among  the  Scotch  colonists  in  Ulster  towards  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century.  As  soon  as  they  entered  into  it 
with  spirit,  Linen  yarn,  instead  of  being  exported  to  Manchester 
and  other  places  of  England  to  be  weaved,  was  manufactured 
into  cloth  in  Ireland.  Linen  then  formed  the  chief  article  of  its 
commerce,  and  it  entirely  superseded  and  supplanted  the  wool- 
len manufacture  there. 

Macpherson  says  that  about  1670,  or  perhaps  a  little  later,  the 
Linen  manufacture  began  to  be  encouraged  in  Ireland.  "It  be- 
gan among  the  Scots  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  where  it  has  to  this 
day  flourished  more  than  in  any  other  part.  The  vast  quantities 
of  Linen  which  England  takes  of  the  Irish  enables  them  to  pay 
for  almost  every  kind  of  our  product  and  manufacture  which  we 
supply  them  with.  Before  they  made  much  Linen  cloth,  the 
people  in  the  north  of  Ireland  sent  their  Linen  yarn  to  England." 

Sir  William  Temple  in  his  "  Miscellanies/'  published  about 
1681 ,  says — "  No  women  are  apter  to  spin  Linen  thread  well  than 
the  Irish,  who,  labouring  little  in  any  kind  with  their  hands, 
have  their  fingers  more  supple  and  soft  than  other  women  of  the 
poor  condition  amongst  us.  And  this  may  certainly  be  advanced 
and  improved  into  a  great  manufacture  of  Linen,  so  as  to  bear 
down  the  trade  both  of  France  and  Holland,  and  draw  much 
of  the  money  which  goes  from  England  to  those  parts  upon  this 
occasion  into  the  hands  of  his  Majesty's  subjects  of  Ireland,  with- 
out crossing  any  interest  of  trade  in  England,  for,  besides  what 
has  been  said  of  Flax  and  spinning,  the  soil  and  climate  are 
proper  for  whitening,  both  by  the  frequent  brooks  and  also  winds 
in  that  country." 

Macpherson  says,  "  Great  sums  being  continually  carried  out 
of  England  for  Hemp,  Flax,  and  Linen,  which  might  in  a  great 
measure  be  supplied  by  Ireland,  if  proper  encouragement  were 
given  to  induce  foreign  protestants  to  settle  in  that  kingdom, 
the  Parliament,  in  1696,  passed  an  act  for  allowing  Hemp, 
Flax,  Linen,  and  Linen  yarn,  the  produce  or  manufacture  of 
Ireland,  to  be  imported  into  England  by  natives  of  England 
and  Ireland,  without  paying  any  duty.  And  the  manufacture 
of  sail-cloth  being  already  brought  to  good  perfection  in  Eng- 


3'Jl 

land,  all  Knglish  made  ^-ail-cloth  was  thenceforth  allowed  to  be 
riol  without  paying  duty,  either  in  the  piece  or  made  into 
Mils." — 7,  8,  William  1 1 1.,  cap.  39.  K\p<  rirneo  has  shown  that 
this  law  laid  the  foundation  <,!'  the  great  and  flourishing  manu- 
factures of  Linen  and  cambric-  in  In-land. 

During  the  rei^n  of  ( 'harl.-s  II.  the  woollen  manufacture  made 
rapid  progress  in  Ireland.  This  roused  the  jealousy  of  the 
1'nulish  manufacturers,  and  they  got  an  Act  passed  in  the  Bri- 
ti>h  Parliament  prohibiting  any  export  of  wool  from  Jn.-land, 
excepting  to  England  and  Wales.  Not  content  with  this,  in 
1698,  both  houses  of  Parliament  addressed  his  Majesty  William 
III.  representing  that  in  con-equence  of  labour  being  cheaper  in 
In  land  than  in  Knuland,  the  progress  of  the  woollen  manufac- 
ture there  was  such  as  to  prejudice  that  of  England,  and  that  it 
would  be  for  the  public  advantage  were  the  former  discount 
and  the  Linen  manufacture  established  in  its  stead.  His  Ma- 
je>ty  replied,  "  1  shall  do  all  that  in  me  lies  to  discourage  the 
w.h.lU'ii  manufacture  in  Ireland,  and  encourage  the  Linen  manu- 
facture, and  to  promote  the  trade  of  England."  However  illi- 
beral and  erroneous  these  notions  were,  Government  had  no 
ditlieiilty  in  getting  the  legislature  of  England  to  second  its 
views,  by  restricting  the  exportation  of  all  woollen  goods  from 
Ireland,  excepting  to  England,  where  prohibitory  duties  were 
laid  on  their  importation. 

In  the  Journals  of  the  House  of  Commons,  1772  and  1774, 
it  is  recorded  that  in  1698  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  re- 
commended to  the  King  a  kind  of  compromise  with  Ireland, 
whereby  England  should  enjoy  exclusively  the  woollen  inanu- 
faeture  and  Ireland  the  Linen.  Ireland  accepted  the  terms  and 
abstained  from  the  woollen  manufacture,  and  even  imposed 
heavy  duties  on  the  exportation  of  woollen  cloth.  The  effect  of 
this  was  to  ruin  the  woollen  trade.  Several  thousand  mauufac 
turers  left  the  kingdom,  some  of  the  southern  and  western  dis 
triets  were  almost  depopulated,  and  the  whole  of  the  kingdom 
reduced  to  the  utmost  poverty  and  distress  by  these  improvident 
measures. 

By  such  unwise  restrictions  the  woollen  manufacture,  which  at 
an  early  period  flourished  in  Ireland,  was  confined  to  the  home 
consumption,  and  of  course  the  trade  rapidly  declined.  For- 


392  MODERN  LINEN. 

tunately  for  Ireland,  its  place  was  soon  taken  up  by  the  Linen 
manufacture,  which  from  that  period  until  now  may  be  said  to 
have  had  a  prosperous  career. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  the  ostensible  reason  for  suppressing 
the  woollen  manufacture  and  establishing  that  of  Linen  in  its 
stead  was  not  the  true  one.  The  woollen  trade  had  been  in  a 
great  measure  carried  on  in  the  south  and  west  of  Ireland,  which 
were  popish  districts,  whilst  the  chief  seat  of  the  Linen  manufac- 
ture was  in  protestant  Ulster.  Protestant  Linens  were  upheld 
and  encouraged,  whereas  Popish  woollens  were  suppressed.  Be- 
sides other  evidence  of  the  spirit  which  dictated  such  proceed- 
ings, the  records  of  the  British  Parliament  prove  it.  In  an  act 
passed  in  the  year  1704,  the  preamble  commences  thus:  "  Foras- 
much as  the  Protestant  interest  in  Ireland  ought  to  be  supported 
by  giving  the  utmost  encouragement  to  the  Linen  manufactures 
of  that  kingdom,"  &c.  It  is  unfortunate  that  such  unjust  enact- 
ments should  have  been  passed  by  either  the  British  or  Irish 
legislatures  of  William  or  of  Anne.  They  look  more  like  the 
persecuting  bigotry  of  the  sovereigns  of  popish  countries,  than 
the  enlightened  spirit  of  protestant  lands.  The  Linen  trade 
deserved  all  encouragement,  but  not  at  the  expense  of  the  wool- 
len manufacture,  even  though  it  was  in  the  hands  of  papists,  and  it 
would  have  been  far  better  had  both  been  upheld  and  stimulated. 

Louis  Crommelin,  after  the  repeal  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  A.D. 
1699,  fled  from  France  with  a  number  of  other  refugees,  and 
settled  near  Lisburn.  These  persons  being  acquainted  with 
the  French  mode  of  manufacturing  Linen,  introduced  the 
system  into  Ireland,  and  by  this  means  greatly  improved  the 
trade  there.  At  this  period  curious  expedients  were  adopted  to 
increase  the  demand  for  Linen,  one  of  them  being  an  order  by 
the  Lord-Lieutenant  to  wear  hat  bands  and  scarfs  of  Linen  at 
funerals,  a  custom  which  still  exists.  The  machinery  then 
used  in  the  Linen  manufacture  was  of  the  simplest  construction, 
and  principally  worked  by  hand,  but  in  1725  new  machinery  was 
invented  and  applied  in  some  of  the  processes. 

In  Queen  Anne's  reign  the  Irish  House  of  Commons  sent  a 
bill  in  favour  of  the  Linen  trade  to  Her  Majesty,  accompanied 
with  an  address  requesting  permission  from  the  English  Parlia- 
ment to  export  Linens  to  the  British  colonies.  The  English 


ii  393 

minister*,  after  crushing  the  woollen  trade,  always  appeared  de- 
i  is  to  encourage  and  I'nM.-r  tin-  Linen  manufacture,  in  which 
the  Irish  had  for  competitors  the  French  and  Flemish  artizani. 
l/o  nl    Stratford,   win  I .i.  nteuant   of   In-land.   not   only 

cnimu  MI  an.  •«  -d  and  protected  this  new  branch  of  industry,  but 
al- .  .nil.arked  a  considerable  HUH  i  himself  in  tl  •  Among 

din T  improvement!  originated   l»y  this  nuhleman,  he  brought 
over  from  the  Continent  a  number  of  spinners  and  manu 
turers,  who  taught  the  Irish  the  superior  system  of  treatment  in 
operation  tin 

By  an  act  passed  in  the  9th  year  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne, 
a  "Board  of  Trustees  of  tin  Lim-n  and  Hempen  manufactures" 
was  appointed  for  the  « n-  .nuagement  of  the  cultivation  of  Flax, 
and  the  improvement  of  the  manufacture  of  Linen  in  Ireland. 
In  17<>7  the  Irish  Parliament  confirmed  the  establishment  of 
the  Li  n«-n  trade  in  Ulster,  and  this  Board  was  formed  to  foster, 
'iirage,  and  extend  the  rising  manufacture.  The  most  libe- 
ral means-  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Board  by  Govern- 
ment, and  for  several  years  £20,000  were  annually  distributed  un- 
d«  T  its  management.  The  Trustees  were  almost  always  composed 
of  the  leading  men  of  the  country,  and  often  the  highest  nobility 
and  gentry  were  among  their  number.  These  pa  r t  i  es  always  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Board,  and  often  con- 
siderable share  in  its  management.  This  shows  the  interest 
then  taken  in  the  nation  by  the  great  landowners  of  the  country, 
especially  in  the  infant  Linen  trade,  and  it  speaks  well  for  the 
patriotism  and  catholic  spirit  by  which  they  were  animated. 

The  establishment  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  also  materially 
contributed  to  the  in  trod  action  of  improvements  in  the  agricul- 
tural management  of  the  Flax  crop.  This  was  the  parent  of 
lri.-h  Industrial  Institutions,  and  so  early  as  1739  the  mem- 
bers held  enlightened  views  of  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
the  proper  cultivation  of  the  crop.  They  exerted  themselves 
to  instruct  the  farmers  practically  in  the  culture  of  Flax,  and 
for  that  pin  pose  persons  trained  under  the  skilful  Flax  growers 
of  Belgium  were  sent  among  them,  who  circulated  excellent 
directions  fur  the  management  of  the  crop  in  all  its  stages. 

The  Trust. -es  of  the  Linen  Board  met  every  Tuesday,  at  their 
house  near  the  Linen  Hall  in  Dublin,  for  the  transaction  of  bu>i- 


394  MODERN  LINEN. 

ness.  This  Hall  was,  in  the  olden  time,  the  mart  to  which  all 
the  merchants  repaired  with  their  cases  of  bleached  Linen, 
finished  and  ready  for  sale,  and  there  the  English  traders  attended 
and  made  their  purchases.  It  was,  in  these  times,  a  great 
convenience,  as  the  means  of  communication  in  the  interior  were 
few,  and  the  system  of  one  grand  central  market  answered  all 
parties  admirably. 

In  going  over  the  transactions  of  the  Trustees,  it  would  ap- 
pear that  many  important  subjects  occupied  their  attention,  and 
that  the  labour  imposed  upon  them  was  considerable.  They  ap- 
pointed intelligent  inspectors  in  the  country  districts,  to  look 
after  the  interests  of  the  Linen  trade,  and  see  that  it  was  not  in- 
terfered with  prejudicially  by  any  party  ;  and  many  of  them  were 
very  zealous  in  the  discharge  of  their  duty,  and  no  doubt  did 
good  service  to  their  employers  and  to  the  country  at  large. 

The  following  abstract  of  the  amount  expended  by  the  Board 
of  Trusteee  in  1815,  shows  how  the  sum  granted  yearly  by  Par- 
liament for  regulating  and  improving  the  Linen  manufacture  in 
Ireland  was  applied  :— 

PREMIUMS. 

Manufacturing  Sail  Cloth,  Canvas,  Duck,  &c.,  from 

mill  spun  yarn,              ....  £11,229  18  4 

Manufacturing  thread  lace,    .            .            .            .  77    6  0 

Imitating  Bristol  Candle-wick,          .            .            .  63  15  0 

Spinning  fine  yarn,     .....  163  15  6 


Total  Premiums,  .          £11,524  14  10 


GRANTS. 

Utensils  to  Trustees £4,337  17  2 

Utensils  to  Publio  Institutions,        .            .            .  969  17  2 

Branding  Flax  seed,  .             .            .            .            .  276    9  3 

Branding  Utensils,     .            .            .            .            .  132  15  4 


Total  Grants,         .  £5,716  18  11 


Together,   .  .         £17,241  13    9 

As  the  Linen  trade  concentrated  itself  in  and  around  Belfast, 
the  necessity  of  sending  all  the  white  or  bleached  goods  to  Dub- 
lin for  sale  became  troublesome  and  inconvenient,  and  it  was 


HUM!    I.I 

«1  to  erect  a  white  Linen  Hall  in  Belfast.  In  17S3  this 
liall  was  erected  by  subscription,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the 
Dublin  trade  waa  transferred  to  H,  In  1*1"  159  packages,  of 
the  average  vain.-  of  £65,  were  received  in  it  ;  in  ISl'J.  lM7;  in 
1815,  i;:w  ;  and  in  1818,  1241  packages.  The  gr<  «t.  i  part  of 

Liin-n*  >rted  to  America  ami  tin-  West  Indies. 

Tlu»  l>ro\vn  Linen  trade  was  almost  wholly  transacted  in  the 
provincial  towns.  'I  lie  weavers,  who  were  chiefly  small  far- 
mers or  cottagers,  grew  the  Flax,  spun  the  yarn  at  home, 
or  purchased  it,  wove  tin-  cloth  in  their  own  IK -uses  and 
took  the  pieces  to  the  nearest  market  for  sale,  where  they 
were  purchased  by  the  merchants.  The  purchasers  bleached 
the  :  hen  sent  them  to  the  white  Linen  Halls  for  sale, 

r  thev,-  Halls  were  superseded  they  sent  the  cloth  to  Knir- 
land,  or  shipped  it  to  foreign  countries.  For  the  regulation 
of  these  provincial  markets,  intelligent  inspectors  called  "  Seal- 
masters"  were  appointed  by  the  Linen  Board,  for  each  dis- 
trict, whose  duty  it  was  to  examine  the  Linen  brought  for 
.  and  to  certify  to  the  quality  being  sound  and  genuine. 
Each  piece,  before  it  could  be  admitted  to  the  Hall,  had  to  be 
stamped  and  sealed  by  the  inspector,  and  he  was  responsible  for 
the  perfection  of  the  pieces  to  the  buyers ;  but  should  he  be  called 
upon  to  make  compensation  for  faulty  pieces,  he  had  recourse 
against  the  weaver  for  the  same.  In  many  cases  the  manu- 
;r«  rs  were  allowed,  under  certain  restrictions,  to  stamp 
thi-ir  own  cloth.  As  soon  as  he  could  find  security,  him- 
self in  £.">(),  and  two  securities  in  £100  each,  in  all  £250,  he 
was  instantly,  and  as  a  thing  of  course,  directly  invested  with  a 
seal  to  stamp  his  own  cloth.  From  1782  to  1816  no  fewer  than 
1  (i  1  r,  brown  seals,  and  1596  white  seals,  had  been  issued  by  the 
Board  of  Trustees,  to  manufacturers  in  the  province  of  V 
alone. 

To  show  the  thoroughly  domestic  nature  of  the  Linen  trade 
in  Ireland,  and  the  extent  of  the  business  done  in  the  provi: 
towns,  the  following  details,  taken  from  page  36  of  the  Apj>endix 
to  the  Report  «.f  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  1816,  is  interesting. 
It  is  there  stated  that  the  average  number  of  weavers  who  at- 
tended the  weekly  market,  and  the  value  of  the  Linens  sold 
weekly  in  the  undernoted  places  were — 


396  MODERN  LINEN. 

In  Cookstown,  450  Weavers,  Value,  £1,300 

InColeraine,  250        do.,  .  do.,         850 

In  Armagh,  300        do.,  .  do.,     3,800 

In  Lurgan,  400        do. ,  .  do. ,      1,850 

In  Dungannon,  1200        do.,  .  do.,      4,000 

This  market  system  still  exists  to  a  small  extent,  but  it  is 
gradually  wearing  out,  and  a  very  short  period  will  no  doubt  see 
its  total  decay.  The  primitive  fashion  is  still  in  existence  at 
Ballymena,  noted  for  light  £  Linens  ;  at  Armagh,  for  heavy 
ditto  ;  at  Lurgan,  for  lawns  and  diapers  ;  at  Coleraine  and  Bally- 
money  for  J  fine  Linens  ;  and  at  Magherafelt,  for  inferior  ditto. 
In  Belfast  brown  Linen  market  a  few  goods  are  still  sold;  but 
Lisburn  lawn  market,  once  so  celebrated,  is  now  extinct,  and  all 
the  plain  lawns  brought  by  weavers  for  sale  are  taken  to  Lurgan. 
The  trade  is  now  generally  carried  on  by  large  manufacturers, 
who  give  the  yarn  out  to  weave  in  the  people's  houses,  and  get 
the  cloth  returned  to  them  ;  or  who  weave  it  in  their  power -loom 
factories.  The  superintendence  of  these  provincial  markets  oc- 
cupied a  considerable  portion  of  the  time  of  the  Linen  Board  of 
Dublin,  and  as  they  were  extremely  particular,  it  made  the  seal 
masters  very  attentive  to  their  duties.  This  care  conduced  greatly 
to  the  production  of  regular  and  uniform  goods,  gave  the  mer- 
chants confidence  in  their  purchases,  and  tended  to  the  establish- 
ment and  rapid  increase  of  the  Linen  trade  in  Ireland. 

With  the  view  of  fostering  and  encouraging  the  establishment 
of  this  new  branch  of  industry,  Government  frequently  granted 
a  bounty,  or  paid  a  premium  to  the  producers  or  exporters  of 
Linens,  to  enable  them  to  prosecute  it  successfully.  No  trade 
got  more  assistance  of  this  kind  than  the  Linen  manufacture,  and 
it  was  granted  both  to  Great  Britain  and  to  Ireland.  The 
bounties  formerly  paid  on  the  exportation  of  Linens  will  form  the 
subject  of  a  subsequent  chapter. 

In  an  anonymous  pamphlet,  published  by  an  Irishman  about 
1731  or  1732,  as  to  the  Irish  woollen  and  Linen  trade,  he  as- 
cribes the  late  increase  of  population  in  Ireland  to  the  growth  of 
the  Linen  trade.  He  argued  that  as  sheepwalks  decreased  and 
tillage  land  increased,  so  did  the  population  increase.  The  popu- 
lation returns  certainly  bear  out  this  statement,  as  the  increase  of 
population  was  much  more  rapid  during  the  quarter  of  a  century 


J.r 

the  {Missing  of  William  III.'s  statute  in  1C9G  in  favour 
of  the  Linen  trad.-,  than  it  had  bem  i'< T  the  like  pe rind  before  it. 

it  is  stated  by  Macphersontbat  in  Ireland,  which  had  hitherto 
been  famous  for  its  woollen  manufacture's,  it  is  found  (in  1732), 
nioiv  profitable  to  grow  Flax  for  the  Linen  maniitaetun-.  Sheep 
therefore  are  disappearing,  especially  1mm  the  northrrn  eom 
"  whereas  the  Linen  manufacture  is  now  nniursally  spread.'' 
At  the  accession  of  King  William  III.  in  1689,  Ireland  did  not 
export  to  the  value  of  £6000  of  Linen  ;  whereas  in  1741,  according 
to  a  letter  from  Ireland  of  this  year,  the  export  had  increased 
to  £600,000,  or  100  times  as  much  as  it  was  fifty  years  bef( 

In  a  book  published  in  Dublin  in  1760,  it  is  said  that  the 
Linen  Hall  in  Dublin  had  been  erected  "  under  as  just  and  nice 
regulations  as  any  commercial  house  in  Europe/'  Another  ac- 
count says: — "  Since  the  year  1757  the  exportation  of  Linen 
from  Ireland  has  been  gradually  lessening,  and  the  following  is 
a  private  estimate  of  its  state  for  two  years  past,  ending  Lady- 
day  each  year  "  : — 

17:.9   14,093,431  yards,  at  16d  per  yard  on  average  £939,562  1  4 
17GO   13,375,456    „    „     „     „     891,697  1  8 

The  same  party  estimates  the  quantity  of  Linen  yarn  exported 
to  Great  Britain  in  these  years  at  nearly  an  equal  value  to  the 
yarn  worked  up  in  the  Linens  exported.  Possibly  the  increase 
in  the  Linen  manufacture  of  Scotland  at  that  time  may  partly, 
if  not  entirely  account  for  the  decrease  in  Ireland.  To  give 
more  encouragement  to  the  trade,  the  Irish  Parliament  in  1761 
granted  to  the  Trustees  for  the  Linen  manufacture  £8000  a-year 
for  two  years. 

Postlethwayt  says,  "  In  1766,  the  ports  from  which  Linen 
yarn  is  chiefly  exported  from  Ireland  are  Londonderry,  Belfast, 
Newry,  Drogheda,  and  in  a  less  degree  Dublin,  Dundalk,  and 
Coleraine.  The  port  to  which  such  yarn  is  exported  is  Liver- 
pool." 

The  quantity  of  1, incus  exported  from  Dublin  in  1768,  was 
18,490,195  yards  ;  and  in  1769,  17,790,705  yards.  The  Linen 
trade  both  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  declined  for  some  years  after 
this  date,  and  many  people  emigrated  to  America.  The  value 
of  the  exports  of  Linens  from  Dublin  in  1771,  was  £1,691,000, 


398 


MODERN  LINEN. 


in  1772,  £1,300,000,  and  in  1773  only  £900,000.  About  three- 
fourths  of  the  looms  in  the  north  of  Ireland  were,  in  the  latter 
year,  standing  idle  for  want  of  work,  and  in  some  places  nearly 
the  whole  were  silent. 

Statement  of  the  Linen  cloth  and  yarn  exported  from  Ireland, 
in  the  years  specified,  whereof  about  seven-eighths  of  the  whole 
was  to  Great  Britain  : — 


LINEN  CLOTH. 

LINEN  YARN. 

Yards. 

£ 

Cwts. 

£ 

1710 

1,688,574  @  la  3d 

105,535 

7,975 

47,853 

1720 

2,437,984       Is  Od 

121,899 

15,722 

94,334 

1730 

4,136,203       Is  Od 

206,810 

lc,  088 

55,485 

1740 

6,627,771       Is  4d 

441,851 

18,542 

111,256 

1750 

11,200,460       Is  2d 

653,360 

22,373 

134,238 

1760 

13,375,456       Is  4d 

891.697 

31,042 

186,254 

1770 

20,560,754       Is  6d 

1,542,056 

33,417 

200,502 

Bounties  on  the  importation  of  Irish  Hemp  into  England 
were  established  in  1779.  In  1780  the  Irish  Parliament  re- 
solved to  give  bounties  on  the  exportation  of  Irish  Linens  to 
Africa,  America,  Spain,  Portugal,  Gibraltar,  and  Minorca;  and  on 
Irish  sail  cloth  exported  to  any  place  excepting  Great  Britain.  The 
English  Board  of  Trade  examine  into  this  resolution,  to  see 
what  effect  it  would  have  upon  their  own  trade,  and  finally  are 
of  opinion  that  the  Irish  bounties  "  cannot  possibly  affect  the 
interests  of  the  Linen  trade  of  this  kingdom,  and  are,  so  far  as 
bounties  may  in  any  case  be  expedient,  wisely  and  providently 
applied  by  these  new  provisions,  to  promote  the  interest  of  the 
Irish  Linen  Trade."  They  also  say  that  "  our  system  of  Linen 
bounties  and  Linen  duties,  though  possibly  in  many  cases  ex- 
ceptionable in  the  great  scale  of  commercial  policy,  has  proved 
an  essential  encouragment  to  the  Irish  staple,  and  has  also  been 
the  means  of  forcing  forward  an  extensive  Linen  manufacture 
in  this  kingdom,  though  struggling  under  a  great  disadvantage 
as  to  the  growth  and  supply  of  the  raw  material." 

In  the  Dundee  Advertiser  of  17th  June  1808,  it  is  said; — 
"  The  Government  had  it  in  contemplation,  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  growth  of  Flax  in  Ireland,  to  engage  to  pay  for  such 
Hemp  as  could  be  ascertained  to  be  of  the  growth  of  Ireland, 


1K1-II    I.I 

and  \vhk-h  mi-lit  bfe  ddivnvd  int<>    His  Majt-ty's   d--ekyards    in 
the  omr-e  of  the  1'ollnwing  three  years,  whatever  prkv  that  ar- 
ticle might  bear  in  the  market  on  the  day  of  its  arrival  in 
dockyard.     And  in  case  the  mar i  should  be  below  £60 

P.  i  ton,  to  pay  that  price  for  it,  provided  such  Hemp  should  be 
:ied,  upon  delivery,  good  and  merchantable,  and  shall  be  ap- 
proved of  and  received  by  the  officers  as  fit  for  His  }1  in- 
service.  Payment  to  be  by  bills  made  out  at  the  Navy  Office  at 
ninety  days'  date,  bearing  an  interest  of  3d  per  cent,  per  diem, 
upon  certificates  being  granted,  as  usual,  by  the  officers  of  the 
yard,  of  the  quantities  of  Hemp  they  had  received.  This  price 
referred  to  Plymouth,  but  should  the  officers  want  part  of  the 
Hemp  grown  in  Ireland  delivered  at  Portsmouth,  an  additional 
sum  of  £1  10s  a  ton  was  to  be  paid  for  it ;  and  £2  if  deliv 
at  Chatham  or  Woolwich." 

In  1807  the  quantity  of  plain  Linen  exported  from  Ireland  to 
Great  Britain  was  40,870,283  yards,  of  the  value  of  £3,405,856 
18s  4d  sterling,  besides  a  small  quantity  of  drills,  checks,  <fec. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  the  quantity  and  value  of  the 
Linens  exported  from  Ireland  in  the  years  named : — 


Years. 

To  Great  Britain. 

To  Foreign  Ports. 

Total. 

Amount  of  Bounty  paid  in 
Ireland  on  Linen  exported  to 

Foreign  Putts. 

Yards. 

Yards. 

Yards. 

*.'**, 

1800 

78,0* 

2,585.829 

34.563,868 

INC. 

40,707,267 

2,976,  266 

4:i.r,s3  r,;u 

12,224  19    4 

181«> 

8Lfi84Ji06 

4,311 

86498,970 

16,448  19    9 

1815 

§7,986,360 

5,496/206 

43,482,565 

17,430  17    3 

1890 

40,31 

3,294,948 

14,928    9  11 

188 

62,5:. 

55,113,265 

12,015    9    6} 

MM 

...    . 

2,386,223 

6,886    1  11 

After  1825  the  quantities  exported  to  Great  Britain  were  not 
kept  at  tho  Custom-house,  as  the  cross  channel  trade  was  there- 
after assimilated  by  law  to  a  coasting  traffic.  Of  the  exports 
from  Ireland  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  century  more 
than  12-13ths  were  to  Great  Britain. 

The  exports  of  Linen  from  the  United  Kingdom  seem  to  have 
been  at  that  period  about  equal  to  the  imports  from  Ireland  into 
Great  Britain.  During  the  year  1825,  the  last  in  which  an  ac- 
count was  kept  of  the  Linen  trade  between  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 


400  MODERN  LINEN. 

land,  there  were  exported  from  the  United  Kingdom  of  British 
Linen  35,993,038  yards,  the  real  or  declared  value  of  which  was 
£1,309,616  ;  and  of  Irish  Linen,  16,087,146  yards,  the  real  or 
declared  value  of  which  was  £918,385,  amounting  together  to 
52,080,184  yards,  worth  £2,228,001.  The  declared  value  of 
the  imports  of  Irish  Linen  into  Great  Britain  in  1825  was 
£2,893,018,  and  of  the  total  imports  38,784,908  yards  were  re- 
tained for  home  consumption. 

The  Linen  Board  was  frequently  occupied  with  suggestions 
and  proposals  for  the  improvement  of  Flax-preparing  processes, 
and  although  some  of  these  proposals  were  fallacious,  others  were 
of  utility,  and  did  good  to  the  trade  in  various  ways.  Some  of 
these  are  referred  to  in  the  section  on  Flax  Culture,  and  are 
both  instructive  and  interesting. 

In  1821  the  Trustees  of  the  Linen  Board  made  some  reduc- 
tions in  their  expenses,  but  the  Parliamentary  grant  continued 
the  same  as  usual,  viz. : — 

To  encourage  the  raising  of  sufficient  quantity  of  Hemp  and  Flax  in 

Ireland  for  one  year,  ......  £2,000 

For  the  encouragement  of  the  Hempen  and  Flaxen  manufacture  in 
the  provinces  of  Leinster,  Munster,  and  Connaught,  for  one 
year,  .........  2,000 

To  encourage  the  growth  of  Flax  in  Ireland  for  one  year,  .  .  7,250 

A  farther  sum  for  one  yea.r,  to  be  applied  by  the  Trustees  in  such 
manner  as  shall  appear  to  them  to  be  most  conducive  to  promote 
and  encourage  the  said  manufacture,  the  said  sum  being  instead 
of  a  like  sum  paid  to  the  Trustees  out  of  the  produce  of  the 
duties  on  teas  and  coffee,  .  .  .  .  .,  10,350 

Old  Irish  currency,  equal  to  about  £20,000  sterling,       .  .  .         £21,600 

In  1816  the  Board  sent  one  of  their  Inspectors  on  a  tour 
through  Scotland  and  Yorkshire  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
and  imparting  information  regarding  the  state  and  progress  of 
the  Linen  manufacture  in  these  countries.  The  Inspector  in 
his  report  gives  an  account  of  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  in 
Scotland,  and  recommends  the  great  care  taken  by  the  produ- 
cers and  manufacturers  there,  especially  in  the  scutching  pro- 
cess. He  recommended  the  scutching  mill  for  which  a  premium 
of  £50  was  awarded  by  the  Linen  Board  of  Scotland.  He  also 
recommended  the  adoption  in  Ireland  of  a  two-handed  wheel 
for  spinning,  and  took  one  of  them  over  with  him  to  Ireland. 


IRISH  LINEN.  401 

At  that  time  a  desire  was  felt  in  Ireland  to  supply  Scotland  with 
Irish  Flax.  The  Inspector  inquired  in  Scotland  the  reason  for 
their  not  iisin^  it,  :i ml  was  informed  that  the  system  of  kiln-dry- 
ing the  Flax,  so  much  practised  in  In  land,  and  the  imperfect 
scutching  of  the  Flax  there,  made  it  inferior  to  the  Continental 
Flax,  although  in  some  other  respects  it  was  superior  to  it.  The 
best  Flax  at  that  time  sent  from  Ireland  was  shipped  at  Belfast, 
and  the  quality  shipju-d  thence  was  yearly  improving. 

The  following  is  the  result  of  a  trial  made  by  the  Inspector  on 
Scotch  and  Irish  Flax,  the  former  dried  by  air  in  the  field,  and 
the  latter  by  artificial  heat : — 

1  cwt.  Scotch,  Heckled.  1  cwt  Irish,  Heckled. 

Flax,   ...        80  Ibi.  Flax,    ...        66  Iba 

FiratTow,    .        .        12    „  First  Tow,    .        .        32    „ 

Second  Do.,          .         17    „  Second  Do.,         .         20    „ 

Watte,         .  3    „  Waste,         .  4    „ 

112  Ib3.  112  Ibs. 

These  parcels  were  heckled  to  the  same  quality  for  mill-spin- 
ning, and  gave  an  advantage  to  the  Scotch  grown  Flax  of  about 
25  per  cent.  The  reason  of  this  difference  was  attributed  to 
the  fire-drying  of  the  Irish  Flax,  which  deprives  it  of  the  oil, 
makes  it  hard  and  brittle,  and  easily  broken  in  heckling. 

The  improved  scutching  machinery  recommended  by  the  In- 
spector was  to  some  extent  introduced  into  Ireland,  and  among 
other  parties  who  took  an  interest  in  improving  the  preparation 
of  Flax  on  their  estates  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  was  the  Drapers' 
Company  of  London. 

In  the  report  of  the  business  done  at  Leipzic  Fair  in  1816,  it 
is  said,  "  The  prospect  for  the  first  and  most  ancient  manufac- 
ture of  Germany,  Linens,  is  the  most  gloomy  of  all.  The  Irish 
Linens  were  supplanting  them  in  America,  and  cottons  were 
taking  their  place  in  many  places,  because  so  much  cheaper." 
This  shows  the  progress  which  had  then  been  made  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Linens  in  Ireland,  and  the  hold  which  they  had 
taken  in  the  American  market.  German  Linens  had  long  been 
held  in  great  esteem  by  the  Americans,  but  the  superiority  of 
Irish  goods  was,  even  at  this  time  acknowledged,  and  they  had 
nearly  supplanted  the  German  goods  in  that  market, 
c  c 


402  MODERN  LINEN 

In  1820,  a  genuine  improvement  was  invented  and  carried 
out,  viz.,  the  new  patent  temples  for  weaving,  which  holds  the 
cloth  to  the  proper  width  on  the  same  principle  as  pincers ;  thus 
obviating  the  use  of  the  teethed  temples,  which  frequently  punc- 
tured and  tore  the  selvage,  and  thus  injured  the  cloth.  So 
favourably  was  this  improvement  viewed,  that  the  Linen 
trade  in  Belfast  ordered  400  pairs  for  gratuitous  distribution 
among  the  weavers,  and  strongly  recommended  the  patentee  to 
the  Linen  Board  as  worthy  of  a  pecuniary  reward.  He  got 
£100.  These  temples  are  now  in  general  use,  and  have  tended 
to  improve  the  quality  of  Irish  Linens. 

On  23d  August  1821,  George  IY.  visited  the  Linen  Hall  and 
Board  Room  in  Dublin,  and  received  a  complimentary  address. 

Both  merchants  and  farmers  have  from  lime  to  time  been 
subjected  to  frauds  and  deceptions.  About  1822  it  was  a  com- 
mon practice  among  weavers  to  put  paste  on  brown  Linens,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  them  an  artificial  appearance  of  weight 
and  strength.  The  practice  of  rubbing  the  cloth  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  injure  its  quality,  especially  at  the  selvage,  was  also 
common.  This  made  the  piece  appear  finer  and  richer  than  it 
really  was,  and  thus  deceived  the  buyer.  These  deceptions 
were  thoroughly  exposed  by  the  merchants,  and  stringent  mea- 
sures adopted  to  keep  up  the  reputation  of  the  goods  ;  and  a  test 
fluid  was  invented  for  detecting  deleterious  substances  used  in 
starching  Linen  cloth,  but  the  trickery  was  not  easily  stopped. 

It  was  quite  a  customary  thing  at  this  period  to  sell  inferior 
Flax  seed  to  the  farmers,  instead  of  genuine  Dutch  seed  ;  and  the 
better  to  carry  on  the  deception,  empty  barrels  which  had  con- 
tained the  real  article  were  procured,  filled  with  the  counterfeit, 
and  sold  as  genuine,  although  generally  at  a  somewhat  lower 
price.  Greedy  farmers  bought  the  cheapest  seed,  and  only  dis- 
covered the  fatal  mistake  when  the  crop  produced  turned  out 
next  to  worthless.  To  prevent  the  serious  consequences  to  the  ex- 
tension of  the  production  of  the  plant,  which  the  sale  of  bad  seed 
had  caused,  an  application  was  made  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant  for  a 
grant  of  money  to  purchase  genuine  Flax  seed  for  distribution 
among  small  farmers,  unable  from  poverty  to  purchase  it.  On 
28th  May  1822,  the  Lord-Lieutenant  granted  £3000  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  distribution  of  the  seed  did  so  much  good,  that 


i  I. ISBN. 

au  application  was  made  for  a  renewal  of  the  grant  the  follow- 
ing year,  which  was  acceded  to. 

In  1822,  the  Linen  Board  despatch.  «1  an  intrlliV'-nt  inspector 
on  a  tour  through  Holland,  Flanders,  and   France,  and  his 
port  contained  much  useful  information  on  various  subjects  in 
connection  with  the  trade,  especially  with  the  cultivation  and 
(•reparation  of  Fl 

In  1823,  unions,  composed  of  cotton  warp  and  Linen  weft, 
were  first  made,  and  a  great  outcry  was  raised  against  such 
goods.  Government  was  petitioned  to  have  this  novel  manu- 
facture stamped  in  some  peculiar  style  to  distinguish  it  from 
genuine  Linen,  so  as  to  keep  up  the  fair  fame  of  Irish  Linens. 

Same  year  the  Trustees  of  the  Linen  Board  brought  over  two 
Dutch  agriculturists,  to  instruct  the  Irish  farmers  in  the  Conti- 
nental mode  of  growing  and  preparing  Flax  ;  and  the  improve  • 
incuts  introduced  by  these  men  were  of  great  service,  both  to 
the  fanners  \vh<>  were  taught  to  produce  better  Flax,  and  to  the 
who  received  the  superior  article. 

Several  improvements  in  the  construction  of  looms  and  other 
weaving  machinery  were  introduced  from  time  to  time  about  this 
period.  Some  of  the-e  were  rewarded  by  the  Trustees  from  the 
funds  at  their  disposal.  Among  others,  the  Jacquard  machine 
was  tried  for  the  production  of  damasks  and  diapers,  and  found 
to  answer  admirably. 

Flax  imported  from  foreign  countries  was  allowed  to  be  sold  by 
auction  in  Scotland,  if  within  a  year  of  its  importation,  at  one-half 
per  cent,  of  duty,  if  sold  for  account  of  the  original  importers. 
1 1  i.-h  Flax  could  not  be  so  sold,  and  in  1835  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce of  Dundee  wanted  the  same  privilege  extended  to  it,  but 
the  Commissioners  of  Excise  would  not  grant  their  request. 

The  spinning  of  Flax  by  machinery  was  begun  in  England  in 
1 787,  and  it  is  also  supposed  to  have  been  begun  the  same  year 
in  Scotland.  For  some  years  little  progress  was  made,  and  as 
the  machinery  was  rude  and  imperfect,  the  yarn  produced  was 
not  well  spun.  From  time  to  time  improvements  were  intro- 
duced, by  which  the  quality  of  the  yarn  spun  was  much  im- 
proved, and  the  quantity  taken  off  greatly  increased.  This 
enabled  the  spinners  in  these  countries  to  purchase  Flax  in  the 
Irish  markets,  manufacture  it  into  Linen,  and  sell  H  below 
c  c  2 


404  MODEItN  LIKEN. 

the  price  of  Irish  made  goods.  It  is  astonishing  to  think  that 
the  intelligent  manufacturers  of  Ireland  should  so  long  have 
looked  on,  and  allowed  the  enterprise  of  these  countries  almost 
to  rob  them  of  their  trade ;  but  such  is  the  fact.  It  was  not 
until  the  first  quarter  of  this  century  had  almost  gone3  that  spin- 
ning by  power  was  seriously  thought  of  in  Ireland,  and  it  was 
fully  forty  years  after  the  system  had  been  introduced  into 
England  and  Scotland  until  a  mill  was  established  in  Ireland. 
Even  then  it  was  only  the  perilous  position  of  the  trade,  aris- 
ing from  the  competition  in  these  countries,  that  forced  it  on. 
It  was  fortunate  for  the  country  that  at  such  a  time  men  of 
enterprise,  energy,  and  sagacity  equal  to  the  emergency  were 
ready  to  step  in,  and  as  it  were  chain  the  trade  to  Ireland.  No 
doubt  the  superior  excellence  of  the  hand-spun  Irish  yarn,  the 
low  price  at  which  it  was  spun,  and  the  difficulty  at  first  experi- 
enced in  spinning  by  machinery  the  very  fine  numbers  of  yarn 
which  is  used  in  Ireland,  all  combined  to  delay  the  erection  of 
spinning  mills  there ;  but  these  reasons  do  not  sufficiently  ac- 
count for  the  start  which  the  trade  was  allowed  to  get  both  in 
England  and  Scotland.  After  spinning  by  machinery  was  fairly 
established,  its  progress  was  exceedingly  rapid,  and  the  time  lost 
appears  to  have  been  speedily  made  up. 

In  1824  the  idea  of  erecting  a  spinning  mill  on  an  extensive 
scale  in  Belfast  was  popular  among  many  of  the  members  of 
the  Linen  trade  there,  and  some  steps  were  taken  to  accomplish 
this  object,  but  it  eventually  fell  to  the  ground,  and  hand  spin- 
ning went  on  as  before.  It  was  not  until  the  year  1828,  that 
Flax  spinning  machinery  was  started  in  Belfast,  the  Messrs  Mul- 
holland  having  in  that  year  erected  their  mill,  and  they  have 
continued  the  trade  to  the  present  day.  Messrs  Murland  erected 
their  work  in  the  same  year,  and  since  then  spinning  has  made 
immense  progress. 

In  1826  the  Government,  considering  that  the  Linen  trade 
of  Ireland  did  not  then  require  the  encouragement  necessary  in 
its  early  stages,  intimated  to  the  Trustees  of  the  Linen  Board, 
that  the  grant  for  the  following  year  would  be  reduced  to 
£10,000,  and  that  it  would  soon  be  wholly  withdrawn. 

In  April,  1827,  a  Dublin  newspaper  mentioned  that  Govern- 
ment had  determined  to  abolish  the  Irish  Linen  Board  ;  a  cir- 


HUSH   LINES.  405 

cumstance  -which,  it  said,  "affords  great  satisfaction  to  those 
engaged  in  the  Linen  trade,  as  the  Board  t<-nd<-d  rather  to 
cramp  than  encourage  the  Linen  trade  by  ite  partial  operation" 

Following  up  this  intimation,  on  6th  August,  18^7,  ilu-  Lord 
Lieutenant  informed  the  Trustees  that,  in  conformity  with  the  di- 
rections of  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury,  and  in  pursuance  of  the 
principles  previously  intimated  to  them,  it  was  not  the  intention 
of  t  he  Government  to  recommend  that  any  grant  should  be  pro- 
posed for  the  encouragement  oi  the  Linen  manufacture  for  the 
year  1828.  The  Board  was  in  consequence  dissolved. 

After  the  dissolution  of  the  Board  by  Parliament,  the  produc- 
tion  and  management  of  the  Flax  plant  in  Ireland  was,  for  many 
years,  left  very  much  to  the  intelligence  and  perseverance  of  the 
private  parties  engaged  in  its  growth  and  manufacture.  Agri- 
cultural and  other  societies  no  doubt  awarded  premiums  for  good 
Flax,  and  for  the  best  specimens  of  Linens,  but  these  were,  com- 
paratively speaking,  isolated  and  imperfect  cases  of  help,  and  of 
little  real  utility.  Notwithstanding  the  want  of  assistance,  the 
trade  made  vast  progress,  and  the  production  of  yarns  and 
-Linen  went  on  increasing  with  extraordinary  rapidity. 

In  1841  the  Royal  Flax  Society  of  Ireland  was  established  for 
the  promotion  and  improvement  of  the  growth  of  Flax  in  Ireland, 
and  during  an  existence  of  eighteen  years,  it  having  been  dis- 
solved in  1859,  it  did  good  service  in  the  cause  for  which  it  was 
started.  The  Queen  and  Prince  Albert  were  patrons  of  this 
Society,  and  the  Lord  Lieutenant  vice-patron.  Government 
granted  £1000  a  year  to  assist  in  defraying  the  expenses,  and 
local  donations,  and  noble  patronage  and  support,  were  accorded 
to  it ;  but,  notwithstanding  these  advantages,  it  came  to  an  end, 
and  the  void  created  by  its  dissolution  has  not  yet  been  filled  up. 

In  1 849  the  Queen  and  Prince  Albert  visited  Belfast,  and  in- 
spected, in  the  Linen  Hall  there,  a  well-arranged  collection  of 
samples  of  Flax  seed,  green  Flax  straw,  scutched  Flax,  heckled 
or  dressed  Flax,  yarn  and  sewing  threads,  brown  and  bleached 
Linens  assorted  in  every  variety,  damasks,  lawns,  handkerchiefs, 
cambrics,  &c.  The  royal  personages  expressed  much  gratifica- 
tion at  the  exhibition,  and  Her  Majesty  carried  away  in  her 
hand  several  stems  of  Flax  as  a  memento  of  their  visit. 

In  1835  the  exports  of  Linen  from  Belfast  amounted   to 


406  MODERN  LINEN. 

53,881,000  yards,  of  the  value  of  £2,694,000.  According  to 
official  returns  there  were  in  Ireland  in  1838  forty  Flax  mills, 
employing  in  all  9,017  hands.  In  1841  there  were  in  the  town 
and  immediate  vicinity  of  Belfast  twenty-five  steam  mills  for 
spinning  Linen  yarn,  one  of  which  employed  800  hands. 

In  1853  there  were  eighty  Flax  spinning  mills  in  Ireland, 
containing  more  than  500,000  spindles,  producing  fully  9,000,000 
bundles  of  yarn  per  annum,  worth  about  £2,250,000  sterling. 

As  appears  by  the  parliamentary  return,  given  hereafter,  there 
were  in  the  beginning  of  1862,  seventy-nine  spinning  mills  in 
Ireland  on  Flax,  and  two  on  Jute,  containing  together  594,805 
spindles.  Since  that  period  a  considerable  increase  has  been 
made  to  this  number,  and  according  to  the  "  Review  of  the  Irish 
Linen  trade  for  1862,"  in  the  supplement  to  the  Linen  Trade 
Circular,  dated  12th  January  1863,  the  number  then  employed 
was  estimated  at  about  600,000.  In  addition  to  these  there 
might,  from  various  causes,  have  been  about  50,000  spindles  in 
Ireland  not  then  in  operation. 

In  the  "  Review  of  the  Trade  for  1863,"  in  Circular  of  llth 
January  1864,  it  is  said  there  had  been  no  addition  to  the  spin- 
ning mills  in  that  year,  but  a  considerable  increase  had  taken 
place  in  the  spindles  employed,  which  were  then  estimated  at 
650,000,  but  the  exact  number  had  not  been  correctly  ascertained. 

Before  the  introduction  of  spinning  by  power,  the  yarn  re- 
quired was  all  spun  by  hand,  by  females  scattered  throughout 
the  country.  This  gave  employment  to  a  great  number  of 
industrious  people,  and  the  want  of  such  labour  was  long  severely 
felt.  The  concentration  of  labour  in  mills  and  factories  has 
drawn  many  people  from  the  country  districts  to  the  towns, 
where  the  females  and  young  persons  find  ready  employment  at 
such  works.  How  far  this  change  in  the  mode  of  employment 
is  to  the  advantage  or  disadvantage  of  the  physical  frame  of  the 
workers,  or  to  their  moral  well-being,  is  not  a  subject  coming 
within  the  scope  of  this  work.  The  progress  of  trade,  and  the 
requirements  of  the  world  have  led  to  these  changes,  but  it  is 
without  doubt  the  duty  of  every  mill-spinner  and  manufacturer 
to  use  every  endeavour  to  make  their  works  as  little  as  possible 
hurtful  to  health,  and  to  attend  strictly  to  the  moral  training  of 
the  young  under  their  charge. 


Until  the  estuMi.-hment  of  spinning  mills,  the  weaving  of 
Linens  was  all,  or  nearly  all,  performed  in  the  houses  of  tl 
weavers.  As  already  mentioned,  the  yarn  was  oit<  n  H pun  by  the 
one  part  of  the  family,  from  Flax  grown  1>\  themselves,  or 
bought  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  weaved  by  the  others  ;  and  1 1n' 
(l»th  was  taken  to  the  brown  Linen  markets  for  sale.  After 
Flax  spinning  mills  were  once  establish  <1,  the  yarn  to  be  manu- 
factured was  provided  by  mercliants,  weaved  in  the  houses  of  the 
weavers,  or  in  factories  erected  for  the  purpose,  and  the  cloth 
then  talun  t<>  the  merchant,  who  paid  for  the  weaving  of  it. 
Th«-  introduction  of  power-looms  into  Ireland  for  weaving 
Linen  is  making  great  changes  on  this  system. 

Tlu'  n  urn  UT  of  power-loom  works  in  Ireland,  and  the  looms 
th.-y  contained  in  1859  and  in  April  1861,  were  given  in  the 
Linen  Trade  Circular,  as  follows  : — 

Power-Looms. 

Year.        Nnraber  of  Works.        Employed.       L'm»mp!>  Total. 

ia%9  28  3,124  509  3,633 

April,  iMii  35  4,609  324  4,933 

In  1862,  by  the  parliamentary  return  referred  to,  nineteen 
spi  nning  mills  had  power-loom  factories  attached  to  them, 
containing  2,491  looms,  and  there  were  fifteen  distinct  power- 
loom  works,  with  2,175  looms,  making  together  4,666  looms- 
Si  nee  the  date  of  that  return  a  large  increase  has  been  made 
i"  the  number  of  power -looms,  as  it  is  stated  in  the  supple- 
ment to  the  Linen  Trade  Circular,  12th  January  1863,  that 
the  total  number  of  power  looms  employed  in  Ireland,  in  the 
weaving  of  Linen,  in  the  end  of  1862,  was  estimated  at  6,000. 
This  shows  that  great  progress  has  of  late  been  making  in  this 
branch  of  the  trade,  and  there  can  be  no  donbt  that  the  produc- 
tion of  Linen  in  Ireland  will,  with  a  sufficient  supply  oi  the  raw 
material,  go  on  extending  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  consumption. 

The  spinning-frame  and  the  power -loom  have  greatly  cheap- 
ened the  cost  of  the  common  and  medium  qualities  of  Linen, 
and  placed  them  within  the  reach  of  nearly  all  classes  in  every 
country.  This  has  wonderfully  increased  the  demand  for  these 
goods,  because  the  lower  the  price  at  which  such  an  article  as 
Linen  can  be  sold,  the  more  of  it  will  be  used.  Without  the 
spinning  mill  and  the  power-loom  factory,  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  produce  in  Ireland  the  quantity  of  yarn  and  cloth  now 


408  MODERN  LINEN. 

made  there,  because  to  spin  the  yarn  alone  would  require  about 
1,400,000,  women  expressly  devoted  to  the  task  all  day  and 
every  day  throughout  the  year.  Improvements  in  weaving  by 
power,  as  well  as  in  spinning,  have  been  going  on  since  the 
introduction  of  power-looms  and  some  of  these  by  easing  the  ten- 
sion on  the  yarn,  and  by  lessening  the  cost  of  production,  are  of 
first-class  importance, 

In  "  Beeton's  Dictionary"  it  is  said  that  the  exports  of  Linen 
from  all  Ireland  in  1857  were  supposed  to  amount  to  106,000,000 
yards,  valued  at  £4,400,000  sterling. 

The  yarn  spun  in  Ireland  consists  both  of  Flax  and  tow  quali- 
ties, partly  dry  spun,  and  partly  wet  spun,  and  the  bulk  of  it  is 
of  the  higher  or  lighter  numbers,  of  fine  quality,  and  suitable  for 
the  description  of  Linens  manufactured  there. 

Some  coarse  or  heavy  yarns,  chiefly  made  of  scutching  tow, 
are  also  spun,  but  the  quantity  is  comparatively  small.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  yarn  spun  is  exported  to  other  coun- 
tries, but  the  greater  part  of  it  is  woven  into  cloth  in  Ireland. 
The  finest  spun  for  commercial  purposes,  is  about  340  leas,  of 
300  yards  each,  to  1  Ib.  weight.  It  has  been  spun,  and  some- 
times is  spun,  much  finer,  the  very  finest  numbers  being  yet  spun 
by  hand.  In  the  Exhibition  of  1851,  specimens  of  760  lea 
yarn  were  shown,  one  pound  weight  of  which  would  measure 
about  228,000  yards,  or  nearly  130  miles !  The  yarn  is  made 
up  in  bundles  of  4£  spindles,  or  60,000  yards.  120  threads 
on  the  reel  of  ninety  inches,  or  300  yards,  form  a  cut  or  lea ; 
twelve  cuts  are  a  hank  or  hesp ;  and  1673  hanks  form  a  bundle. 
Thase  bundles  are  tied  up  in  bunches  of  three,  six,  nine,  or 
twelve  bundles,  according  to  the  fineness  of  the  yarn. 

The  Linens  produced  are  of  very  various  degrees  of  fineness, 
quality,  width,  and  description.  It  is  only  the  lower  qualities,  say 
from  8°°to]600,  or  from  40  to  80  porter,  which  are  yet  pro- 
fitably produced  in  power-looms.  Of  course  coarser  fabrics  than 
8°°  can  be  advantageously  made  in  power-looms,  but  there  are 
few  of  a  lower  class  than  this  number  made  in  Ireland.  Fine 
goods,  from  18  °°  and  upwards,  are  still  made  by  hand,  as  they 
cannot  yet  be  so  beautifully  or  cheaply  made  by  power  ;  but,  as 
improvements  in  spinning  and  weaving  progress,  finer  sets  will, 
no  doubt,  be  profitably  made  in  the  power-loom. 


II  LINEN.  -10'.) 

For  brown  goods,  or  for  light  fabrics,  the  yarn  is  sent  direct 
from  the  mill  to  the  factory,  but  for  heavy  and  superior  bleached 
goods,  the  yarn  is  boiled  before  being  weaved.  The  cloth  to  be 
bleached  is  taken  from  the  loom  to  the  bleach-green,  where  it  is 
l."il.-.l  in  lur^e  iron  vessels,  with  the  tops  securely  fastened  to  re- 
tain the  steam,  and  thus  prevent  loss  of  heat,  air,  and  reduction 
in  the  amount  of  liquid,  which,  with  open  vessels,  would  occur. 
The  liquid  used  is  alkaline  lye,  generally  prepared  from  soda 
ash.  The  cloth  is  then  washed,  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere  on  the  grass  for  two  or  three  days.  These  processes 
are  repeated  until  the  goods  are  half  white.  To  remove  the 
straw  of  the  Flax  they  are  then  put  into  a  bath  of  water,  having 
in  solution  chloride  of  lime,  or  soda,  or  potash  (soda  being  now 
considered  safest  and  generally  used),  and  soured  in  sulphuric 
acid,  reduced  to  2  or  3  of  Twaddel's  alkalimetre,  either  before  or 
after  the  chloride.  Rubbing  with  plenty  of  soap  is  an  excellent 
part  of  the  bleaching  process,  and  contributes  to  increase,  rather 
than  diminish  the  strength  of  the  fibre.  When  the  Linen  is 
quite  white  it  is  starched,  dried  on  rollers  heated  by  steam,  and 
finished  on  the  beetles,  the  whole  time  occupied  in  bleaching 
being  from  four  to  seven  weeks,  according  to  the  season,  and 
weight  of  the  cloth. 

Great  care  has  to  be  taken  not  to  damage  the  goods  during 
the  frequent  boilings  and  washing  in  chloride,  &c.  Lime  is  now 
generally  used  in  bleaching  processes,  and  is  a  valuable  auxili- 
ary ;  but  in  1815,  when  it  was  first  used  at  the  bleach-greens, 
attempts  were  made  to  stop  it  by  enforcing  an  old  law  which 
had  been  passed  in  former  times  to  prevent  its  use.  The  Trus- 
tees of  the  Linen  Board  took  a  reasonable  view  of  the  subject, 
and  informed  those  who  wanted  the  act  put  in  force,  that  they 
thought  to  do  so  would  be  to  act  injuriously  to  the  trade;  and 
they  recommended  that  Parliament  should  rather  be  petitioned 
to  amend  or  repeal  the  act.  In  or  about  1816,  the  use  of  soap 
in  bleaching  was  first  adopted.  This  was  a  valuable  improve- 
ment, because  after  the  severe  caustic  preparations  the  Linen 
has  to  pass  through  in  bleaching,  soap  restores  the  essential  oil 
extracted  by  the  alkalies  and  acids,  and  helps  to  keep  the  fibre 
in  a  mellow  and  heathly  state. 

Fifty  years  ago  2000  to  3000  pieces  of  Linen  was  a  trade  for 


410  MODERN  LINEN. 

one  bleachfield  or  green  for  a  year ;  it  woulrl  not  keep  a  large 
work  going  for  a  week  now.  Not  long  ago  the  bleaching  of  a 
piece  of  light  yard  wide  Linen  would  have  cost  the  merchant 
about  3d  a  yard ;  now,  in  consequence  of  the  introduction  of  soda 
ash,  and  centralizing  the  business  in  large  concerns,  it  only  costs 
about  l^d,  per  yard.  Ireland  possesses  the  best  climate  in  the 
world  for  Linen  bleaching,  and  it  is  this  gift  of  nature  which 
has  given  her  so  high  a  position  in  this  branch  of  commercial 
industry.  Lately  those  having  the  charge  of  bleachfields  have 
made  great  progress  in  chemical  knowledge,  and  the  operations, 
before  irregular,  are  now  conducted  with  far  more  certainty. 

A  large  quantity  of  the  low  priced  Linens  made  are  exported 
in  the  brown  state.  Some  are  slightly  tinged  yellow,  others  are 
dyed  a  slate  colour,  but  the  greater  proportion  are  bleached. 
Some  of  the  bleached  goods  are  printed  for  dresses,  handker- 
chiefs, &c.  ;  and  very  beautiful  productions  they  are. 

According  to  the  report  of  Mr  Tremenheere,  who  was  sent  as 
a  commissioner  by  Government  to  make  inquiry  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  placing  bleach-works  under  the  Factory  Act,  the  num- 
ber of  people  employed  at  bleach-greens  in  Ireland  was  1100 
females,  271  boys,  and  2812  adult  males,  total  4183.  Assum- 
ing that  each  adult  male  represents  about  1000  pieces  of  cloth 
bleached  annually,  it  would  give  2f  million  pieces  bleached  each 
year,  worth  about  £4,000,000. 

After  Linens  are  bleached  they  are  kept  in  cool  store  rooms 
until  required.  They  are  afterwards  lapped  in  special  lengths 
and  styles,  to  suit  the  markets  they  are  intended  for,  almost  every 
country  having  a  fold  peculiar  to  itself,  which  alone  will  sell 
there.  They  are  then  ornamented  with  fancy  ribbons  and  papers, 
and  sometimes,  especially  for  export,  with  handsome  prints. 
Cambric  handkerchiefs  and  other  high  class  goods  are  often  put 
into  elaborately  made  boxes,  having  a  most  attractive  appear- 
ance when  displayed  to  advantage  in  shop  windows,  &c.  Pro- 
bably this  will  often  tempt  people  to  purchase,  whether  they 
really  require  the  goods  or  not. 

Great  taste  was  displayed  in  the  getting  up  of  many  of  the 
Irish  Linens  shown  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1862,  and,  so 
profuse  was  the  paper  display  in  some  instances,  that  very  little 
of  the  cloth  was  to  be  seen  at  all.  No  doubt  experience  proves 


411 


that  such  gaudy  ornaments  help  to  sell  the  goods,  or  they  would 
n.»t  U  BO  <1<  eorated,  but  the  money  so  laid  out  adds  nothing  to 
the  intrinsic  value  of  the  cloth. 

Although  great  encouragement  has  for  many  years  been  given 
to  the  cultivation  of  Flax  in  In  lan-l,  its  extension  has  not  been 
at  all  in  keeping  with  the  patronage  it  has  received.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  number  of  acres  grown  yearly  from  1812 
to  1825,  with  the  hogsheads  of  Flax  seed  sown.  From  1826  to 
1846  no  records  of  the  land  under  Flax  crop  were  kept ;  hut 
from  that  year  to  the  present  period,  a  careful  account  has  been 
made  up  yearly,  and  the  acreage  sown  is  now  given :— 


Yeam. 

"TEST 

English  Acres 
Sown. 

Ye:irs. 

BMrikM* 

Sown 

English  Acres 
Sown. 

41,765 

118,390 

1819 

44,4.:l 

125,950 

84,885 

1820 

52,416 

148,584 

1814 

100,272 

1821 

45,163 

130.858 

1816 

148,124 

1822 

49,658 

140.760 

.:.40 

151,770 

1823 

»       54,636 

154,877 

3-.',  873 

93,184 

1824 

64,172 

181,909 

1818 

47,607 

134,951 

1828 

49,181 

139,412 

MM 

English  Acns 

(MMK 

English  Acres 
Sown. 

r«oi 

English  Acres 
Sown. 

1847 

58,000 

1853 

174,579 

1859 

136,282 

IMS 

53,863 

L854 

1.M.403 

1860 

128,595 

1849 

60,304 

1856 

L861 

147,957 

mo 

"1.040 

1896 

,11 

150,070 

is.-,  i 

140,536 

m 

1863 

III 

1889 

008 

1858 

91,646 

The  statute  acres  under  Flax  in  the  several  provinces  in  Ire- 
land in  1860  and  1861,  were  as  follows  :— 


I860 
1801 


Ulster. 
123,424 
L4JL906 


Lelnstor. 


'1,134 


Tot.il. 


2,216 
2,068 


The  following  is  the   extent  of  land  under  Flax,  in  statute 
acres,  in  the  provinces  and  counties  of  Ireland,  in  1862  and 

18()3,  with  the  total  am'aire  in  oa«-h  eonnly  ami  province:— 


412 


MODERN  LINEN. 


MUNSTER. 

CONN  AUGHT. 

Clare,  . 

1862 

Acres,  441 

Galway,    .        1862        Acres,      138 

827,994  acres, 

1863 

»      586 

1,566,354  acres,  1863           „          299 

Cork,  . 

1862 

„      291 

Leitrim,      .         1862 

529 

1,849,683  acres, 

1863 

„      663 

392,363  acres,     1863 

888 

Kerry, 

1862 

r,      259 

Mayo,         .        1862           „           455 

1.185,917  acres, 

1863 

„      380 

1,363,  882  acres,  1863 

695 

Limerick,    . 

1862 

73 

Roscommon,      1862           , 

371 

681,112  acres, 

1863 

„      188 

607,691  acres,    1863 

327 

Tipperary,  . 

1862 

.,      197 

Sligo,         .        1862           „           191 

1,061,731  acres, 

1863 

„      327 

461,753  acres,     1863 

256 

"Waterfoid 

1862 

13 

461,553  acres, 

1863 

,,                 A«J 

38 

TtL  Connaught  1862                    1,486 

4,392,043  acres,  1863           „        2,465 

Total  Munster, 

1862 

,,   1,274 

, 

6,067,990  acres, 

1863 

,,  2,182 

Increase,            1863 

„  979 

ID  crease, 

1863 

„      908 

LEINSTER. 

ULSTER. 

Carlow, 

1862 

Acres,      3 

Antrim,    .        1862        Acres,  13,020 

221,342  acres, 

1863 

ii        12 

761,803  acres,  1863           „      21,548 

Dublin, 

1862 

1 

Armagh,    .        1862           „      16,204 

226,414  acres, 

1863 

1 

328,076  acres,     1863 

,      24,066 

Kildare, 

1862 

1 

Cavan,        .        1862 

6,150 

418,436  acres, 

1863 

„          6 

477,360  acres,    1863 

,      10,279 

Kilkenny,    . 

1862 

19 

Donegal,    .        1862 

,      19,489 

509,732  acres, 

1863 

,,        51 

1,193,443  acres,  1863 

,      24,095 

Kings, 

1862 

„      162 

DO\VH,       .        1862 

,       30,532 

493,985  acres, 

1863 

,,      337 

612,495  acres,    1863 

,      44.859 

Longford,    . 

1862 

„      192 

Fermanagh,       1862 

2,273 

269,409  acres, 

1863 

„      406 

457,287  acres,    1863 

,        4,479 

Louth, 

1862 

„      181 

Londonderry,    1862 

,      19,698 

201,722  acres, 

1863 

„      704 

522,350  acres,    1863 

,      25,868 

Meath, 

1862 

ii      139 

Monaghan,         1862 

,      14,289 

580,083  acres, 

1863 

„      324 

319,757  acres,    1863 

,      20,051 

Queens, 

1862 

,.        37 

Tyrone,      .        1862 

,      24,834 

424,854  acres, 

1863 

„        63 

806,296  acres,    1863 

,      32,001 

Westmeath, 

1862 

68 



453,468  acres, 

1863 

.,      158 

Total  Ulster,    1862           „     146,489 

Wexford,     . 

1862 

„        18 

5,478,867  acres  1863 

„    207,246 

576,588  acres, 

1863 

„        33 



Wicklow,    . 

1862 

M 

Increase,           1863 

,      60,757 

500,178  acres, 

1863 

4 



Total  Ireland,    1862           „     150,070 

Total  Leinster, 

1862 

„      821 

20,815,111  acres  1863 

„    213,992 

4,876,211  acres 

1863 

„    2099 

Increase,            1863 

„      63,922 

Increase, 


1863 


1278 


This  table  is  taken  from  the  abstract  of  agricultural  statis- 
tics, Ireland  ;  kindly  furnished  by  William  Donnelly,  Registrar 
General. 


IRISH  U  413 

In  the  Review  of  the  Linen  Trade  for  1863,  it  is  estimated 
that  the  Flax  crop  of  that  year  will  bring  in  to  the  growers  th- 
very  l.i u(  sum  of  £4,500,000,  l»y  tin-  time  the  season  terminates. 
Tlio  benefit  of  such  a  prodigious  sum,  expended  in  the  coun- 
ti\  tor  tin's  \a I uable  plant  in  one  year,  cannot  be  estimated. 
Il"pes  are  entertained,  and  on  good  grounds,  that  an  area  of 
300,000  acres  will,  happily,  be  found  to  be  devoted  to  Flax  in 
1  it  hind  in  1864.  Were  proprietors  and  tenants  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  Ireland,  to  enter  heartily  into  Flax  culti- 
vation, this  acreage  would  very  soon  be  doubled.  The  produce 
would  raise  the  degraded  peasantry  in  the  south  and  west  from 
their  present  state  of  abject  dependence,  and  give  them  more 
substantial  food  than  potatoes  morning,  noon,  and  night ;  more 
commodious  dwellings  than  a  pig-stye ;  and  more  comfortable 
ch  >thinu'  than  the  rags  which  are  there  to  be  seen  in  all  directions. 

The  produce  per  acre  varies  with  the  season,  the  quality  of  the 
soil,  and  the  cultivation,  but  the  average  crop  will  be  close  upon 
5  cwt.  of  clean  Flax,  ready  for  heckling,  per  acre.  The  price  of 
Flax  varies  with  the  supply  and  demand,  but  the  Irish  farmer 
has  less  competition  with  Flax  than  with  any  other  crop  he  can 
raise,  and  in  a  series  of  years  it  will  pay  him  very  much  better 
than  grain,  grass,  or  green  crop ;  it  is  therefore  well  worthy  the 
attention  of  every  farmer  in  Ireland. 

The  following  official  account  of  the  crop  of  Flax  in  Ireland 
in  1820  and  1821  is  reported  in  the  Dundee  Advertiser,  19th 
October,  1821 :  - 

Ilh'ls.  Producing  in  Too*. 

The  quantity  of  Flax  seed  sown  in  1820  was     .        52,416  52,410 

Do.  1821    „      .        45,163  32,973 

Tom  deficient  in  1821,  19.443 

The  paragraph  uroes  on  to  say  that  the  average  of  crop  1820 
was  140  stones  of  Flax  to  the  hogshead  of  seed,  and  in  1821  not 
more  than  100,  so  that  the  quality  of  crop  1821  was  either  much 
shorter  or  finer  than  the  previous  year's.  It  appears  from  this 
statement  that  nearly  three  times  the  amount  of  the  average  im- 
portation of  Flax  from  the  Baltic  (20,000  tons),  is  annually 
raised  in  Ireland,  and,  it  is  added,  "  were  that  fine  country 
governed  as  it  ought  to  be,  we  should  have  no  occasion  to  im- 
port a  single  ton  from  the  magnanimous  Alexander." 


414 


MODERN  LINEN. 


The  Flax  is  sometimes  sold  in  the  straw,  but  generally  the  far- 
mers have  it  scutched  on  their  own  account,  as  they  think,  and  per- 
haps truly,  that  they  make  more  money  out  of  it  when  they  take 
the  Flax  to  market  themselves.  There  are  numerous  scutch- 
mills  scattered  over  the  Flax- growing  districts  of  Ireland,  956 
being  in  operation  in  1853,  mostly  driven  by  water-power.  To 
these  the  straw  is  taken,  and  the  Flax,  after  being  scutched,  is 
ready  for  market.  There  are  a  number  of  market  towns  for  the 
sale  of  Flax  in  Ulster,  and  to  the  nearest  of  these  the  farmer 
generally  takes  his  Flax  for  sale.  At  these  markets  buyers  at- 
tend, examine  the  various  parcels  on  sale,  and  make  their  pur- 
chases. Sometimes  the  Flax  is  bought  by  local  parties  who 
have  commissions  from  the  spinners  in  Belfast  and  elsewhere, 
and  sometimes  the  spinners  send  their  own  inspectors  direct 
from  their  works  to  buy  for  them.  The  purchases  are  generally 
paid  for  in  cash  as  soon  as  the  weight  is  ascertained,  and  delivery 
made,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  money  changes  hands  at 
some  of  these  towns  on  market  days. 

The  following  reports  of  the  country  Flax  markets,  are  taken 
from  the  Belfast  Trade  Circular : — 


FLAX  MARKETS  AS  REPORTED,  WITH  ESTIMATED  QUANTITIES  AND  PRICES, 
22o  LEG.,  1862. 


MlIX-SCCTCHED. 

HA.ND-SCUTCHBD. 

Total. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Armagh,        pr.  st.  of  1  6£  Ib. 
Monaghan,             do. 

50 

8s    9d  to  13s    6d 

10 
25 

7s    3d  to    9s    Od 
7s    6d  to    9s    Od 

60 
25 

Ballybay,                do. 

10 

9s  '  Od  to  11s    Od 

90 

7s    Odto  9s    3d 

10-) 

Tandragee,             do. 

30 

9s    Od  to  12s    Od 



30 

Dungannon,           do. 

— 



Cootehill.              do. 

5 

8s    9d  to  11s    Od 

60 

Prices  not  quoted. 

65 

Newry,                   do. 





_ 

_                



Rathfriland,           do. 

53 

6*    Odtolls    6d 





53 

Magherafelt,         do. 

— 

— 

_                

Maghera,               do. 

— 

—                 — 

— 

—                — 

— 

Kiirea.                   do. 

_ 

_                  — 

— 

__                



Cookstown,            do. 

70 

7s    6dtol2s    6d 

20 

5s    9dto    9s    3d 

90 

Omagh,                  do. 



—                                  

— 

.                    __ 



Belfast,                  do 

13 

8s    Od  to  12s    od 





13 

Ballynahinch,        do. 
Newtonards,         do. 

6 

9s    Od  to  14S    Od 

- 

—                — 

6 

Ballymena,             do. 

10 

7s    4dto    9s    6d 

— 



10 

Ballymoney,     pr.  cwt.  of 

124  Ibs. 

42 

65s    Odto97s    Od 

_ 



42 

Derry&  Strabane,  do. 

136 

52s    6dto90s    Od 

— 

—                

135 

Coleraine,                do. 

23 

578    6dto95s    Od 

— 

—                 — 

23 

447 

205 

652 

&>.,  lid 


HUSH  i  . 
,  18«3:— 


Mlu..Scorcan>. 

..«_„ 

Tout 

Tons. 

To**. 

TOM. 

Annngh,       pr.»t.ff  u  n«. 

60 

8s    Sdtolls    0d 

20 

0s    0dto  8s    Od 

70 

«nonRi(M2in,            do. 

— 

26 

0s   0o  to  8s    Od 

26 

ll:il  \lu\  .                   do. 

80 

7s    Odto  10s    Od 

100 

64    0dto  8s    Oa 

180 

•11.               do. 

90 
M 
60 

8s   Od  tolls    0d 

8s   0dto  Os    Od 
8s    44  tolls    Od 

M 
80 

0«    0dto   8s    8d 
0s    Cdto   8s    4d 

M 
00 
80 

(1C  ay.            ,!.»'. 
Banbridce,            do. 
ilo. 
Newry,                   .1,-. 
Majclivrafrlt.         do. 

45 
00 

00 

7s~~0d  to  lfs~3d 
7s    Odto  10s    Od 
7s    9dto   9s   9d 

60 
60 

0s    0dto  8s   od 
0s    0dto  8s    8d 

to 

60 
45 
00 
00 

do. 

ilstown.        el... 

15 
26 

7s    (klto   9s~0d 
7s    Odto   9s    Od 

66 

6«    Odto  8s    Cd 

70 
26 

Cookntown,           <l... 

ISO 

7s    Odtolls~2d 

86 

fi»    Odto  8s    Od 

106 

Oii';i^!i.                         (!••. 

26 

6s    9d  to    9s    6d 

20 

6s    9dto   7s   0d 

45 

i                                              do. 

BaalskiM'-n.         do. 

l.owthiTstnwn.       .1... 
Deny     ami     stmbanne. 

45 

40 
20 

7s    9dtolOs    3d 
7s    Odto   8s    0d 
7s   Odto  9s   Od 

60 
60 

6s    Odto   7*    8d 
6s    Cdto   7s    Od 

45 

40 
70 
50 

pr  cwt.of  i 
Kallymoney,        ilo. 
Coleraine.           do. 
Newtowulimavaily,  do. 

110 
60 

u 

57s    Odto  75s    Od 
86s    QdtPtti    -'..I 

63s    6dto90s    Od 
62s    Odto  90s    Od 

- 



110 
60 
60 
20 

9?5 

635 

1,470 

The  Flax  brought  into  the  Irish  markets  is  generally  of  a 
l>right  greenish  colour,  called  "  silvery  clay,"  but  some  of  it  is 
n.  ;trly  as  white  as  the  Courtrai  Flax.  The  Flax  varies  very 
much  and  some  of  it  brings  a  correspondingly  high  price. 
but  all  qualities  find  ready  buyers,  because  the  demand 
generally  exceeds  the  supply.  Unless  the  cultivation  of  Flax 
be  yet  very  much  increased,  it  is  probable  that  the  demand 
will  continue  greater  than  the  supply,  as  the  extension  of  machi- 
IK  i  v,  and  consequent  consumption  of  Flax,  is  increasing  rapidly 
in  Ireland  every  year. 

Hitherto  the  cultivation  of  Flax  in  Ireland  has  been  almost 
entirely  confined  to  the  province  of  Ulster,  but  there  is  no  good 
reason  why  it  should  be  so.  Much  of  the  soil  of  Ireland  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  plant,  and  it  might  be 
cultivated  over  a  great  extent  of  the  country,  much  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  growers.  The  Linen  trade  in  Inland  has  pro- 
gressed very  rapidly  of  late  years,  but  it  might  have  extended 
still  faster  had  the  supply  of  the  raw  material  been  more 


416  MODERN  LINEN. 

abundant.  It  is  therefore  a  point  of  the  first  importance  to 
those  engaged  in  the  trade  to  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  Flax,  and 
no  Flax  is  better  adapted  for  the  productions  of  Ulster  than  what 
is  grown  in  Ireland.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  spinners  and  merchants 
of  Belfast  to  give  the  farmers  every  encouragement  and  assistance 
in  their  power,  to  foster  the  cultivation  of  Flax  throughout  the 
country.  The  ready  market  which  is  found  for  the  sale  of  Flax 
in  Ireland,  and  the  high  price  which  it  brings,  offer  great  en- 
couragement to  its  growth.  The  great  hindrance  to  its  more 
extensive  cultivation  is  the  ignorance  and  prejudice  of  the  far- 
mers. These  are  not  insuperable  difficulties,  and  those  engaged 
in  the  Linen  trade  ought  to  take  instant  and  determined  action 
to  instruct  the  farmers,  and  to  undermine  and  root  out  their 
prejudices.  The  result  would  prove  beneficial  alike  to  grower 
and  consumer,  and  tend  greatly  to  extend  this  most  important 
trade  in  Ireland. 

In  the  Keview  of  the  Irish  Linen  Trade  for  1862.  in  the 
Trade  Circular,  it  is  stated  that  the  difficulty  which  has 
hitherto  existed  in  scutching  Flax  by  an  inexpensive  pro- 
cess, is  one  of  the  retarding  circumstances  to  progress  in 
the  cultivation  of  Flax  in  that  country.  Surely  the  in- 
telligence, the  skill,  and  the  wealth  of  Ireland  will  speedily 
overcome  this  difficulty,  and  produce  a  low  priced,  portable, 
scutching  machine,  that  will  do  the  work  cheaply,  yet  efficiently. 
The  object  is  a  worthy  one,  and  it  is  possible  to  accomplish  it, 
for  what  will  genius  not  do  in  this  enlightened  age  ?  Perhaps 
a  reward  that  would  command  the  attention,  and  be  worth  the 
ambition  of  the  highest  talent,  might  call  forth  the  needed 
machine. 

Great  efforts  have  of  late  been  made,  both  in  the  south  and 
west  of  Ireland,  to  make  the  small  farmers  acquainted  with  the 
profitable  nature  of  the  Flax  crop.  These  endeavours  have  in 
some  quarters,  met  with  much  less  encouragement  than  the  im- 
portance of  the  movement  deserved,  and  it  is  astonishing  to  find 
that  some  parties,  of  whom  better  things  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, have  actually  opposed  so  beneficial  a  measure.  Such 
opposition  can  only  arise  from  ignorance  or  prejudice,  and  it  says 
little  for  the  intelligence  of  those  from  whom  it  proceeds.  Not- 
withstanding the  luke  warmness  of  some  who  profess  to  be 


417 

i rit  mis,  and  the  hostility  of  open  enemies,  it  is  gratifying  to 
think  that,  in  1803,  there  was  a  material  increase  in  the  quantity 
of  land  sown  with  Flax  seed,  when  compared  with  the  extmt 
of  tin-  crop  in  previous  years.  The  enlightened  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  who  have  been  aiding  in  this  good  work  deserve  high 
mendation,  as  they  are  not  only  benefiting  their  tenants  and 
dependents,  but  also  adding  to  the  industrial  prosperity  of  Ire- 
Ian.  1.  and  conferring  a  boon  on  the  United  Kingdom. 

In  the  prospect  of  an  increased  cultivation  of  Flax  last  sea- 
son the  importers  of  seed  provided  a  plentiful  supply  of  various 
qualities.  The  total  quantity  of  Flax  seed  imported  into  Ire- 
Ian.  1  f.  .1  sowing  purposes  for  1863  was  as  follows :— Riga,  91 ,393 
barrels;  Dutch,  20,000  hogsheads;  American  via  Liverpool,  5000 
hogsheads.  Home  grown  and  English  sowing  seed,  10,000  bags. 
This  quantity  was  sufficient  for  double  the  number  of  acres  that 
were  under  Flax  cultivation  in  18G2.  The  quantity  imported 
into  Belfast  in  1862  and  1863  is  given  hereafter.  Should  the 
quantity  for  1864  be  deficient,  it  will  no  doubt  be  supplemented 
by  the  time  it  is  required. 

The  year  1863  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  Linen  Trade 
in  the  three  kingdoms,  and  Ireland  has  reaped  its  full  share  of 
tin-  increase.  The  cause  is  no  doubt  exceptional,  but  the  hold 
which  has  been  gained  will  not  be  soon  lost,  if  an  abundant 
supply  of  Flax  can  be  provided  at  a  moderate  cost.  It  is  there- 
fore of  the  greatest  importance  to  have  a  sufficient  stock  of  raw 
material,  and  neither  trouble  nor  expense  should  be  spared  to 
procure  it. 

The  prosperity  of  the  Linen  Trade  in  Ireland  in  1863  has 
had  a  centralizing  effect  Many  of  the  most  eminent  houses 
have  found  it  for  their  interest  to  open  sale  rooms  in  Belfast,  at 
same  time  conducting  their  operations  as  formerly  in  the  locali- 
ties where  their  manufactories  and  bleach  works  are  situated. 
The  Linen  Circular,  in  its  review  of  the  trade  for  that  year,  says, 
"  Belfast  may  emphatically  be  said  to  have  become  the  metro- 
polis of  the  Linen  Trade."  This  is  no  doubt  true  in  as  far  as 
regards  the  Linen  Trade  of  Ireland,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  Leeds 
and  Dundee  would  accord  their  assent  to  its  being  the  metro- 
polis of  the  Linen  Trade  of  the  Kingdom. 

The  value  of  the  Irish  Lin»Ti  manufacture  has  been  estimated 
D  D 


418 


MODERN  LINEN. 


at  £10,000,000  annually,  and,  for  1863,  this  may  not  be  far  from 
the  truth,  but  it  cannot  have  come  up  to  nearly  that  amount 
in  former  years.  There  is  no  data,  however,  from  which  a  correct 
account  of  the  value  can  be  made  up,  and  imaginary  estimates  are 
sometimes  wide  of  the  truth.  It  is  supposed  that  about  one-half 
the  value  of  the  production  is  exported,  and  the  other  half 
retained  in  the  United  Kingdom  for  home  consumption. 

To  Dr  Hodges,  Professor  of  Agriculture,  Queen's  College, 
Belfast,  and  Chemist  to  the  Chemico- Agricultural  Society  of 
Ulster,  the  trade  are  greatly  indebted  for  the  zeal  and  assiduity 
with  which  he  has  laboured  to  enlighten  farmers  and  others  on 
the  nature  and  properties  of  the  Flax  plant,  and  the  soil  best 
adapted  for  its  culture.  The  Society  who  have  brought  his 
talents  and  intelligence  to  bear  on  this  important  subject  deserve 
well  of  their  country,  and  so  do  all  who  have  been  aiding  in  the 
encouragement  of  so  noble  a  cause. 

The  following  figures  show  the  progress  of  the  Flax  manufac- 
ture in  the  several  counties  where  it  exists  in  Ireland,  estimated 
by  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  years  specified,  and 
in  1862  respectively : — 


Antrim, 

18 

39        5,976 

Armagh, 

518 

Down, 

572 

Dublin, 

297 

Kildare, 

205 

Londonderry 

214 

Louth, 

589 

Meath, 

168 

Monaghan, 

129 

Tyrone, 

159 

Donegal, 

18 

50           185 

Clare, 

18 

56           569 

1862   19,026 


9,581 


5,162 
810 
704 
158 

1,348 
177 
258 

1,487 
316 
497 

33,525 


There  were,  in  addition  to  the  above,  two  factories  engaged  in 
the  Jute  manufacture  in  Antrim  in  1862,  with  a  steam  power  of 
150  horses,  having  1824  spindles,  and  employing  338  persons. 
There  are  no  returns  regarding  the  numbers  previously  employed 
in  this  branch  of  trade. 


IKIM!    I.IN1H. 


419 


§   2 


I  II!! 


I 


*    »ft»0« 


i 


III! 


- 


I 


III 


Dd2 


P 


1! 


1! 


f. 


eccf 


11 


^^  e^> 


^-          c^f 

« ' 


S 


1 


^c~ 

It 


i 
i 


*«!, 


13 

]ljjfi 

^fii 
iiidi 


420 


MODERN  LINEN. 


FACTORY  RETURNS  FOR  IRELAND  IN  1857  AND  IN  1862. 


1857. 

1862. 

Flax  Factories, 

110 

100 

Spindles, 

567,980 

592,981 

Power-Looms, 

1,697 

4,666 

Motive  Power- 

Steam,  7,332 

Steam,  10,710 

Water,      52 

Water,    2,384 

, 

7,384 

13,094 

Persons  Employed,    . 

28,753 

33,525 

Decrease,         10 

Increase,  25.001 

Do.,         2,969 


Do.,       5,710 
Do.,    ^  4,772 


Imports  and  exports  of  the  articles  specified,  into  and  from 
Belfast,  for  years  1862  and  1863. 


IMPORTS. 

1862. 

Linen  Yarn,  Lbs.,  6,420,400 
Linens,  .  Yards,  3,721,000 

Tons.     Hhds.        Brls. 
Flax  seed,    319      18,809      50,973 

EXPORTS. 

Linen  Yarn,  Lbs.,  15,685,600 
Thread,  .  „  1,128,960 
Linens,  Yards,  65,086,000 

Tons.      Hhds.       Brls. 
Flax  seed,      155         11         2.006 


1863. 

Lbs.,^5,787,600 
Yards,  4,048,000 
Tons.      Hhds.        Brls. 
265      10,689      33,919 


Lbs.,  20,622,560 

„      1,183,526 

Yards,  78,475,000 

Tons.       Hhds.         Brig. 

620         254         4,681 


Some  of  the  details  given  in  the  chapter  on  Flax  Culture,  and 
also  in  this  chapter,  are  taken  from  the  admirable  work  on 
"  Flax  and  its  Products  in  Ireland,"  with  the  kind  permission 
of  the  author,  William  Charley,  J  P.,  &c.,  Seymour  Hill,  Bel- 
fast, to  whom  I  beg  to  express  my  thanks. 


SCOTCH  LINEN.  1'Jl 


CHAPTER  111 

SCOTCH      LINEN. 

THE  history  of  the  earlier  stages  in  the  existence  of  almost 
every  nation  is  wholly  confined  to  warlike  operations  of  an  offen- 
sive or  defensive  nature.  At  that  period  civilization,  according 
to  modern  ideas,  is  altogether  unknown  and  unthought  of — 
food  and  safety,  no  matter  how  obtained,  being  the  primary  and 
principal  aim  of  all  classes.  Under  such  circumstances  might 
is  right,  and  the  strong  and  powerful,  reckless  even  of  their 
own  lives,  have  little  respect  for  the  feelings  of  others.  In 
these  remote  times  clothing  was  altogether  a  secondary  conside- 
ration, comfort  being  a  thing  unknown,  even  to  chiefs  and  nobles. 
Although  the  people  had  then  been  possessed  of  the  requisite 
knowledge  and  skill  to  spin  and  weave  fibrous  substances,  they 
had  little  opportunity  and  no  inducement  to  do  so,  as  they  were 
wholly  under  the  control  of  their  feudal  lord,  and  their  sub- 
stance was  in  reality  his.  The  all  engrossing  subject  was  war; 
and  war,  either  for  aggrandizement  or  in  defence,  entirely  fills 
tin-  historian's  page. 

The  earliest  manufactures  of  any  country  are  naturally  those 
of  the  first  necessity  to  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants.  Local 
position  and  circumstances  effect  changes  in  these  wants,  many 
ot  the  necessaries  of  an  inland  population  being  different  from 
those  living  on  the  sea  shore,  and  vice  versa.  Ordinary  articles 
of  clothing,  in  all  countries,  excepting  perhaps  those  lying  in 
very  warm  latitudes,  after  food,  rank  prominently  among  the  first 
requirements  of  the  people.  The  cold  and  variable  climate  of 
Scotland  would  call  for  some  covering,  even  to  its  early  inha- 
bitants, hardy  and  inured  to  privations  although  they  un- 
doubtedly were. 

The  ancient  history  of  Scotland  prior  to  the  Roman  period^ 
can  scarcely  be  other  than  apochryphal,  there  being  no  true  re- 


422  MODERN    LINEN. 

cord  of  it  extant.  The  people  were  comparatively  rude  and 
barbarous  when  the  Koman  legions  first  encountered  them,  and 
their  clothing  at  that  time  was  scant.  A  Koman  historian  says 
the  Caledonians  lived  in  a  state  almost  approaching  to  nudity, 
but  whether  this  was  from  necessity  or  choice  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily determined.  Dio  represents  them  as  living  in  tents, 
naked  and  without  buskins ;  but  Herodian  speaks  of  them  as 
wearing  a  partial  covering. 

According  to  Hollinshead,  the  apparel  of  the  ancient  Scots 
was  hosen  of  Linen  or  woollen,  which  never  came  higher  than 
the  knees ;  breeches,  for  the  most  part  of  Hemp,  with  cloak  cf 
wool  in  winter,  but  of  lighter  material,  probably  Linen,  in  sum- 
mer If  this  report  be  true,  the  inhabitants  of  Scotland  had 
been  early  acquainted  with  the  manufacture  of  Linen. 

In  early  times  the  women  in  the  Highlands  went  with  their 
heads  bare  until  marriage,  after  which  they  wore  a  head  dress, 
called  a  curtch  or  mutch,  made  of  Linen,  and  tied  under  the  chin. 
Martin  says  the  head-dress  was  a  fine  kerchief  of  Linen,  straight 
about  the  head. 

At  the  battle  of  Bannockburn,  it  is  related  that  "  the  carters, 
wainmen,  lackeys,  and  women,  put  on  shirts,  smocks,  and  other 
white  Linens,  aloft  upon  their  usual  garments,  and  bound  towels 
and  napkins  to  their  spears,  staves,  &c.  Then  placing  them- 
selves in  battle  array,  and  making  a  great  show,  they  came  down 
the  hill  side  in  face  of  the  enemy,  with  much  noise  and  clamour. 
The  English,  supposing  it  to  be  a  reinforcement  coming  to  the 
Scots,  turned  and  fled." 

It  thus  appears  that  at  an  early  period  Linen  had  been 
extensively  manufactured  in  Scotland,  even  although  the  inha- 
bitants may  not  have  been  acquainted  with  the  art  at  so  remote 
a  date  as  that  to  which  Hollinshead  refers. 

The  following  is  an  inventory  of  the  napery  ordered  to  be 
carried  to  Wyngefield,  near  Sheffield,  for  the  use  of  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots,  on  20th  December  1584,  and  ordered  to  be  trans- 
ported with  her  to  Tutbury  Castle,  in  Staffordshire,  when  she 
was  removed  there  in  January  1586,  viz : — "  60  paire  of  sheetis  ; 
4  dozen  and  4  pillowberes ;  7  table- clothes  of  damaske  ;  7  table- 
clothes  of  diaper  ;  6  towells  of  damaske  ;  7  towells  of  diaper  ; 
6  dozen  of  damaske  napkins  ;  7  dozen  of  diaper  napkins ;  4 


-i  ,  i-H  ii  423 

coberdclcth.  s  of  damaske  ;  9  coberdclotbes  of  diaper  ;  12  plane 
table-clothes  ;  12  coarse  table-clothes  ;  20  dozen  of  plane  nap- 
kins ;  20  wiping  clothes  ;  30  dressours  ;  12  plane  towells."  The 
scantiness  of  this  inventory,  particularly  in  the  article  of  sheets, 
was  grievously  complained  about  by  Sir  Ralph  Sadler,  Kt., 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lanca^ 

About  this  period  "  The  Interest  of  Scotland  Considered"  says 
tl  our  manuiac  t  nres  were  carried  on  by  the  meanest  of  the  people, 
who  had  small  stocks  and  were  of  no  reputation.  These  were, 
for  the  most  part,  workmen  for  home-consumpt,  such  as  masons, 
house-carpenters,  armourers,  blacksmiths,  tailors,  shoemakers, 
and  the  like.  Our  weavers  were  few  in  number,  and  in  the 
greatest  contempt,  as  their  employments  were  more  sedentary, 
and  themselves  reckoned  less  fit  for  war,  in  which  all  were 
obliged  to  serve,  when  the  exigencies  of  the  country  de- 
manded their  attendance."  A  little  farther  on  it  is  said 
the  manufactures  of  Scotland  were  confined  to  a  few  of 
the  coarsest  nature,  without  which  the  poorest  nations  are  un- 
able to  subsist." 

David  Rizzio,  who  was  a  model  of  dress  to  the  Scottish  court, 
had  upon  his  back  when  he  was  slain  a  night  gown  of  damask 
furred,  with  a  satin  doublet,  and  a  hose  of  russet  velvet. 

In  1598,  Fynes  Moryson,  a  gentleman  who  had  travelled  in 
most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  being  at  Berwick,  felt  an  ear- 
nest desire  to  see  the  King  of  Scots'  court  before  returning  home. 
The  court  was  then  at  Falkland.  He  gives  a  full  description  of 
all  he  saw  there,  including  houses,  furniture,  provisions,  dresses, 
&c.,  and  among  other  things  says,  "  the  unmarried  gentlewomen 
of  all  sorts  did  go  bareheaded,  and  wore  short  cloaks,  with  most 
close  Linen  sleeves  on  their  arms,  like  the  virgins  of  Germany. 
The  common  sort,  citizens'  wives,  and  women  of  the  country, 
wore  cloaks  of  coarse  stuff,  of  two  or  three  colours  of  chequer 
work,  vulgarly  called  plodan." 

By  the  rental  sheet  of  the  Marquis  of  Huntly  in  May  1600, 
the  rent  appears  to  have  been  paid  in  money  and  in  kind,  and 
in  the  enumeration  of  articles  paid  to  him  by  the  tenants  were 
"  990  ells  of  custom  Linen."  This  shows  that  Linen  was  made 
to  some  extent  for  home  consumption  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  country,  from  native  grown  Flax,  and  as  there  was  littk- 


424  MODERN    LINEN. 

money  then  current,  part  of  the  produce  of  the  land  was  given  to 
the  feudal  lord  in  payment  of  the  rent. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  16th  century  little  cloth  was  made  in 
the  country,  and  manufactures  were  in  a  rude  state,  but  at 
that  period  the  principal  article  of  export  from  Scotland  to 
foreign  countries  consisted  of  Linen  goods. 

An  effort  was  made  by  the  burghs,  in  June  1601,  to  introduce 
an  improved  cloth  manufacture  into  Scotland.  Seven  Flemings 
were  engaged  to  settle  in  the  country  to  set  the  work  agoing,  six 
of  whom  were  for  says  and  one  for  broad  cloth.  When  they 
came  to  Edinburgh  a  delay  arose,  it  being  debated  whether  they 
should  not  be  dispersed  among  the  principal  towns  in  order  to 
diffuse  their  instructions  as  widely  as  possible.  On  28th  July  the 
strangers  complained  to  the  Privy  Council  that  they  were  neither 
entertained  nor  set  to  work,  and  that  it  was  proposed  to  sunder 
them,  "  whilk  wald  be  a  grit  hindrance  to  the  perfection  of  the 
wark."  The  Council  decreed  that  "  the  hail  strangers  brought 
hame  for  this  errand  should  be  kept  together  in  Edinburgh,  and 
put  to  work  on  the  conditions  made  between  them  and  the  com- 
missioners who  engaged  them."  And  until  they  should  begin 
to  work  the  Council  ordained  the  bailies  of  Edinburgh  to  enter- 
tain them  in  meat  and  drink,  though  this  should  be  paid  back 
to  them  by  the  other  burghs.  The  strangers  were  allowed  at 
the  same  time  to  undertake  any  other  work  for  their  own  benefit. 
On  llth  September,  the  burghs  had  done  nothing  "  to  effectuat 
the  claithworkers,"  and  the  Council  declared  that  unless  they 
should  have  made  a  beginning  by  Michaelmas,  the  royal  privi- 
lege would  be  withdrawn. 

In  August,  1609,  under  favour  of  the  King,  a  number  of 
)   strangers  had  been  introduced  into  the  country  to  practice  the 
)   making  of  cloth  of  various  kinds.     A  colony  of  them  had  settled 
in  the  Canongate  of  Edinburgh,  headed  by  one  John  Sutherland, 
and  a  Fleming  named  John  Van  Headen,  and  "  are  daily  exer- 
cising their  art  of  making,  dressing,  and  litting  of  stuffs,  and 
giving  great  light  and  knowledge  to  the  country  people."    Not- 
withstanding the  King's  letter  the  Magistrates  of  Canongate 
wanted  them  to  become  burgesses  and  freemen.      On  appeal  to 
the  Privy  Council  they  were  exempted 

This  exemplifies  the  narrow  minded  policy  of  the  age,  when 


SCOTCH  LINEN. 

men  who  had  bcei  i  y  brought  from  a  distance  to  instruct  the 

people  in  a  most  important  branch  of  manufacture,  of  which  tiny 
ignorant,  were  harassed  ami  interrupted  in  the  exercise  of  a 
public  good.  The  same  system  was  in  active  force  in  many 
towns,  until  the  abolition  of  corpoi.it.  privilege.-.  A  remnant 
of  the  same  policy  is  still  to  be  found  among  some  of  the  Incor- 
p.  .rated  Trades  of  the  present  day.  It  is  true  they  do  not  now 
have  the  power  to  compel  tradesmen  to  join  their  trade,  but  they 
refuse  to  admit  any  to  its  privileges  excepting  handicraftsmen, 
and  not  even  them,  unless  on  terms  almost  prohibitory.  Some- 
thin^,  ho\u-ver,  might  be  said  in  favour  of  the  exclusive  privilege 
<>f  the  Trades'  Incorporation  in  early  times,  but  it  is  not  needful 
to  enter  into  such  a  discussion. 

Before  this  period  cloth  seems  to  have  been  made  by  members 
of  the  household  for  the  use  of  the  family,  but  now  the  manu- 
facture was  extended  farther,  goods  being  made  for  sale  to  the 
general  public.  These  strangers  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to 
attempt  to  manufacture  cloth  for  sale. 

On  11  th  July,  161f);  Commissioners  for  a  number  of  the 
burghs  met  to  deliberate  on  a  proposal  of  the  King  for  working 
u]»  within  the  country  the  whole  wool  produced  in  it  "  in  stuffs, 
plaids,  and  kerseys.1'  They  expressed  themselves  as  content 
that  the  exportation  of  wool  should  be  prohibited,  in  order  that 
a  trial  should  be  made,  but  they  could  undertake  no  burden  in 
the  matter  "  anent  the  home  bringing  of  strangers,"  or  for  as- 
surance that  his  Majesty's  ends  would  be  attained.  A  prohihi- 
tion  for  the  exporting  of  wool  was  soon  after  issued. 

This  paragraph  shows  a  like  narrow-minded  policy,  on  the 
part  of  the  then  Government,  in  prohibiting  the  export  of  wool, 
thinking  thereby  to  compel  the  manufacture  of  the  whole  of  it 
in  the  country.  That  policy  is  now  fortunately  exploded,  but 
for  a  long  time  after  this  period  it  was  rigidly  carried  out  on  one 
commodity  or  another,  which  greatly  retarded  the  extension  of 
manufacturing  industry. 

On  llth  August,  1618,  John  Taylor,  the  Thames  waterman, 
visited  Scotland,  and  took  a  highland  tour  to  Morayshire,  <fec. 
He  says  "  the  houses  of  the  gentry  are  like  castles,  and  the  master 
of  the  house's  beaver  is  his  blue  bonnet.  He  will  wear  no  shirts 
but  Uio  Flax  that  grows  on  his  own  ground,  and  of  his  wife's, 


426  MODERN    LINEN. 

daughters',  or  servants'  spinning.     His  hose,  stockings,  and  jer- 
kins are  made  of  his  own  sheeps'  wool." 

In  this  year  footings  were  introduced  by  the  servants  of  noble- 
men. The  tanning  of  leather  was  also  introduced  into  Scotland 
this  year  from  Durham,  Morpeth,  Chester -le- Street,  &c.,  under 
royal  patronage.  It  met  with  small  success,  but  boots  were 
raised  to  20s  and  shoes  to  6s,  which  was  considered  a  great 
grievance  by  the  people. 

In  1640  Covenanting  troops,  under  General  Munro,  marched 
from  Aberdeen  to  take  rule  of  the  estate  of  the  Marquis  of  Huntly, 
who  was  then  with  King  Charles  I.  in  England.  The  men  of 
the  country,  deprived  of  the  presence  of  their  chief,  bowed  to 
the  General.  Some  joined  the  Covenanting  army,  others  sub- 
mitted to  force.  Among  the  spoil,  Munro  seized  a  great  quantity 
of  home-made  Linen  cloth,  which  he  found  bleaching  about  the 
country,  hanging  it  over  the  walls  of  Strathbogie  Castle  to  dry, 
"  pity  to  behold,"  says  the  narrator.  This  home-made  Linen 
was  for  domestic  purposes.  In  those  days  bleaching  by  the  pre- 
sent artificial  mode  was  unknown,  and  instead  of  the  operation 
being  performed  in  two  or  three  days,  as  it  now  is,  it  then  took  as 
many  months,  sun,  air,  and  water  being  the  agents  employed. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  there  were  cloth  works  on  a  small 
scale  at  Newmills  in  Haddingtonshire,  at  Bonnington  near 
Edinburgh,  and  at  Ayr.  That  at  Newmills  was  in  a  thriving 
condition  until  Dundee  was  stormed  and  sacked  by  Monk,  in 
1651,  when  a  store  of  its  cloth  in  that  town  was  taken,  and  the 
troubles  which  followed  soon  after  closed  the  work. 

Articles  of  clothing  in  Scotland  had  before  that  period  been 
almost  wholly  of  home-manufacture.  As  in  Sweden,  &c. ,  to 
this  day,  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  span  their  own  wool  and 
Flax,  each  family  for  itself,  and  had  the  yarn  woven  into  cloth 
by  the  village  webster.  There  had  been,  as  yet,  but  the  merest 
attempts  at  a  manufacture  of  cloth  or  Linen  for  general  sale  and 
use.  A  little  later  it  could  scarcely  be  said  there  was  any  gene- 
ral manufacture  of  articles  of  attire,  excepting  at  Aberdeen. 
One  George  Pyper  had  a  number  of  country  people  engaged  there 
working  stockings  with  the  needles,  for  which  he  paid  them  at  the 
rate  of  five  groats  (equal  to  l§d  sterling)  a-pair  for  making.  It  is 
said  he  raised  the  working  to  such  a  fineness  in  some  instances, 


SCOTCH  LINEN.  427 

"  that  he  hath  given  20s  sterling  and  upwards  for  a -pair."  In 
that  district  there  was  a  manutact  ure  of  "plaiden  stuffs"  and  ''fin- 
grams"  in  operation  on  1st  March,  1681. 

The  Duke  of  York,  who  possessed  considerable  faculties  for 
;io88,  had  consultations  with  the  greatest  m<  ivanlile  spirits 
the  country  then  possessed,  about  planting  cloth  factories  in 
Scotland,  similar  to  those  in  England.  ThMLJraa  the  more 
necessary,  as  the  money  sent  to  England  for  the  better  kinds  of 
clnth  was  .1  raining  the  country  of  its  gold.  English  money  was 
not  to  be  had  then  under  6  and  7  per  cent.,  and  exchange  be- 
•u  Edinburgh  and  London  had  risen  against  the  former  city 
as  high  as  12  to  15  per  cent.  The  result  of  the  Duke's  patriotic 
tMiberations  was  the  passing  of  an  act  of  Parliament,  in  Sept. 
1681 ,  for  the  encouragement  of  trade  and  manufactures.  Through 
his  personal  exertions  a  body  of  merchants  was  induced  to  asso- 
ciate for  the  setting  up  of  a  new  work  at  Newmills,  the  produce 
•  >t  which  was  to  be  disposed  of  under  peculiar  regulations.  The 
company  had  a  monopoly,  English  goods  being  prohibited. 
They  began  with  two  looms,  soon  increased  to  eight,  soon  there- 
after to  twenty-five,  and  in  1G83  it  was  still  extending.  vTha 
act  was  too  sweeping  and  too  stringent,  as  it  forbade  the  importing 
of  many  kinds  of  cloth,  including  cambrics  and  damasks,  which 
led  to  much  smuggling. 

Such  were  some  of  the  early  struggles  of  an  important  branch 
of  industry  in  Scotland ;  but  it  was  not,  after  all,  to  be  in 
this  age  that  good  woollen  cloth  was  to  be  produced  in  this 
northern  clime.  In  1697  it  is  said  attempts  were  made  to  make 
several  articles,  but  they  were  not  so  good  as  what  came  from 
abroad.  Those  who  would  propagate  any  new  manufacture- 
must  lay  their  account  to  labour  under  several  disadvantages 
at  first. 

The  Legislature  of  Scotland  generally  did  all  in  its  power 
for  the  encouragment  of  the  Linen  trade  in  the  country,  but 
sometimes  the  policy  of  the  Court  changed,  and  the  interests  of 
those  engaged  in  this  favoured  branch  of  trade  were  forgotten. 
In  1685  King  James  II.,  in  order  to  secure  the  friendship  of 
the  French  king,  repealed  the  prohibition  against  importing 
Linens  into  the  country.  For  a  time  this  had  a  discouraging 
•  -fleet  on  the  Linen  trade,  and  it  is  said  that  the  manufacturers 


428  MODERN    LINEN. 

of  this  country  were  oppressed  by  the  quantity  of  foreign  Linens 
which  flowed  in  upon  them. 

Morer,  who  was  in  Scotland  in  1688  and  1689  says, — "  But 
that  which  employs  great  part  of  their  land  is  Hemp,  of  which 
they  have  mighty  burdens,  and  on  which  they  bestow  much  care 
and  pains  to  dress  and  prepare  it  for  making  their  Linen,  the 
most  noted  and  beneficial  manufacture  of  the  kingdom." 

In  September  1681,  Thos.  Kennedy  and  Jno.  Trotter,  mer- 
chants, were  proposing  to  set  up  a  manufacture  of  Linen  and 
woollen  stuffs  in  the  place  called  Paul's  Work,  in  Edinburgh, 
where,  so  long  ago  as  1609,  there  had  been  an  attempt  at  a  wool- 
len work.  And,  as  an  encouragement,  the  Council  ordained 
them  to  have  all  the  privileges  offered  to  manufactories  in  Scot- 
land, by  the  12th  act  of  their  parliament  regarding  manufactories. 

In  November  1682,  three  merchants  in  Glasgow  were  arrang- 
ing for  the  setting  up  of  a  manufactory  "for  making  damaties, 
fustines,  and  striped  vermiliones,"  expecting  it  would  be  "  a  great 
advantage  to  the  country,  and  keep  in  much  money  therein 
which  is  sent  out  thereof  for  import  of  the  same."  As  they 
would  require  a  great  stock  and  many  servants,  the  enterprisers 
deemed  themselves  entitled  to  have  their  work  declared  a  manu- 
factory, so  that  it  might  enjoy  the  privileges  accorded  to  such  by 
act  of  parliament.  This  favour  was  granted  by  Council  for 
nine  years,  "  but  prejudice  to  any  other  persons  to.  set  up  and 
work  in  the  said  work." 

In  December  1684,  while  strenuous  measures  were  taken  for 
preventing  the  free  importation  of  English  woollen  cloths  into 
Scotland,  a  petition  came  from  persons  interested  in  the  Linen 
manufacture,  complainiug  of  the  usage  which  had  lately  been 
experienced  by  Scotchmen  selling  Linens  in  England.  Hither- 
to there  had  been  a  free  trade  for  Scotch  Linen  weavers  in  the 
south,  and  as  from  10,000  to  12,000  persons  were  employed  in 
such  weaving,  the  results  were  important,  not  merely  to  the 
workers,  but  to  the  landlords  for  the  payment  of  their  rents ; 
and  to  the  Government,  as  each  1000  to  1200  packs  exported 
to  England  paid  a  custom  of  £3  sterling.  Latterly,  however, 
the  men  selling  Scotch  Linen  in  England  had  been  taken  up 
and  whipped  as  malefactors,  and  many  were  obliged  to  give 
bonds  that  they  would  discontinue  their  traffic.  The  Council 


•JOBOB  LINKS.  429 

recommended  the  Secretary  of  State  to  interpose  with  His 
Majesty,  that  merchants  and  others  might  have  liberty  to  sell 
Linen  in  England  as  formerly;  never  once  adverting  to  tin- 
fact  that  they  had  an  act  of  parliament  conceived  in  the 
same  illiberal  spirit  towards  English  woollen  maim! 
Had  tho  practice  of  whipping  the  Scotch  who  went  to  Eng- 
land to  sell  their  Linens  not  been  stopped,  it  would  have  been 
a  severe  blow  to  the  Scotch  Linen  trade  of  the  present  age,  as 
manufacturers  would  not  have  liked  such  a  castigation  in  their 
journeys  to  the  south. 

In-order  to  promote  the  making  of  Linen,  an  act  was  passed       / 
in  1686,  ordaining  that  "  no  corpse  of  any  person  whatsoever  be  \* 
buried  in  any  shirt,  sheet,  or  anything  else,  except  in  plain 
Linen,"  the  relatives  of  the  deceased  persons  being  obliged,  under 
heavy  penalties,  to  come  to  their  parish   minister  within  eight 
days  of  the  burial,  and  declare  on  oath  that  the  rule  had  been 
complied  with. 

On  14th  June,  1693,-another  act  was  passed,  ordaining  that, 
for  the  same  end  as  the  act  of  1686,  no  lint  should  be  exported 
from  the  kingdom  ;  that  lint  imported  should  be  duty  free ;  and 
making  sundry  arrangements  for  a  uniformity  in  the  breadth  of 
the  cloth  produced.  Same  year,  an  act  was  passed  conferring 
particular  privileges  on  two  companies  which  carried  on  the 
Linen  manufacture  in  Paul's  Work,  Edinburgh,  and  in  tlu« 
Citadel  of  Leith,  as  an  encouragement  which  was  required  for 
their  success. 

On  the  28th  May,  1694,  articles  of  agreement  were  concluded 
between  Nicholas  Dupin,  acting  for  a  Linen  Company  in  Eng- 
land, and  the  royal  burghs  and  others  in  Scotland,  for  the  for- 
mation of  a  company  to  carry  on  the  Liiien  manufactun  in 
Scotland.  It  was  arranged  that  "  the  enterprise  should  rest  in 
a  capital  of  6000  shares  of  £5  each,  one-half  of  which  should  be 
held  by  Englishmen,  the  rest  by  Scotchmen,  the  burghs  each 
being  allowed  certain  shares  in  proportion  to  their  standing  and 
wealth,  the  money  to  be  paid  in  four  instalments  within  the 
ensuing  two  years." 

In  July  1695  there  was  a  farther  act  passed  "anent  burying  in 
Scots  Linen,"  ordaining  that  none  should  be  used  for  sepulchral 
purposes  above  twenty  shilling  Scots  (20d  sterling)  per  Scots 


430  MODERN   LTNEN. 

ell,  and  also  commanding  that  the  nearest  elder  or  deacon  of 
the  parish,  with  one  or  two  neighbours,  should  be  called  by  the 
friends  of  the  deceased  persons,  to  see  that  the  shroud  was  in  all 
respects  conform  to  the  acts  thereanent. 

A  rope  manufactory  had  been  established  some  years  at 
Newhaven  by  James  Deans,  bailie  of  the  Canongate,  and  one 
of  his  sons,  but  it  was  discontinued  after  considerable  loss  had 
been  incurred.  In  November  1694,  Thomas  Deans,  another  son 
of  the  first  enterpriser,  expressed  himself  as  disposed  to  venture 
another  stock  in  the  same  work,  provided  he  should  have  it  en- 
dowed with  the  privileges  of  a  manufactory,  though  not  to  the 
exclusion  of  others  disposed  to  try  the  same  business.  His 
wishes  were  complied  with  by  the  Privy  Council. 

On  the  7th  May,  1696,  the  privileges  of  a  manufactory,  ac- 
cording to  statute,  were  granted  by  the  Privy  Council  to  Patrick 
Houston  and  his  partners,  for  a  rope  work  in  Glasgow.  This 
copartnery  was  to  set  out  with  a  stock  of  40,000  pounds  Scots, 
and  to  introduce  foreign  workmen  to  instruct  the  natives. 

In  1696  the  Linen  manufacture  is  spoken  of  as  established, 
and  two  years  later  the  bleaching  of  Linen  was  executed  at  Cor- 
storphine. 

A  pamphlet  in  favour  of  the  African  Company,  published  in 
1696,  remarked  that  Scotland  had  lately  been  falling  upon  true 
and  lasting  methods  of  increasing  her  trade,  by  erecting  compa- 
nies to  "manufacture  our  own  natural  commodities,  thus  we  have 
the  woollen  cloth  manufactory  at  Newmills,  the  baise  manufac- 
tory for  our  wools,  the  Linen  manufactory,  several  for  leather, 
and  others."  The  company  received  an  act  of  incorporation  from 
the  Scottish  Parliament  in  June  1695,  under  the  name  of  "  The 
Company  of  Scotland  Trading  to  Africa  and  the  Indies."  The 
truly  unfortunate  Darien  adventure  was  a  death-blow  to  the 
Company,  and  nearly  ruined  the  half  of  Scotland.  This  Com- 
pany was  much  encouraged  by  the  celebrated  William  Paterson, 
the  projector  of  the  Bank  of  England.  The  last  capital  of  the 
Company,  £229,611  4s  8d,  was  paid  out  of  the  Equivalent  in 
1707,  and  the  Company  then  came  to  a  close. 

About  the  year  1695  Glasgow  exported  annually  some  hides, 
Linen,  &c.,  to  Bristol,  bringing  back  tobacco,  sugar,  and  goods 
of  the  manufacture  of  England.  In  October  1696,  James  Mel- 


431 

ville  of  Halhill,  got  a  letter  of  gift  from  the  Privy  Council  to 
encourage  him  in  a  manufacture  of  sail-cloth. 

On  16th  January,  1697,  a  case,  which  had  been  in  the  Court 
of  Session  for  two  years,  in  \\ \ilc\\  a  husband  was  sued  for  re- 
turn of  a  deceased  wife's  "tocher,"  was  decided.      The  Lords, 
at'h-r  long  deliberation,  decided  that  among  other  things 
child-bed  Linen,  or  Linen  on  the  wife's  person  in  child-bed,  are 
paraphernal,  but  not  the  Limn  <-n  the  child  itself,  nor  on 
bed  or  room,  as  they  are  common  moveables,  and  so  not  to  be 
returned." 

Among  the  wedding  clothes  of  Miss  Smythe  of  Methven,  who 
was  married  to  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Moncrieff  of  that 
Ilk,  in  1701,  were  20  ells  of  Holland  :  irts,  Linen  for  6 

shirts,  Holland  for  6  suits  of  night  clothes,  cambric  for  6  hand 
napkins,  Holland  for  2  aprons,  <fec.,  &c. 

Ou  10th  July,  1701,  in  consequence  of  a  mortality  among 
lambs,  many  died,  and  the  wool  could  not  all  be  used  in  Scot- 
land. Parliament  had  previously  forbid  the  export  of  wool,  in 
order  that  the  woollen  manufacturers  might  be  encouraged. 
The  Dean  of  Guild  of  Edinburgh  petitioned  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil to  allow  the  surplus  wool  to  be  exported,  as  the  return  for  the 
same  would  be  in  Lint,  Hemp,  &c.,  but  the  petition  was  re- 
fused. 

The  Union,  in  1707,  produced  remarkable  effects  on  the  in- 
dustry and  trade  of  Scotland.  She  ceased,  in  conformity  with 
England,  to  export  wool,  and  her  manufacture  of  fine  woollens 
was  supplanted  in  England,  but  her  coarse  woollen  manufac- 
tures flourished.  The  duties  which  had  existed  on  the  exporta- 
tion of  Scotch  Linen  to  England  were  removed,  and  there 
was  immediately  so  large  an  increase  to  that  branch  of  the  na- 
tional  industry,  that  it  was  said  it  seemed  the  poor  could  want 
no  employment.  Englishmen  came  north  and  established  works 
for  sail-cloth,  damasks,  and  other  Linen  articles,  heretofore 
hardly  known  in  the  north ;  and  thus,  it  was  remarked,  there 
was  as  much  employment  for  the  poor  as  in  the  best  days  of  the 
woollen  manufacture.  The  colonial  trade  was  also  opened  up 
to  Scottish  enterprise  by  the  Union,  and  cargoes  of  Scotch 
goods,  including  Linens,  went  out  to  America  in  great  quant i- 
in  exchange  for  colonial  produce  brought  in,  thus  creating, 


432  MODERN    LINEN. 

as  it  was  then  said,  a  prodigious  vent  for  Linens  and  other 
goods.  The  quantity  of  Linen  made  in  Scotland  in  1710  was 
1,500,000  yards. 

In  1723  a  writer  of  some  ability  travelled  over  Scotland,  and 
wrote  an  account  of  his  journey.  Among  other  things  he  says, 
"  many  of  the  ladies  were  good  housewives,  and  many  gentle- 
men of  good  estate  were  not  ashamed  to  wear  clothes  of  their 
wives'  and  servants'  spinning." 

In  1725,  Woodrow  says,  the  merchants  of  Glasgow  were 
beginning  to  think  of  ventures  in  other  directions  than  for- 
merly. "  This  summer  there  seems  to  be  a  very  great  incli- 
nation through  the  country  to  improve  our  manufactory,  and 
especially  Linen  and  Hemp.  They  speak  of  a  considerable 
society  in  Glasgow,  of  the  most  topping  merchants,  who  are 
about  to  set  up  a  manufactory  of  Linen  which  will  keep  six 
hundred  poor  people  at  work.  The  gentlemen,  by  their  influence 
seem  much  to  stir  up  country  people,  and  to  encourage  good 
tradesmen,  and  some  care  is  taken  to  keep  Linen  and  webs 
exactly  to  standard,  and  to  see  that  the  stuff  be  good  and  mar- 
ketable. .  .  .  What  will  come  of  it  I  know  not.  I  have 
seen  frequent  attempts  of  this  nature  come  to  very  little."  This 
year  really  did  become  the  epoch  of  that  vast  system  of  textile 
manufacture  for  which  the  city  has  since  become  so  celebrated. 
The  first  efforts  of  the  looms  were  confined  to  Linen  cloth,  lawns, 
and  cambrics.  Seven  years  later  one  of  her  enterprising  citi- 
zens, Alexander  Harvie,  "at  the  risk  of  his  life,  brought  away 
from  Haerlem  two  inkle-looms,  and  a  workman,"  and  was  thus 
enabled  to  introduce  the  manufacture  of  inkles  into  his  native 
town,  where  it  long  flourished.  The  introduction  of  the  cotton 
manufacture  into  Glasgow  was  the  work  of  a  subsequent  age. 

In  1720,  a  public  newspaper  states  there  was  annually  ex- 
ported, from  Scotland  into  England  the  value  of  £100,000  in 
white  Linen,  and  as  much  in  brown,  the  Flax  being^f  - "  a 
spunsie  quality/'  which  gave  it  a  preference  over  the  similar 
products  of  both  Ireland  and  Germany.  The  same  document 
estimated  the  English  woollen  cloths  imported  into  Scotland 
at  £400,000  jter  annum.  About  this  period  neither  the  manu- 
facture of  Linens  nor  woollens  had  been  brought  to  great  per- 
fection in  Scotland. 


By  an  act  ot  parliament  passed  in  1727,  a  Board  of  Trustee* 
was  established  in  Scotland  for  the  administration  of  an  annual 
sum  set  aside  for  the  encouragement  of  manufactories  and 
ii>lu'rics.  The  gum  at  first  given  was  £4000,  which  was 
cal'  -dated  to  go  a  great  way  in  so  poor  a  country.  The 
activity  and  serviceableness  of  the  Board  was,  in  its  earlier 
years,  chiefly  shown  in  the  promotion  of  Linen  manufacture, 
which,  under  the  stimulus,  rose  greatly,  but  as  this  act  had  a 
most  important  effect  on  the  Linen  trade  of  Scotland,  lull  de- 
tails regarding  it  will  be  given  separately. 

The  conflicts  between  the  Bank  of  Scotland  and  the  Royal  Bank , 
at  this  period,  had  its  effect  even  upon  the  Board  of  Trustees, 
On  2()th  June,  1728,  the  Lord  Advocate,  Duncan  Forbes,  wrote 
thus  to  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  on  the  subject :—  "  The  Trustees 
appointed  by  His  Majesty,  for  taking  care  of  the  manufactures, 
proceed  with  great  zeal  and  industry ;  but  at  present  credit  is 
run  so  low,  by  a  struggle  between  the  bank  lately  erected  by 
1 1  is  Majrsiy,  and  the  old  bank,  that  money  can  scarcely  be  found 
to  go  to  market  with." 

In  1730  the  country  may  be  said  to  have  been  in  a  state  of 
transition  from  poverty  to  growing  wealth,  and  from  restricted 
to  expanding  views  regarding  matters  of  trade.  For  a  gen 
tion  the  Linen  manufacture  had  been  passing  through  what 
might  be  called  a  prosperous  infancy.  The  influx  of  commer- 
eial  prosperity  had  fairly  set  in  at  Glasgow;  and  the  Linen 
manufacture  and  other  branches  of  industry  were  then  making 
good  progress. 

A  lady,  born  in  1714,  who  has  left  a  valuable  set  of  re- 
minisiriicrs  of  her  early  days,  among  other  things,  says: — 

'*  Linens  being  everywhere  made  at  home,  the  spinning  exe- 
cuted by  the  servants  during  the  long  winter  evenings,  and  the 
weaving  by  the  village  webster,  there  was  a  general  abundance 
of  napcry  and  underclothing.  KveiY  woman  made  her  web 
and  Mcached  it  herself,  and  the  price  never  rose  higher  than 
two  shillings  a  yard  ;  and  with  this  cloth  almost  every  one  was 
clothed.  The  young  men,  who  were  at  this  time  growing 
more  nice,  got  theirs  from  Holland  for  shirts,  but  the  old  ones 
were  satisfied  with  necks  and  sleeves  of  the  fine,  which  were 
put  on  loose  above  the  country  cloth.  Table  Linens  were  re- 

£   E 


434  MODERN  LINEN. 

newed  every  day  in  gentlemen's  families,  and  table  napkins 
were  always  used.  A  few  years  after  this,  weavers  were  brought 
from  Holland,  and  manufactories  for  Linen  established  in  the 
west.  Holland,  being  about  six  shillings  an  ell,  was  worn 
only  by  men  of  refinement.  I  remember,  in  the  '30  or  '31, 
of  a  ball,  where  it  was  agreed  that  the  company  should  be 
dressed  in  nothing  but  what  was  manufactured  in  the  coun- 
try. My  sisters  were  as  well  dressed  as  any,  and  their  gowns 
were  striped  Linen  at  2s  6d  per  yard.  Their  head-dresses  and 
ruffles  were  of  Paisley  muslins,  at  4s  6d,  with  fourpenny  edg- 
ing from  Hamilton  ;  all  of  them  the  finest  that  could  be  had. 
At  this  time  hoops  were  constantly  worn  four-and-a-half  yards 
wide,"  &c,  &c.  The  universal  dress  of  the  middle  classes  at 
this  period  was  of  plain  country  cloth,  but  gentlemen  of  figure 
wore  English  or  foreign  cloth,  &c. 

On  9th  April,  1732,  the  Caledonian  Mercury  says,  "  Died, 
John  Gray,  Master  of  the  Rope  and  Sail  Manufactory  at  Edin- 
burgh ;  eminent  for  his  unparalleled  skill  in  cutting  whalebone." 
On  18th  October  in  the  same  year,  the  Magistrates  of  Mussel- 
burgh,  in  riding  the  marches  of  the  town's  property,  were  at- 
tended by  the  burgesses,  &c.,  to  the  number  of  about  700,  in 
their  best  array.  A  dispute  arose  between  the  tailors  and 
weavers,  on  the  point  of  precedency  of  their  respective  corpora- 
tions. The  tailors  said  it  had  fallen  to  them  by  lot ;  the 
weavers  that  they  were  men,  and  as  such  preferable  to  the 
tailors.  After  engaging  in  fierce  strife  to  settle  the  point, 
victory  declared  for  the  needlemen,  who  beat  the  weavers  out  of 
the  field,  and  nearly  captured  their  standard.  This  proves  that 
weaving  had  been  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Mus- 
selburgh  at  that  time. 

Dean  Castle,  an  extensive  ruin,  formerly  the  property  of  the 
ill-fated  Earl  of  Kilmarnock,  stands  in  a  hollow  near  that  town. 
It  was  burned  down  in  1735,  by  the  carelessness  of  a  servant 
girl,  who,  in  preparing  some  lint  for  spinning,  heedlessly  let  it 
catch  fire,  and  the  flames  were  not  stopped  until  the  castle  was 
destroyed. 

In  1739,  the  manufacture  of  Linen  thread  was  introduced  into 
Kilbarchan,  and  within  a  little  of  this  period  the  same  manufacture 
was  established  in  several  parts  of  the  country,  far  removed  from 


SCOTCH  LINEN.  435 

<adi  uther  and  totally  disconnected.  This  \*  indicative  of  the 
tence  of  general  causes  which  governed  the  whole  movement, 
showing  that  the  progress  was  essentially  national,  liower.  in 
his  history  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  says,  "  Between  1750 
and  ITn'O  a  great  degree  of  patriotic  < •ntlnuiasm  arose  in  Scot- 
land to  encourage  arts  and  manufactures,  and  the  Edinburgh 
Society  was  established  in  1755  for  the  express  purpose  of  Im- 
proving these." 

In  1764,  Linens  were  exported  from  the  following  places  in 
Scotland,  viz.,  Linlithgow,  PaMcy.  Hamilton,  Glasgow,  Burnt- 
island,  Perth,  Dunkeld,  Dundee,  Aberdeen,  Old  Meldrum,  and 
Banffshire.  Several  of  these  places  have  long  ceased  to  manu- 
facture Linens,  which  shows  the  changes  a  century  produces  on 
the  trade  of  a  country  in  these  progressive  ages. 

Postlethwayt,  in  his  dictionary,  1766,  says — "  In  the  west  of 
Scotland,  where  the  finest  cloth  is  made,  they  have  a  fool  Mi 
notion  that  unripe  Flax  makes  the  finest  Flax,  they  therefore 
pull  the  lint  when  the  blossom  falls.  This  kind  of  lint  heckles 
away  almost  to  nothing,  and  is  indeed  very  fine  in  appearance, 
but  has  no  substance,  and  the  yarn  spun  of  it  is  weak  and  ouzy. 
It  wastes  much  in  the  washing,  and  cloth  made  of  it  grows  as 
thin  as  a  cobweb  in  the  bleaching,  before  it  can  be  brought  to  a 
full  colour."  He  also  says  the  "  French  spinning  school  in  Scot- 
land had  bred  a  great  many  good  spinners  of  fine  yarn,  but 
many  of  them  are  persons  of  rank,  and  when  they  have  gratified 
their  curiosity  in  learning  the  art,  give  over  the  practice,  and 
are  of  no  more  use  to  the  manufacturer." 

The  same  author  says,  "  About  this  time  the  bounty  on  Linen 
exported  having  temporarily  ceased,  a  great  many  weavers,  about 
8000,  were  thrown  out  of  employment,  many  of  whom  enlisted 
into  the  army,  others  into  the  Dutch  service,  and  others  left  the 
country. 

Another  account  says,  "  In  consequence  of  the  overtrading  in 
1 770  and  1771,  the  demand  for  Linens  fell  off  greatly,  and  177.; 
was  a  year  of  great  depression.  In  four  counties  in  Scotland, 
out  of  6000  looms,  2500  were  unemployed  ;  and  in  general  a 
third  part  or  more  of  the  Linen  looms  in  Scotland  were  standing 
idle." 

The  parties  engaged  in  the  woollen  trade  of  the  country  often 

£6   2 


436  MODERN  LINEN. 

enveighed  against  the  partiality  shown  by  the  Legislature  to 
the  Linen  trade.  It  was  said  that  from  cheapness  of  raw  mate- 
rial and  labour,  the  natural  seat  ol  the  Linen  manufacture  was 
Holland,  Flanders,  Germany,  and  France.  Since  its  introduc- 
tion into  this  country  bounty  had  been  added  to  bounty,  and  re- 
striction to  restriction,  as  each  preceding  regulation  had  been 
found  inadequate  to  struggle  with  the  difficulties  of  our  soil 
and  situation.  Discouraged  with  the  preference  shown  to  the 
favourite  trade,  in  1774  the  woollen  manufacturers  of  Norwich, 
Birmingham,  Sheffield,  Wolverhampton,  &c.,  petitioned  the 
House  of  Commons  against  imposing  an  additional  duty  upon 
foreign  Linens  imported,  which  was  then  in  agitation,  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  lead  other  countries,  by  a  similar  policy, 
to  impose  restrictions  on  their  commodities,  which  were  the 
more  natural  and  profitable  manufactures  of  this  country. 

Total  quantities  of  Flax,  Hemp,  Flax  seed,  and  raw  Linen 
yarn  imported  into  Scotland  from  5th  January  1764  to  5th 
January  1772 — eight  years  :— * 

KoughFlax,              .            .            .  Cwts.,     533,749 

Rough  Hemp,           ...  „         112,980 

Linseed,        ....  Bushels,  455,243 

Linen  Yarn,              .             .            .  Lbs.,     954,972 

In  1765,  the  Annual  Value  of  the  Flax  and  Hemp 

imported  into  England  was  snid  to  be  about  £700,000 

Into  Scotland,            do.,                do,            do.,  150,000 

Linen  Yarn  imported  into  Britain,           .            .  450,000 

£1,300,000 


About  one-half  of  the  Flax  consumed  in  Scotland  at  this 
period  was  of  home  growth. 

Pennant,  in  his  tour  in  1776,  says — "  I  cannot  ascertain  the 
time  when  the  Linen  manufacture  arose.  There  could  not  be  a 
great  call  for  the  commodity  a  century  and  a  half  ago,  when 
people  of  fashion  scarcely  changed  their  shirts  above  once  a 
week  in  England.  But  thanks  to  the  luxury,  or  rather  the  neat- 
ness of  the  times,  this  article  has  become  a  most  national  ad- 
vantage." 

About  this  period  the  Linen  manufacture  was  spread  over  a 
great  part  of  the  country,  and  some  details  will  be  given  here- 


i  437 

:;inling  the  trade  in  several  pariahe*,  uml«  i  the  head 
"  Rural  Districts."  In  some  districts  there  was  little  more  made 
than  supply  local  wants,  but  in  others  the  manufacture  was  car- 
ried on  •  A!I 'MMvoly,  and  large  quantities  of  Linens  were  sent  to 
1  am  I,  as  well  as  shipped  abroad.  Much  of  the  Flax  use«l  in 
the  manufacture  was  raised  at  home,  and  Riga  and  Dutch  Flax 
\\eiv  imported  to  supply  the  further  requirements  of  the  trade. 
The  Flax  was  chiefly  grown  by  the  cottier  farmers,  and  the 
preparatory  processes  to  adapt  it  for  iM-m^pim  were  performed 
\>y  their  families.  Spinning  Flax,  on  the  hand  wheel,  formed 
the  principal  occupation  of  females  of  all  classes,  both  in  town 
and  country,  and  some  of  them,  from  long  practice,  became  great 
adepts  in  the  art.  The  yarn  was  either  weaved  at  home,  or  sold 
in  the  district  markets,  of  which  there  were  many  throughout 
the  country,  to  agents  from  the  large  towns,  such  as  Dundee, 
Glasgow,  Montrose,  &c.  It  was  either  made  into  Linen  in  these 
towns,  or  sent  off  to  England  and  manufactured  there.  After 
the  introduction  of  Flax  spinning  by  power,  the  trade  became 
completely  changed.  The  spinster  and  the  hand  wheel 
of  last  century  gave  place  to  the  factory  girl  and  the  spindle  of 
the  present;  the  manufacture  ceased  in  many  rural  districts, 
and  became  concentrated  in  towns  where  spinning  mills  were 
erected,  and  in  a  few  other  places.  It  is  not  necessary  to  follow 
the  progress  of  the  trade  in  many  of  the  country  parishes,  be- 
e  in  most  of  them  it  died  a  natural  death.  In  a  few  of  the 
chief  towns  where  the  trade  is  still  vigorously  conducted,  a  short 
account  of  each  will  be  given  under  the  head  "  District  Trade." 
This  course  renders  it  unnecessary  to  say  much  more  re- 
garding the  Linen  trade  of  the  country  here,  a  few  general 
notices  will  therefore  close  this  portion  of  the  work. 

In  1802,  a  tax  was  proposed  to  be  imposed  upon  the  import* 
and  exports  of  Flax  and  Linen,  cotton  and  cotton  goods.  Those 
concerned  in  the  Linen  trade  in  Edinburgh,  Dundee,  Montrose, 
<fec.,  applied  to  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  to  have  Flax  and 
Linen  exempted.  They  agreed  in  the  meantime  to  exempt 
Linen  from  all  duties  at  exportation ;  and  the  Minister  stated 
that  he  was  disposed  to  hold  the  impost  as  a  temporary  measure, 
and  that  he  would  endeavour  to  get  Parliament  to  repeal  the 
act  next  session,  if  it  could  be  shown  that  it  endangered  the 


438  MODERN  LINEN. 

prosperity  of  the  trade.  The  bill,  as  finally  passed,  exempted 
Flax  and  yarn  from  duty  on  importation,  but  a  considerable 
duty  was  imposed  on  foreign  Linen  imported.  An  equal  duty  was 
extended  to  Irish  Linen  exported  from  Great  Britain,  as  on 
foreign  Linen  imported  into  it.  The  Dundee  A  dvertiser  of  the  day 
says  "  it  was  intended  to  propose  to  Parliament  to  impose  duties 
on  goods  exported  from  Ireland,  equal  to  those  exported  from 
Britain,  and  when  this  was  done  there  would  be  nothing  wanted, 
but  that  the  excise  duties  paid  by  bleachers  in  Scotland  should 
be  the  same  as  those  paid  by  the  bleachers  in  Ireland."  This 
was  considered  to  be  reasonable,  because  the  Linen  trade  in 
Ireland  was  then  in  a  more  advanced  state  than  in  Scotland. 

In  1803,  considerable  correspondence  was  carried  on  in  the 
newspapers  about  the  saving  of  Flax  seed,  and  it  was  shown  that 
seed  saved  from  a  crop  raised  from  Dutch  seed,  produced  an 
equally  good  crop  the  following  year,  without  injuring  the  Flax 
from  which  it  had  been  taken.  It  was  also  shown  that  Flax, 
after  grass,  required  no  manure,  and  that  Flax  growing  was  pro- 
fitable both  to  the  cultivator  and  to  the  nation,  especially  when 
the  seed  was  saved  for  re-sowing  or  cattle-feeding,  and  the  fibre 
for  Linen,  and  that  this  could  and  should  be  done  without  dan- 
ger to  either. 

On  26th  April,  1805,  Government  made  the  following  inti- 
mation : — "  Notice  ia  hereby  given  that  a  convoy  will  be 
appointed  to  sail  from  Leith  Roads,  on  2d  May."  Such 
notices  will  appear  strange  in  the  present  day,  but  at  this  period 
they  were  but  too  much  required.  The  following  paragraph, 
from  the  Dundee  Advertiser  of  24th  January  1806,  is  of  a  more 
peaceable  nature : — "  A  farmer  at  Gartsherrie  erected  a  steam 
Flax  mill  and  thrashing  milll,  which  was  found  to  answer  well, 
and  was  the  first  of  the  kind  put  up  in  Scotland,  to  prepare  and 
dress  lint  independently  of  the  weather.  It  was  expected  to 
prove  of  great  use  to  the  country."  On  4th  April,  1806,  the 
convoy  for  the  Baltic  sailed  from  Leith  Roads,  in  all  about 
140  sail. 

In  consequence  of  the  distressed  state  of  the  country  in  the 
beginning  of  1811,  many  operatives  were  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment. The  gentlemen  of  Kinross-shire  resolved  to  purchase,  on 
their  own  account  and  risk,  cotton  and  Linen  yarn,  to  be  given 


M   -I.'!! 

out  to  weavers  to  be  manufactured  into  cloth,  undrr  the  direc- 
tiun  of  a  person  appointed  for  the  purpose.  Upwards  of  £4000 
was  subscribed  to  carry  out  the  measure.  The  result  of  this 
experiment  could  scarcely  be  otherwise  than  unfavourable,  as  the 
gentlemen  of  Kinross-shire,  however  good  their  intentions,  could 
nut  1,,  expected  to  compete  profitably  with  those  bred  to  the 
trade.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  such  schemes  are  wise,  aa  the 
romp. lition  they  create  is  injurious  to  the  fair  trader,  and  does 
more  harm  to  the  operatives  in  other  districts,  tlian  good  to 
those  whom  the  philanthropists  are  desirous  to  serve. 

The  quantity  of  Flax  imported  into  Scotland  in  1811  was  <)< ' '.'  l 
tons.  In  18 KM ,  there  was  a  considerable  discussion  in  the  news- 
papers of  the  day  about  the  repeal  of  the  duties  on  Linens  im- 
jNTted.  The  Glasgow  merchants  wanted  the  duty  taken  off,  as 
they  could  not  get  assortments  made  up  without  German  Linens. 

In  1816,  a  London  merchant  petitioned  Government  to  put  a 
duty  on  cotton  bagging,  the  manufacture  of  Brazil,  or  on  the  cot- 
ton wool  imported  in  it  from  Brazil,  in  order  to  encourage  the 
manufactures  of  Scotland,  which  were  then  depressed,  "  as  this 
would  cause  Scotch  bagging  to  be  used  for  Brazilian  cotton,  as 
well  as  for  American  "  The  Government  replied  that  they 
would  take  it  into  consideration.  That  year  the  machinery  of  a 
small  spinning  mill,  which  had  been  erected  at  the  back  of  Edin- 
burgh Castle,  consisting  of  8  spinning  frames  of  24  spindles 
each,  &c. ,  was  advertised  to  be  sold. 

The  progress  of  the  Linen  manufacture  in  Scotland  in 
1863  is  of  the  most  gratifying  description.  By  a  return  pre- 
sented to  th«  1  luuse  of  Commons  in  1862,  details  of  which  will 
afterwards  be  given,  ti  tland  in  the  end  of  1861, 

192  works  engaged  in  the  Flax  manufacture,  driven  by  a  mov- 
ing power  equal  to  15,391  horses,  of  which,  1 1,:OT  steam,  and 
A  water,  with  312,239  spindles  and  8,510  power-looms, 
and  employing  39,562  people.  Since  that  return  was  made  up 
the  increase  in  every  department  of  the  trade  in  almost  every 
tuwn  engaged  in  it  has  been  continuous  and  rapid,  and  the 
number  of  spindles,  power-looms,  horses'  power,  and  people  eni- 
ployed  have  been  largely  increased. 

At  one  period  a  very  large  quantity  of  Flax  was  raised  in 
but  the  cultivation  has  gradually  decreased,  until  it  is 


440 


MODERN  LINEN. 


now  all  but  extinct  in  many  counties.  In  1812  about  5000 
acres  were  grown,  worth  at  £20  an  acre  £100,000.  In  1834 
great  complaints  were  made  about  the  growth  of  Flax  at  home 
having  ceased,  and  strong  recommendations  made  to  renew  it. 
It  was  calculated  that  £48  to  £56  a  ton  could  then  be  got  for 
Scotch  Flax,  which  would  pay  the  grower  well. 

Mr  J.  Hall  Maxwell  kindly  furnished  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  acreage  under  Flax  in  Scotland  during  the  years 
when  the  statistical  inquiry,  made  by  the  Highland  and  Agri- 
cultural Society,  was  in  operation,  from  1854  to  1857.  The 
quantity  was  as  follows,  viz  : — 


COUNTIES. 

1854 

1855 

1856 

1857 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Fife,      . 
Stirling, 
Lanark, 
Dumbarton, 
Other  27  Counties, 

1.648 
1,372 
1,275 
725 
1,650 

428 
770 
746 
432 
1,085 

576 

548 
540 
352 
707 

377 
438 
309 
210 
200 

Total  Acres,   . 

6,670 

3,461 

2,723 

1,534 

Proportional  Number  of 
Acres  under  Flax, 

.189 

.098 

.077 

.043 

Unfortunately  this  is  a  gradually  diminishing  statement,  and 
it  is  to  be  feared  that  even  the  small  acreage  of  1857  has  since 
then  decreased,  but  no  statistics  have  been  taken  up  since  that 
year,  which  is  much  to  be  regretted  on  many  accounts. 

The  following  paragraph,  taken  from  a  Letter  in  the  Glasgow 
Journal,  bears  on  the  subject : — "  In  Scotland  the  growth  of 
Flax  is  very  limited.  There  are  no  authorised  statistics  pub- 
lished of  the  extent,  but  it  is  estimated  not  to  be  over  1,700  to 
1,800  acres  altogether,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  north-east 
portion  of  Lanarkshire  and  Stirlingshire.  A  small  part  is 
grown  in  Fife  and  Ayrshire. 

"  Scotch  Flax  always  commands  a  very  high  price,  and  is 
readily  sold  to  manufacturers  of  Linen  thread  who  require  great 
strength.  The  price  of  this  season  will  range  from  £60  to  £85 
per  ton,  and  cannot  fail  to  remunerate  the  grower  handsomely. 
A  half-barrel  of  seed,  costing  26s  to  30s,  should  sow  an  acre  of 


•CO-IT 1 1  i. IN  m 

land,  which  should  yield  40  to  50  imperial  stone  of  Flax,  value 
from  SB  to  10s  per  stone.  The  cost  of  working  is  estimated  at 
£3  10s  to  £4  per  am-. 

"  The  two  following  results  of  their  Flax  crop  last  season  are 
n  by  farmers  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Glasgow : — One  sowed 
10}  acres  with  six  barrels  of  Riga  seed — he  sold  the  produce  for 
£204  7s.  Another  sowed  5}  acres  with  three  barrels  seed,  and 
got  £120  5s  for  his  crop.  If  proper  skill  N  exercised  in  the 
preparation  of  the  soil,  and  care  taken  in  the  selection  of  the 
seed,  the  success  of  tlu-  1  la\  crop  is  just  as  certain  as  any 
•  'tlier;  and,  as  to  its  being  a  profitable  one,  there  is  not  the 
slightest  doubt.  For  well -handled  Scotch  flax  there  is  always  a 
ready  market  and  a  high  ]> 

"  That  a  large  and  profitable  field  is  open  to  the  farmer,  if  he 
would  lay  aside  his  prejudices,  is  ascertained  by  those  who  have 
tried  it,  and  it  is  undoubtedly  his  interest  to  take  to  Flax-grow- 
ing with  spirit,  and  to  devote  a  field  or  two  at  seed  time  to  the 
y  blue-flowered  plant." 

In  regard  to  the  culture  of  Flax  in  the  more  improved  dis- 
tricts of  Scotland,  Mr  Sheriff  "  is  convinced  that,  if  grown  as  a 
crop  and  persevered  in,  it  would  prove  destructive  both  to  the 
tenant  and  to  the  soil  he  cultivates."  Mr  Kerr  observes — "  a 
real  farmer  has  no  time  for  the  minute  attentions  required  in 
this  branch  of  husbandry,  nor  land  to  spare  for  laying  it  out  to 
grass  or  dry." 

e  two  sentences,  taken  from  the  preface  to  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair's  "  Account  of  the  Husbandry  of  Scotland,"  may  represent 
the  views  of  the  gentlemen  farmers  of  the  present  day,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  they  are  fallacious  in  every  point  of  view.  The 
crop  is  not  more  exhausting  than  several  others,  if  the  rota- 
tion be  at  sufficient  intervals,  and  if  the  refuse  and  steep  water 
be  put  on  the  land.  Where  the  seed  is  used  for  feeding  pur- 
poses, as  it  can  be  with  proper  care  without  deteriorating  the 
f  ihre,  it  is  the  very  reverse  of  an  exhausting  crop.  Large  farms 
are  inimical  to  Flax  raising,  because  it  does  require  a  consider- 
able amount  of  handling  and  care,  which  extensive  fanners  may 
not  themselves,  perhaps,  be  able  to  superintend  ;  but  an  intelli- 
gent foreman  could  soon  be  learned  to  do  this  in  a  satisfactory 
manner.  The  want  of  scutch  mills  in  the  various  districts  is  also 


442  MODERN  LINKN. 

an  obstacle  to  the  increased  cultivation  of  Flax  in  Scotland  ;  but 
the  greatest  objection  at  present  is  the  want  of  a  ready  market 
for  the  disposal  of  the  Flax.  This  the  spinners  might  obviate 
by  employing  competent  parties  to  purchase  the  Flax  in  the 
country  markets,  as  is  done  in  Ireland;  but  until  they  take  action 
in  the  matter,  it  is  vain  to  look  for  farmers  beginning  to  grow  it 
on  a  large  scale.  Scotch  Flax  is  a  superior  article,  and  admir- 
ably adapted  for  all  the  better  class  of  Linens,  and  it  brings  a 
high  price  in  the  market.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  were  farmers  to 
grow  Flax  regularly,  it  would  pay  them  better  than  any  grain 
crop.  It  is  for  their  interest,  as  well  as  for  that  of  the  spinners, 
that  the  plant  should  again  take  rank  among  the  crops  in  Scot- 
land, as  it  would  tend  to  stimulate  the  Linen  trade,  and  benefit 
the  country. 


BRITISH    LINEN    COMPANY. 

Although  the  British  Linen  Company  is  now  known  only  as 
a  Bank,  it  was  appropriately  named  on  its  first  institution. 
On  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion,  caused  by  the  last  effort 
of  the  Stuarls  to  regain  the  throne  of  their  ancestors,  it  was 
thought  that  the  settlement  and  prosperity  of  Scotland  would  be 
assisted  by  the  introduction  and  encouragement  of  such  branches 
of  industry  as  the  circumstances  of  the  country  might  point  out. 
Among  these  the  Linen  trade  appeared  conspicuous.  Accord- 
ingly, on  5th  July,  1846,  the  King's  charter  passed  for  erecting 
the  British  Linen  Company  at  Edinburgh,  with  a  capital  of 
£100,000  sterling.  The  subscribers  were  actuated  only  by  pat- 
riotic motives,  and  they  consisted  of  all  the  eminent  men  of  the 
city  and  country.  The  subscription  list  or  contract  is  a  remark- 
able document,  and  looks  more  like  the  Roll  of  Parliament  than 
a  list  of  traders. 

One  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  Company  was  to  supply  the 
British  merchants  trading  to  Africa  and  the  British  Plantations 
with  such  kind  of  Linen  cloth  as  they  had  previously  been 
obliged  to  purchase  from  foreign  nations,  whereby  it  was  hoped 


BCO'IVII   I.1NEN. 

much  money  would  be  saved  to  the  nation.  This  was  not  the 
only  object,  however,  which  the  promoters  had  in  view,  as  they 
also  intended  to  prosecute  the  Linen  trade  in  its  several  depart- 
ments. After  the  formation  and  incorporation  of  the  Company, 
they  entered  into  trade  in  the  manner  intended,  and  prosecuted 
it  with  great  success. 

Macpherson  says,  "  by  1751  the  Company  had  been  instru- 
mental in  the  advancement  of  the  Linen  manufacture  in 
Scotland,  by  advancing  ready  money  to  the  poorer  manufac- 
turers for  their  goods,  whereby  they  are  enabled  to  go  on  with 
much  more  spirit."  He  adds,  "  the  Board  of  Trustees  likewise 
bestow  annual  premiums  for  the  best  manufactures,  whereby  a 
spirit  of  industry  increases  more  and  more  in  Scotland." 

Postlethwayt,  in  his  "  Dictionary  of  Commerce,"  published 
in  1766,  says : — "  Some  years  ago,  his  Grace  the  Duke  of 
Argyle,  and  other  lords  and  gentlemen,  finding  some  difficulties 
to  attend  the  spinners  of  Flax  into  yarn,  as  well  as  the  weavers 
of  the  said  yarn  into  different  sorts  of  Linen,  by  reason  of  the  want 
of  a  ready  sale  for  their  goods,  and  they  being  made  to  keep 
them  on  hand  for  a  market,  were  often  obliged  to  sell  them  at 
an  under  value,  to  the  great  prejudice  of  the  manufacture.  On 
these  considerations  they  were  incorporated  by  a  charter  from 
his  present  Majesty,  under  the  name  of  the  British  Linen  Com- 
pany, with  a  capital  of  £100,000,  for  trading  in  all  branches  of 
this  manufacture.  They  import  Flax  from  abroad,  linseed,  pot 
and  wood  ashes  for  bleaching,  and  sell  them  on  credit  to  proper 
hands,  then  buy  the  yarn  and  Linen,  all  at  reasonable  prices  ; 
which  Linen,  particularly  the  sort  corresponding  to  Osnaburgs, 
<fcc.,  fit  for  America  and  the  West  Indies,  they  keep  in  large 
warehouses  both  here  and  at  London,  where  they  are  sold  for 
exportation." 

Although  it  is  rarely  safe  to  pronounce  authoritatively  on  the 
reason  of  any  social  change,  in  which  many  causes  and  elements 
are  usually  combined,  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  the  Linen  trade  un- 
derwent a  rapid  development  after  the  establishment  of  the  Bri- 
tish Linen  Company ;  and  no  doubt  part  of  that  progess  is  due 
to  the  assistance  they  rendered  to  traders  and  others  engaged  in 
the  manufacture.  The  Company  were  not  long  in  discovering  that 
their  assistance  could  be  best  given  by  advancing  money  to  the 


444  MODERN  LINEN. 

individuals  engaged  in  it,  and  allowing  them  to  prosecute  the 
manufacture  on  their  own  account,  free  from  the  competition  of 
a  corporation.  This  led  the  Company  to  withdraw  from  the 
direct  dealing  in  yarns  and  Linens,  and  to  adopt  banking  as 
their  sole  business.  As  bankers,  they  are  now  only  known  in 
this  country,  and  as  such  have  been  very  prosperous.  Their 
capital  has  been  increased  from  time  to  time  to  £1.000,000,  and 
yields  a  dividend  of  10  per  cent,  per  annum.  The  establishment 
in  Dundee  has  occasional  applications  from  parties  at  a  distance 
for  prices  of  yarns  and  Linens,  and  with  proposals  for  business. 
After  the  institution  of  the  Company,  they  had  an  agent  in 
Dundee,  for  the  purchase  and  sale  of  goods,  of  the  name  of  Pal- 
mer, but  that  agency  was  long  discontinued  before  the  present 
Branch  Bank  Establishment  was  opened  there  in  1811. 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES  FOR  MANUFACTURES. 

After  the  union  of  Scotland  and  England,  in  1707,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  day  did  much  to  encourage  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  the  lesser  kingdom.  With  this  view  various  expedients 
were  resorted  to,  some  of  which  were  of  doubtful  utility,  but 
others  proved  really  beneficial  to  the  country.  The  culminating 
act  of  the  Legislature  was  the  institution  of  a  Board  of  Trustees 
for  Manufactures,  with  certain  funds  at  their  disposal  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  objects  contemplated,  and  certain  privi- 
leges and  powers  for  carrying  out  and  fulfilling  these  objects. 

The  following  details  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Trustees  have 
been  extracted  from  their  Minutes  and  Annual  Keports,  and  they 
are  interesting  as  showing  the  means  taken  to  foster  the  Linen 
trade  in  Scotland.  Incidentally,  the  progress  of  the  trade  and 
the  state  of  the  country  can  be  gathered  from  the  proceedings 
of  the  Trustees  in  a  clearer  manner  than  from  any  other  data 
extant,  and  an  account  of  the  Linen  Trade  in  Scotland  would 
have  been  incomplete  without  these  valuable  extracts  : — 

"  His  Majesty's  Patent  for  Improving  Fisheries  and  Manu- 
factures in  Scotland"  Registered  and  sealed  at  Edinburgh, 
18th  July,  1727. 


SCOKH    UN: 

Considering  that  l.y  lf>tli  article  of  the  Treaty  of  I'liion.  it  is 
provided  that  an  annuity  of  £2000  per  annum  be  appropriated 
t'<  >r  seven  years,  for  promoting  manufactures  of  coarse  wool :  Con- 
sidering that  by  act  5th,  George  I.,  an  annuity  of  £2000  per 
annum  be  payable  out  of  the  Revenues  of  Scotland,  in  lieu  of  the 
Equivalent  claimed  by  Scotland  under  Treaty  of  Union,  to  be 
applied  to  the  encouragement  of  the  Fisheries  and  Manufactures 
of  Scotland  :  Considering  that  by  act  12th,  Geo.  I.,  it  is  among 
other  things  provided  that,  should  the  Malt  Tax.  of  3d  per  bushel, 
levied  in  Scotland,  produce  a  larger  sum  than,  £20,000  clear  of 
all  charges  of  management,  the  surplus  shall  be  applied  to  the 
encouraging  of  the  Fisheries  and  Manufactures  of  Scotland  : 
Considering  that  by  act  13th  Geo.  I.,  passed  for  encouraging  and 
promoting  the  Fisheries  and  Manufactures  of  Scotland,  it  is  pro- 
vided that  a  plan  may  be  laid  down  by  His  Majesty  for  that  end, 
with  proper  KuK  s  and  Regulations  for  the  distribution  of  the 
Funds  available  for  the  purpose  ;  And  that  His  Majesty  may,  by 
Letters  Patent,  appoint  Commissioners,  not  exceeding  twenty- 
one,  for  managing  and  distributing  these  funds :  We  have, 
therefore,  and  for  the  good  of  our  people,  and  for  advancing  and 
promoting  such  Fisheries  and  Manufactures  in  Scotland,  as  may 
most  conduce  to  the  general  advantage  of  our  United  Kingdom, 
thought  fit  to  ordain  a  letter,  to  be  passed  under  the  great  seal, 
<fcc.,  &c.,  directing  the  several  sums  above  mentioned,  to  be  paid 
to  the  Receiver  General  of  Scotland  for  the  purposes  above  men- 
tioned, viz., — the  encouragement  and  improvement  of  the  Fishe- 
ries and  Manufactures  of  Scotland,  in  the  manner  and  by  the 
rules  hereinafter  mentioned,  viz. : — 

3.  The  £14,000,  due  under  Treaty  of  Union  for  improvement 
of  woollen  manufacture,  be  lent  out  at  interest. 

4.  £6000  of  arrears  of  annuity  (5th  Geo.  I.),  to  be  also  lent 
out. 

5.  Interest  of  said  £GOOO,  with  future  annuity  of  £2000,  and 
surplus  of  Malt  Duty,  be  equally  divided  between  the  Fisheries 
and  Manufactures  of  Scotland. 

6.  Further  arrears  of  said  Annuity,  and  of  surplus  of  Malt 
Duty  which  may  not  be  yearly  employed,  may  remain  in  the 
Receiver-General's  hands  for  carrying  out  the  general  plan. 

1 1 .  £1500  to  be  annually  distributed  on  premiums  at  the  rate 
of  1 5s  per  acre  for  the  sowing  of  Lint  or  Hemp  seed. 

12. — £400  to  be  allowed  annually  as  salaries  to  Lappers  and 
Stamp-masters  at  £10  each. 

13.  £250  to  be  given  as  salaries  for  two  "  General  Riding 
Officers  "  or  Inspectors. 

14.  £100  to  be  allowed  for  expenses  of  prosecutions  against 
those  who  shall  transgress  the  rules. 


446  MODERN  LINEN. 

1 5.  £150  "  for  encouraging  Schools  for  teaching  children  from 
the  age  of  8  years  to  that  of  14  years  to  spin." 

16.  £50  for  models  of  best  sort  of  Looms  and  other  instru- 
ments connected  with  the  Linen  trade. 

17.  £200  in  several  small  prizes  to  housewives  "  who  shall 
make  the  best  piece  of  Linen  cloth." 

22.  Interest  of  £14,000  to  be  appropriated  to  encouragement  of 
woollen  manufacture. 

23.  Interest  of  £6000,  and  annuity  of  £2000,  and  surplus  of 
Malt  Duty,  be  apportioned  by  equal  halves  to  Fisheries  and 
Linen  manufacture. 

24.  The  Commissioners  yearly  to  estimate,  1st,  the  funds 
which  may  for  that  year  be  at  their  disposal,  and  2d,  the  amount 
which  may  for  that  year  be  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  ob- 
jects of  the  Trust. 

25.  Plan  of  distribution  of  funds  to  be  for  three  successive 
years,  and  not  for  one  year  only. 

26  to  36.  Commissioners  to  make  necessary  regulations ;  plan 
of  distribution  of  premiums ;  how  preferences  for  premiums  are 
to  be  determined ;  and  as  to  matters  of  detail. 

37.  Commissioners  to  render  annual  accounts. 

38.  Commissioners  to  submit  plan  of  next  year's  distribution 
to  His  Majesty  for  approval. 

39.  Authorizes  Commissioners  to  propose  alterations. 

40.  When  not  a  quorum  of  Trustees  (by  reason  of  death  or 
resignation  or  otherwise),  His  Majesty  to  name  21  new  Trustees 
by  a  new  charter. 

The  others  not  given  above  relate  to  Fisheries,  and  to  appoint- 
ment and  powers  of  Commissioners. 

Manner  in  which  Funds  were  employed : — 

Premiums  for  lint  seed  sown  at  15s  per  acre.  Afterwards 
increased  to  20s  per  acre. 

Premiums  for  best  cloth  manufactured. 

Salaries  of  Stamp-masters  and  Inspectors. 

Assistance  to  Bleachers  in  fitting  up  their  Bleachfields. 
Do-       to  Mill-scutchers  for  fitting  up  mills. 

Awards  for  new  discoveries  or  improvements. 

Salaries  to  spinning  school  mistresses,  and  in  some  instances 
to  weaving  schools. 

Salaries  to  foreign  manufacturers  for  teaching  best  mode  of 
weaving,  preparing  Flax,  making  reeds  and  looms. 

Expenses  of  prosecutions  for  infraction  of  their  regulations. 

Distribution  of  Flax  and  Hemp  seed  to  poor  people. 

Gifts  of  looms,  wheels,  reels,  &c.,  to  poor  people,  to  enable 
them  to  begin  business. 

Premiums  for  Flax  seed  saved,  at  Is  per  peck. 


SC'OT.  II   LINES!.  117 

mill.-  1'imiislK-d  to  women  for  comnn-nrin^ 


making. 

I'n-miuins  paid  for  taking  apprentices. 

i:\lra  fund  for  growth  of  Flax  —  granted  in  1771.  In  pre- 
miums chiefly  tor  the  best  and  greatest  quant  it  i«  ^  <•!'  Ha\  raised. 

Regulations  were  contained  in  the  Act  of  Parliam.  nt  UJ  !•«• 
observed  by  the  spinners,  weavers,  and  stamp-masters  from  and 
alter  1st  November  1727,  among  which  wore  —  "  Every  we 
shall  make  all  the  Warp  of  every  piece  of  Cloth  of  equal  fine- 
and  t  lie  Weft  of  one  Fineness,  and  proportionate  1<>  tin- 
Warp,  and  no  piece  of  Cloth  shall  be  made  Coarser  or  Thinner 
in  one  place  than  another,  and  no  Lint  or  Tow  yarn  shall  !•«* 
put  in  the  same  piece,  upon  pain  of  forfeiting  their  Security, 
and  being  disabled  to  be  a  Weaver  until  new  Security  be  found 
by  him."  "  Lappers  may  enter  into  Buck-houses,  Bleach-yards, 
or  other  places,  and  Search  the  same  for  Lime,  Pigeon's  Dung, 
an^  Soap  Dregs,  and  upon  proof  before  one  or  more  Justices  of 
Peace,  or  *  Magistrat  of  Burrows/  that  any  of  the  above  mate- 
terials  has  been  mixed  or  used  with  any  Lees  in  Bleaching,  the 
offender  shall  forfeit  Five  pounds  sterling,  and  the  cloth  or  yarn 
so  Bleached  to  the  Informer,  and  be  rendered  incapable  to  Bleach 
for  two  years  following." 

The  distribution  of  the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  Board  for 
three  years  from  Christmas  1727,  is  given  in  the  "  Popular 
Lectures,"  pages  234  and  235.  It  is  there  shown  that  £150  was 
given  for  encouraging  spinning  schools.  This  sum  was  divided 
as  follows  : 

To  four  Schools  for  introducing  Spinning  into  the  Highlands,  or  places 

where  it  it  least  understood,  £10  per  annum  for  each  School,        .  £40 

To  three  Schools  for  teaching  the  dressing  of  Flax  and  Spinning  thereof 
into  fine  yarn  fit  for  thread  or  Cambric*,  one  at  £50  and  two  at  £30 
per  annum,  .......  110 

£150 

Conditions  on  which  these  four  Schools  are  /o  be  settled  :  — 

1.  Provides  for  mistress  having  a  certificate  of  character  i'mm 
the  Kirk  Session,  and  of  capacity  to  teach  spinning  from  the 
Magistrates  of  the  burgh  or  Justices  of  the  Peace  of  the  county 
in  which  she  resides. 

2.  That  in  eaeh  school  be  taught  at  least  fourteen  scholars, 
aged  from  eight  to  fourteen  years. 

3.  That  they  be  taught  six  hours  every  lawful  day,  from  13th 
Oct.  yearly,  to  15th  April  thereafter. 

4.  That  the  mistress  shall  furnish  lint  to  such  of  the  scholars 
as  cannot  provide  themselves,  and  shall  have  the  profit  of  their 
work. 


448  MODERN  LINES'. 

5.  That  when  the  scholars  do  furnish  themselves  with  lint,  or 
have  it  furnished  on  their  account,  the  profit  of  the  work  shall 
be  to  the  scholar. 

6.  That  such  scholars  as  do  attend  the  said  school  for  the 
three  seasons  contracted  for,  have  their  wheels  which  they  have 
used  for  themselves. 

7.  That  so  soon  as  the  mistress  has  provided  a  house  and  en- 
gaged scholars,  the  14  wheels  shall  be  delivered  to  her  on  receipt.. 

Extracts  from  the  Minutes  and  Annual  Reports  of  the  Trustees. 

On  17th  August,  1727,  the  Commissioners,  among  their  first 
acts  made  the  following  proposals  to  Nicholas  D'Assaville  of  St 
Quintin,  cambric  weaver  : — 

"  To  bring  over  ten  experienced  men,  weavers  of  cambric, 
with  their  families,  to  settle  in  this  country,  and  to  teach  their 
art  to  others." 

Each  master  to  be  provided  with  a  house,  &c.,  during  life,  and 
to  be  furnished  with  all  materials  for  making  up  four  looms  for 
his  own  use,  gratis.  That  each  master  shall  be  obliged  to  take 
an  apprentice  every  five  years,  for  five  years,  and  to  teach  him 
his  trade.  That  said  N.  D'Assaville  shall  bring  over  also  a 
maker  of  brushes,  cambs,  &c.,  to  settle  in  this  country. 

1727. — David  Donald  invented  a  machine  for  beating  and 
bruising  Flax.  Tried  and  approved  of. 

1728.  — Proposal  made  by  James  Adair,  Belfast,  to  introduce 
the  Linen  trade  into  G-alloway,  by  bringing  over  his  son  and  20 
weavers,  and  fitting  up  a  bleachfield.  Approved  of. 

Kichard  Holden,  of  Warrington,  Ireland,  writes  Trustees  as 
to  his  invention  of  a  rolling  press,  and  an  engine  for  examining 
and  measuring  cloth. 

Keport  complains  that  out  of  the  2000  acres  expected  to  be 
sown  with  linseed,  only  315  had  been  contracted  for. 

That  they  had  offered  premiums  to  those  who  should  erect 
bleachfields,  and  that  several  parties  having  appeared  to  offer, 
they  had  agreed  to  devote  £2000  among  them  in  premiums,  at 
the  rate  of  £50  per  acre  so  fitted  up. 

The  Trustees  finding  that  the  art  of  preparing  Flax  for  the 
heckle  was  little  known  in  Scotland,  sent  over  James  Spalding, 
of  Bonnington  Mills,  to  inspect  the  mode  practised  on  the  Con- 
tinent, who  on  his  return  invented  a  machine,  by  which  the 
Trustees  think  Flax  will  in  future  be  dressed  better  and  more 
cheaply. 

This  year  7  spinning  schools  were  set  up. 

The  foreign  reedmaker  settles  in  the  country. 

1729. — Spinning  school  offered  to  Dundee,  but  refused,  that 
town  having  no  funds  to  devote  to  such  a  purpose. 


I. IN  449 

By  several  accounts  it  app.-and  tli;ii  "tin'  rollers  made  1«\   I  >. 
I  >.>nald,  as  fitted  up  to  go  by  water,  did  bruise  the  Flax  ex< 
inglv  well,  especially  at  Oera  in  I 

Improv, -ments  made  in  machine  f<>r  dressing  Flax.  and  it  was 
made 1<>  gu  liy  water,  from  which  a  C«»IM<  Icnible  saving  of  expense 
\v.-is  t-xpected.  On  the  report  of  a  eommittee  a  premium  was 
awarded  Spalding  tor  his  lint  maehine  set  up  at  Uonnington 
Mills,  as  it  did  the  work  Letter  than  hand -beaters  and  scutchers. 

Heckles  were  hitherto  made  "with  short  brass  teeth,  by  a 
sort  of  strollers  called  tinkers."  Some  patterns  with  l..ng 
ste.-l  teeth  were  this  year  brought  from  Kn-land  and  Hol- 
land, and  an  attempt  was  made  in  this  country  to  imitate 
them. 

Ten  Protestant  cambric  weavers,  with  their  families,  consist- 
ing in  all  of  !W  per-<>n>,  wen- this  year  brought  from  France,  and 
maintained  in  Kdinburgh  at  the  public  charge  until  proper 
hoii^-s  and  vault^could  be  got  fitted  up  for  them  to  carry  on  t  heir 
trade.  Next  year  they  got  houses  at  Broughton  Loan. 

Linen  M'-aclifields  were  erected  this  year. 

The  Trustees  brought  over  from  Ireland  Richard  Holden, 
skilled  in  several  branches  of  the  Linen  manufacture  salary 
£130),  for  teaching  the  weavers  the  best  methods  of  working 
their  cloth,  and  directed  him  to  travel  through  the  country  for 
that  end. 

1 730. — Two  of  the  French  women  appointed  to  instruct  the 
women  in  the  spinning  of  fine  yarn  for  cambric.  A  Dutchman 
brought  over  to  instruct  the  weavers  in  the  use  of  the  Dutch 
loom. 

Two  processes  for  folding  and  lapping  cloth  brought  from 
Holland  and  set  up  at  Glasgow. 

1731. — A  deputation  from  Dunfermline  wait  on  the  Board. 
having  inspected  a  new  diaper  loom  iitted  up  by  Richard  Hol- 
den, at  the  Cameron,  n  ai  Kdinlmrgh,  and  find  it  very  superior 
to  those  formerly  in  use.  Board  order  it  to  be  introduced  at 
Dunfermline.  The  old  loom  required  the  use  of  a  "  draw  boy" 
to  assist  the  weaver  in  making  the  figure.  By  the  new  loom 
the  weaver  can  make  the  figure  himself. 

A  skilful  Flax  raider  from  Flanders  brought  over  to  instruct 
in  raising  and  dressing  Max,  salary  £25  4s.  Some  steps  taken 
for  introducing  the  manufacture  of  that  kind  of  Linen  used  for 
shirting  in  the  army. 

1732. — Dean  of  Guild,  Dundee,  sends  over  to  Board  snmpl-- 
of  coarse  cloth,  whitened  with  kelp  by  Richard  Holden,  being 
cheaper  than  other  materials.  Trustees  propose  to  erect  such 
bleaching  fields  at  Dundee  and  Dunfermline.  Holden  fits  up  a 
bleach  field  for  this  purpose  at  Pitkerro,  near  Dundee. 
F  F 


450  MODERN  LINEN. 

265  acres  sown  with  linseed. 

Dispute  as  to  2d  housewives'  prize  for  cloth  at  Irving,  settled 
by  ordering  it  to  be  given  to  Mrs  Semple,  spouse  of  minister  at 
Dreghorn,  "  whose  piece  on  oath  was  adjudged  to  be  the  best." 

1733. — More  Flax  dressers  and  hecklers  brought  over. 

The  Trustees  state  that  the  Linen  manufacture  was  then  in  a 
flourishing  condition,  but  they  mention  that  great  quantities  of 
Linen  yarn  are  daily  bought  up  in  Scotland  and  exported  to 
Ireland  and  other  parts,  and  that  this  practice  has  been  growing 
for  some  years.  They  call  His  Majesty's  attention  to  this,  and 
say,  u  though  it  be  beneficial  at  present,  it*  may  require  to  be 
put  under  some  restraint  by  a  law,  as  it  raises  the  price  of  yarn, 
without  which  no  cloth  can  be  made/'  They  add,  "As  the  de- 
mand for  yarn  invites  the  poorer  sort  of  people  to  spin,  and  is  a 
means  of  propagating  and  rendering  universal  that  branch  of 
the  trade,  they  thought  the  purchasing  of  it  by  foreigners  may 
be  winked  at  for  some  time,  till,  by  the  encouragement  which 
the  demand  for  yarn  gives,  the  country  be  sufficiently  stocked 
with  spinners." 

1734. — Considerable  quantities  of  yarn  began  now  to  be  ex- 
ported to  England. 

The  Trustees  petition  for  an  Act  of  Parliament,  "exuming 
from  duties  the  materials  to  be  used  in  whitening  at  such 
bleachfields  as  should  be  licensed  by  the  Trustees." 

1737. — "  The  warping  mill — a  machine  for  warping  webs,  which 
was  first  brought  over  to  this  country  a  few  years  ago  by  the 
Dutch  weavers,  was  this  year  considerably  improved  by  an  in- 
genious tradesman  of  this  country." 

"Our  tradesmen  did  also  this  year  acquire  the  perfect  skill 
of  the  reed  banks  (brought  over  last  year  by  the  Dutch  reed- 
maker),  a  very  curious  machine,  without  the  help  of  which  no 
proper  weaving  reed  could  be  made." 

1738. — 124  acres  sown  with  linseed. 

The  Trustees  caused  patterns  of  the  different  sorts  of  coarse 
Linens  made  in  the  manufacturing  countries  of  the  Continent, 
and  most  in  demand  for  low  uses  in  the  American  Plantations, 
to  be  brought  over  here,  and  to  be  distributed  over  the  country 
to  be  imitated  by  our  weavers. 

The  Trustees  this  year  give  their  countenance  to  some 
trials  that  were  made  for  introducing  into  this  country  the 
manufacture  of  Tape  and  Inkle. 

1739. — The  Trustees  observe  that  the  coarse  Linen  manu- 
facture improved  but  slowly  in  comparison  with  the  fine. 

1740. — The  Trustees  observing  a  taste  for  thread  stockings 
prevailing  in  the  country,  applied  for  and  obtained  His  Majesty's 
permission  to  offer  encouragement  for  setting  up  stocking  looms. 


SCOT-  H   LINEN.  451 

The  Trustees  ordered  several  trials  to  be  made  l«-r  obtaining 

tin-  skill  of  spinning  that  slack  and  gross  kind  of  yam  that  is  tit 

'  >snal>iirgs  and  other  coarse  Linens  used  in  the  American 

Plantations-.   ;md   directed  sundry   experiments   to  be  made  of 

making  these  kinds  of  goods  fn.ni  yarn  spun  in  this  country. 

Tin-  niannfactnrc  of  fine  Lin.  Of  1-  gun  very  much   to  p: 
in  Kdinhupjli. 

The  coarse  manufacture  decreased  this  year,  which  was  in  a 
preat  measure  owing  to  the  vigour  of  the  frost .  which  made  it 
impossible  for  the  weavers  of  coarse  cloth,  who  are  commonly 
hut  ill  accommodated  in  houses,  to  carry  on  their  work ;  and  to 
the  very  great  scarcity  of  provisions,  which  obliged  many  of 
them  to  leave  their  employments,  and  to  enlist  as  soldiers  in 
His  Majesty's  service. 

1741. — A  press  set  up  by  the  Trustees  for  trimming  and 
pressing  thread  stockings  after  the  form  of  those  in  England. 

1742. — The  thread  manufacture  continued  remarkably  to  im- 
prove and  increase,  which  was  attributed  to  a  certain  firmness 
or  toughness  in  the  Flax  raised  in  this  country  which  was  not 
to  be  found  in  the  foreign. 

Some  small  quantities  of  Osnaburgs  began  now  to  be  made, 
particularly  at  Dundee  and  Arbroath.  An  attempt  again  made 
in  Parliament  to  take  off  the  drawback  on  foreign  Linens  ex- 
ported to  the  British  Plantations,  which  failed  of  success, 

1 743. — A  warping  machine  invented  by  Patrick  M'Gillewie, 
merchant  in  Perth,  by  which  one  person  can  do  as  much  as 
twenty  formerly  could  by  the  old  method. 

The  scheme  of  1732  for  promoting  the  cambric  manufacture 
by  erecting  a  warehouse,  and  impressing  money  into  the  ware- 
house keeper's  1  lands  for  advancing  to  the  foreigners  part  of  the 
price  of  their  cloth  upon  lodging  it  in  the  warehouse,  to  be  re- 
placed when  the  cloth  was  sold,  having  been  found  not  to  answer 
the  purpose  intended,  was  abandoned;  and  the  halance  ot 
money  lying  in  the  warehouse  keeper's  hands  was  lent  to  two 
yarn  traders  of  this  country,  free  of  interest  fur  six  years,  and  to 
give  them  the  £100  per  annum  allowed  to  the  warehouse  keeper, 
on  condition  that  they  supplied  the  foreign  weavers  with  yarn  at 
prime  cost,  and  made  a  considerable  addition  to  the  number  of 
looms  now  employed  in  that  trade. 

1744 — The  Trustees  proposed  to  set  up  Lint  P.oors  (a-  in  Hol- 
land), whose  business  was  to  purchase  the  crop  of  Flax  from  the 
farmers,  and  prepare  it  for  yarn  themselves.  This  was  carried 
out  in  1745. 

1745. — Report  adverts  to  the  Rebellion,  as  related  in  the 
"  Popular  L< 

1746. — An  ingenious  method  of  throwing  the  shuttle  in  broad 
r  f2 


452  MODERN  LINEN. 

looms  invented  this  year  by  John  Johnston,  a  Scotchman,  for 
which  he  is  awarded  £50. 

1747.-  Several  improvements  made  in  the  different  sorts  of 
spinning  wheels. 

A  very  remarkable  change  began  now  to  be  observable  in  the 
Linen  manufacture.  The  fabric  of  the  coarse  cloth  was  much 
improved,  and  the  quantity  made  greatly  increased,  which  was 
attributed  to  the  bounty  lately  granted  on  the  exportation  of 
coarse  Linen ;  and  to  a  great  spirit  for  manufacture  promoted 
over  the  country  by  means  of  the  British  Linen  Company,  which 
was  erected  last  year  by  a  charter  from  His  Majesty. 

1748. — The  Trustees  did  this  year,  in  consequence  of  the 
power  given  them  by  Law,  alter  the  names  of  certain  species  of 
Linen  manufactured  in  this  country.  Osnaburgs  they  called 
Edinburgs,  cambrics  were  named  Carolines,  &c.  936  acres 
sown  with  Flax  seed. 

1749.— 1094  acres  sown  with  Flax  seed. 

1750. — Premiums  for  sowing  seed  discontinued,  owing  to 
want  of  funds. 

1753. — This  year  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  giving 
£3000  per  for  nine  years  (in  addition  to  £2000  formerly 

fo 


inted),  to  the  Trustees  for  improving  manufactures  in 
Scotland,  to  be  applied  by  them  for  "the  encouraging  and 
improving  the  manufacture  of  Linen  in  the  Highlands 
only.  No  part  of  said  sum  to  be  applied  for  any  other  use 
than  for  instructing  and  exciting  the  inhabitants  of  that 
part  of  Scotland  to  raise,  prepare,  and  spin  Flax  and  Hemp 
to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  Linens,  and  to  weave 
yarn  there  spun  into  such  Linen,  and  for  providing  the  inhabi- 
tants with  fit  materials  and  utensils  for  these  purposes,  and  for 
distributing  rewards  and  prizes  to  the  growers,  preparers,  spin- 
ners, weavers,  and  other  manufacturers,  in  respect  either  to  the 
quantity  or  excellence  of  the  Flax  or  Hemp  so  raised  or  pre- 
pared, and  of  the  yarn  so  spun,  wove,  or  otherwise  manufac- 
tured, and  for  such  other  like  uses  as  the  Commissioners  shall 
think  proper  for  promoting  the  true  interest  of  this  Act."  This 
at  the  time  was  a  judicious  act,  and  calculated  to  wean  the  tur- 
bulent Highlanders  from  their  predatory  and  warlike  propensi- 
ties, and  to  instil  a  spirit  of  industry  among  them  instead. 

1754. — By  order  of  the  Board,  the  General  Surveyor  of  the 
Manufacture  of  the  Highlands  made  a  tour  of  inspection  to 
Lochcarrron,  Lochbroom,  Glenmoriston,  &c.,  in  August  this 
year,  with  the  view  of  establishing  stations  there  for  introducing 
the  Linen  manufacture,  so  as  to  carry  out  the  views  of  the  Go- 
vernment in  granting  the  £3000  per  annum.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  one  of  the  managers  of  the  British  Linen  Company. 


, 

Their    report  \i-r\  curious  account    of  tin-    iu;iiiiii  rs  and 

•  of  living    iu    the    I  Hollands   at    th   '    '  AS    th 
noticed   in  the  •'  Popular  LeOtUie,"  Onjj  ii"1 
mentioned  there  will  be  given  heiv.    "  'J                         <  ner.dly  spin 
what  little  wool  is  n.  OGMBiy  f«>r  the  use  of  the  family  on  the  Jig- 
tatf.  in   a  very   slow  and   iinpert'eet    manner.      In  summer  they 
rut  with  a  sickle  what  little  grass  grow*  round  their  houses, and 
it  takes   ten  or  twelve  women  a  whole  day  to  cut  as  much  as  a 
man  would  do  in  an  hour  or  two  with  a  scythe,  whi< -h   they  are 
not  at  all  acquainted  with."    M  Men  servants  are  engagt  d  by  the 
halt-year,  and  are  allowed  for  wages  from  8  to  10  merk<.  with 
;>  pairs  of  shoes,  each  pair  reckoned  to  be  worth  Is.     Women 
get  3  to  4  inerks  of  wages  per  half-year,  with  an  apron,  &c.,  to 
the  value  of  1  merk,  and  '2  pairs  of  shoes,  valued  at  8d  per  pair.'' 
"  The  farmers'  houses  are  much  better  than  those  of  the  poorer 
class.     The  side  walls  are  made  of  stakes  stuck  into  the  ground, 
which  are  wattled  with  the  branches  of  trees,  outside  oi  which 
is  a  wall  of  turf,  with  divots  turned  over  it  like  slates.     The 
roof  is  supported  with  coupled  trees  fixed  in  the  ground.     These 
are  wattled  with  small  wood,  over  which  divots  are  laid,  and 
then  it  is  thatched  with  straw,  stubble  or  ferns.      The  proprie- 
tor furnished  the  wood  for  the  farm  house  ;  and,  exclusive  oi  the 
wood,  the  farmer  reckons  the  cost  of  the  house  to  be  from  £1 
10s  to  .£3  10s,  according  to  dimensions/'     "  The  fire  in  the 
houses  of  the  lower  rank  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  floor, 
arouud  which  they  put  trees  or  branches,  behind  which  they  lay 
heath   for  beds,   where   the  family   sleep   promiscuously,   few 
of  them  having  any  other  covering  than  their  body  clothes. 
Nigh  many  of  the  villages  is  a  little  cornfield,  not  sufficient  to 
maintain  a  fifth  of  the  inhabitants.     Few  of  them  have  any 
gardens,  or  know  the  use  of  roots  and  greens.     On  the  sea  coast 
in   some  i 'laces  Irish  beef,  mutton,  cheese,  and  butter,  were 
plentiful,  and  the  people  fed  well,  but  in  others  milk,  and  the 
blood  of  their  cattle,  supported  them  the  whole  summer.     Their 
clothing   seldom  covered    all   their   bodies,  and   it   \\ 
changed  till  Worn  into  rags." 

1755. — The  TniMees  reported  that  the  cambric  manufacture 
established  in  Kdinburgh  by  foreign  weavers  had  not  answered, 
the  prohibition  against  the  wear  and  importation  of  French  cam- 
bric  having  greatly  increased   smugglim;.   and    throv 
quantities  of  French  cambric  into  the  country  duty 

1758. — The  Trustees  report  that  the  malt  duty  had  lor  several 

-  yielded  no  surplus  tor  the  purposes  of  the  TnM. 

1761. — The  Trustees  complain  that  manufacturers  are  obliged 
to  import  great  quantities  of  yam  from  Hamburg,  Fl.  nders.and 
other  plare>  ahro.nl.  the  -nppl\  here  n,.t  he  ing  sufficient,  and 


454  MODERN  LINEN. 

that  this  foreign  yarn  is  in  m&>ny  respects  urisuited  for  the  manu- 
facture of  Britain. 

1762. — Complaints  are  made  of  violation  of  agreement  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  of  date  1718,  whereby  "All 
white  and  brown  Linen  cloth  of  the  manufacture  of  Great  Bri- 
tain is  to  be  imported  into  Ireland  duty  free,  so  long  as  it  shall 
continue  lawful  to  export  from  Ireland  directly  to  the  British 
Plantations  all  sorts  of  white  and  brown  Linen  cloth  of  the 
manufacture  of  Ireland." 

"  Account  of  surplus  of  malt  duty,  which  have  been  re- 
ceived by  us  for  promoting  the  Fisheries  and  Manufactures  of 
Scotland — 

From  Midsummer  1726  to  Midsummer  1733,  being  7  years,     £19,168  16    6 
From  Midsummer  1733  to  Midsummer  1751,  being  18  years,      18,088  10    2£ 


£37,257    6 


Since  midsummer  1751  no  surplus  had  been  received." 

"  The  account  of  funds  received  yearly  at  this  time  is  as 
follows : — 

1.  The  annuity  of  .....  £2000 

Settled  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  discharge  of 
the  Equivalent  due  to  Scotland  by  the  Treaty 
of  Union. 

2.  One  year's  Interest  of  £40,000,  formerly  applicable 

to  the  said  Improvements,  lodged  with  the 

Kbyal  Bank  of  Scotland,         .  .  .  2000 

£4000 


And  surplus  of  malt  duty  when  any." 

1763. — A  new  machine  for  swingling  Flax  invented,  "  of 
small  expense  and  portable,  that  is  wrought  by  the  foot  like 
a  turning  loom,  is  much  safer  for  the  Flax  than  the  water  mill, 
and  subject  to  none  of  its  inconveniences." 

The  woollen  and  cotton  manufactures  are  gaining  ground 
slowly,  and  the  Trustees  complain  that  many  are  deserting  the 
Linen  trade  for  these  others,  "  where,  by  the  want  of  regulations, 
they  have  a  greater  opportunity  to  employ  their  ingenuity  in 
fraudulent  practices." 

A  weaving  school  at  Coupar- Angus  is  mentioned. 

A  salary  given  to  an  agent  in  London  for  buying  up  insuffi- 
cient cloth  of  Scotch  manufacture,  &c. 

1765. — A  Linen  Hall  set  up  in  Edinburgh,  and  four  general 
markets  are  proposed  to  be  held  there  annually. 


s<  «>T(   11    I 

17(3(1.— Tin'  ;ij>pr<.j>ri,itiuii  ma.le  la>f  s.-ssimi  of  Parliament  of 
£15,000  per  annum  for  promoting  the  growth  of  Klax  and 
Hemp  in  (in-iit  Britain  is  noticed. 

1768.— The  prohibition  «.f  importation  of  foreign  cambric,  and 
additional  duties  on  foreign  lawn,  have  doix  injury  to  the  home 
mnnufaetmv  by  increasing  smuggling. 

1772. — The  Trustees  propose  to  encourage  the  raising  of  Hemp, 
for  the  manufacture  of  Hempen  Osnaburgs  and  ^hidings,  of 
which  great  quantities  are  yearly  imported  t'mm  alm.ad. 

The  Trustees  purchase  the  west  wiim  of  the  New  Exchange, 
Edinburgh,  tor  their  office*,  ^c.,  for  the  sum  of  £1,331  10s. 

In  1772  there  were  252  Lint  mills  iii  Scotland,  distributed 
among  the  various  countries  as  follows  : — 

Abei  ;  .         .        7  Brought  Forward,          .     10'2 

Ayr,     .  .22  Haddington,  .         .         1 


Bamff, 


Dumfries,    . 
Dumbarton, 
Edinburgh, 
Elgin, 


8  Kincardine,              .         .  2 

1  Kinross,          ...  5 

1  Lanark,          ...  31 
16  Linlithgow,    ...  4 

2  Perth,    ....  73 


.         3  Renfrew,        ...        3 

Fife,     ....       11  Rosa,      ....         3 

Forfar,          .         .         .31  Stirling,         ...       28 

Carryforward,        .     102  Total,          .        .    252 

1773. — The  Trustees  notice  the  introduction  of  several  new 
kinds  of  manufacture,  such  as  the  making  of  gauzes  and  thread 
at  Paisley,  and  the  making  of  several  kinds  of  fine  thread  in  imi- 
tation  of  what  is  made  at  Lisle  in  Flanders;  and  that  the  spin- 
ning of  silk,  cotton,  and  wool  has  been  extended  considerably. 

1776.— Interest  on  .£40,000  in  Royal  Bank  reduced  to  4J  per 
cent,  on  llth  November  1776. 

1770 — Paid  William  Alison  &  Co.,  Dundee,  towards  expense 
of  establishing  an  extensive  manufacture  of  buckrams  at  Dun- 
dee, £50. 

1782. — A  Lancashire  wheel  for  spinning  cotton  granted  to 
Eleanor  Tomlnce,  Strathmiglo. 

1783. — Dyeing  in  Woad  practised. 

The  making  of  thread,  such  as  that  made  at  Lisle,  introduced 
into  Renfrew. 

John  Mackie,  Mormond  Village,  Aberdeenshire,  petitions  as 
to  a  machine  he  has  invented  "  to  spin  double  and  twist  Linen 
yarn"  (a  two-handed  wheel.)  Referred  to  Professor  Copeland, 
Aberdeen, — £10  awarded. 

The  convention  of  Roval  Boroughs  in  Scotland  had  a  OOQSI- 
derable  hand  in  establishing  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  manu- 


456  MODERN    LINEN. 

factures  and  the  various  Linen  Acts  in  Scotland.  The  following 
are  some  entries  connected  therewith,  extracted  from  the  Book 
of  the  Convention,  as  reported  in  the  Dundee  Advertiser,  3d 
August  1821,  which  show  that  the  Acts  were  solicited  for, 
and  obtained  at  the  expense  of  the  Convention : — 

1727. — Commissioners'  expense  to  London  in  soliciting  acts  for  en- 
couraging the  Fisheries  and  Manufactures,  and  establishing 
the  Board  of  Trustees  for  that  purpose  ;  for  expediting  their 
patent,— in  all  ...  ...  £825  13  0 

1745. — Expense  incurred  in  soliciting  Parliament  for  increasing  the 

bounty  on  exportation  of  Linen,  ....  132  10  2 

1748. — Expense  incurred  in  prosecuting  frauds  committed  in  the 
importation  of  foreign  Linen,  and  obtaining  bounties  on  the 
exportation  of  British  Linen,  .  .  .  .  .  273  18  6 

1756.  —Expense  of  Commissioners  at  London,  in  soliciting  a  renewal 

of  the  Linen  bounty,— including  "Solicitor's"  bill,  .  .  9621610 

1767  — Expense  of  soliciting  an  act  for  establishing  a  fund  to  pro- 
mote the  raising  of  Flax,  .  .  .  .  516  0  2 

1783.  -  Expense  of  Commissioners'  and  Solicitors'  bills,  for  their 

trouble  in  obtaining  the  Linen  and  cotton  bounty  act,  .  622  2  10 

1784.— Surplus  from  malt  duty  in  1780,  £1,300,  being  the 
first  since  1751. 

The  Trustees  report  that ,,  preparations  are  making  at  present 
in  different  parts,  for  building  five  cotton  water  mills,  with  the 
proper  machinery  upon  a  very  great  scale." 

£60  allowed  Matthew  Bar  as  a  reward  for  introducing  and 
establishing  the  manufacture  of  black  silk  Florentines ;  striped, 
spotted,  and  figured  velvets  for  waiscoats  ;  silk  and  cotton  mix- 
ture ginghams  ;  silk  and  Linen  stripes,  dyed  fustians,  royal  ribbs, 
and  corduroys,  which  had  formerly  been  peculiar  to  Spitalfields 
and  Manchester. 

The  Trustees  award  £22  to  John  Squire,  tenant  of  the  Earl 
of  Kinnoul,  for  a  great  improvement  on  the  common  two-handed 
wheel,  and  appoint  the  invention  to  be  published  in  all  the 
newspapers. 

1785. — £10  10s  awarded  to  Alexander  Cassills,  one  of  the 
Board's  itinerant  Flax- dressers,  for  an  invention  of  a  wheel  on 
a  new  construction,  for  spinning,  doubling,  and  twisting  either 
Linen,  woollen,  or  silk  yarn. 

The  Board  authorises  £12  to  be  given  to  Hugh  Smith,  Flax- 
dresser,  to  erect  an  oven  for  drying  Flax,  as  an  experiment, 
such  an  oven  being  generally  used  in  Holland,  as  reported  by 
A.  Macdonald,  Flax  surveyor. 

1787.— Premium  of  £10J  awarded  to  Patrick  Taylor,  Edin- 
burgh, for  introducing  into  this  country  the  figuring  of  Linen 
floorcloth  For 'carpeting. 


Petition    from   Jam.  .  Ah.  i'!i  en.  a^kiii'j 

ward  fur  inventing  metli  rking  t\\o  uvi,-  at  one  time. 

Kefenvd  t«>  Professor  Oopdaod,  AU -rde( n,  irho  reported  that  a 

man  may  liy  thi>  loom  weave  ten  yards  per  day  inM. -ad  of  six, 
and  that  IK-  l>elie\es  the  invention  to  he  new.      The  Stamp-maS- 

of  ])undee,  Perth,  and  (ila-ir-w.  rep.  >rl  that  several  loom 
this  eonstruetion  had  IK-MI  made  then-,  hut  tound  not  to  answer 
so  well  as  the  single  loom. 

1788. — The  report  notices  an  act  passed  in  twenty- seventh 
year  of  His  Majesty's  ivign  lixing  the  future  annual  fund  for 
encouraging  the  ^m\\th  of  Flax  and  Hemp,  \vhieh  had  formerly 
been  fluctuating  and  dependant  on  the  quantity  of  (ierman 
Linen  imDortod,  at  I' 2. i».M;  13s  8d,  being  the  average  tormer 
prodmv  of  the  fund.  The  Trustees  resolve  therefore  to  appro- 
priate this  sum  by  a  triennial  plan  the  same  as  the  other  fund. 

Premium  of  £26  awarded  to  Alexander  Robb,  at  Tongland, 
for  enabling  him  to  make  improvements  on  a  weaving  loom, 
intended   to   be  wrought  with  water  or  any  other  mecha/< 
power. 

To  Hugh  Smith,  at  Cran worth,  for  experimenting  on  a  new 
mode  of  watering  Flax  by  means  of  boiled  water, — £15.  These 
experiments  were  next  year  found  not  to  answer,  "  the  whole 
oily  substance  being  taken  out  of  it." 

1788. — Report  on  a  spinning-wheel,  which  fills  the  pirns  with- 
out shifting  the  thread  from  tooth  to  tooth  of  the  fly,  invented 
at  same  time  by  Peter  Duff,  and  Hutchinson  and  Drummond, 
both  wheel-wrights  in  Auchtermuchty.  Approved  and  ordered 
to  be  distributed  in  the  county.  Two  dozen  to  be  made  for  the 
Trustees  themselves  for  this  purpose. 

An  application  for  encouragement  to  some  cotton  manufacture 
in  Inverness.  The  Board  resolved  that  application  be  refused 
upon  the  ground  that  the  cotton  manufacture  extends  itselt 
uniformly  without  public  aid,  and  ought  not  to  receive  any  so 
long  as  it  continues  to  prosper  as  at  present. 

Gratis  distribution  ot  1  lax  >eed  to  be  discontinued. 
1789. — The  Trustee.--  propose  to  sell  the  properties  at  Loch- 
broom,   Ac.,  bought  by  them  about  1754,  4i  they  having  found 
that  the  plan  has  utterly  failed,  and  the  settlements  been  denned.' 
The  Trustees  remark  that  the  manufacture  of  Linen  decreases 
in  those  counties  in  which  other  manufactures  have  1  en  intro- 
duced. 

Premium  of  £21  awarded  to  Alexander  Robb,  Tongland,  on 
the  favourable  report  of  Dr  Hutton,  1'rofessor  Robinson,  Profes- 
sor Play  fair,  and  Mr  Maevicear,  manufacturer,  for  his  invention 
of  a  loom  to  be  driven  by  water  or  other  mechanical  power. 
John  Lochead.  \\ravei,   Pollockshaux   a\\anl«d   £."><'   tor   im- 


458  MODERN   LTNEN, 

provement  on  common  loom,  the  chief  merit  being  to  enable  the 
weaver  to  place  the  threads  of  his  woof  or  weft  at  equal  distances, 
and  at  such  distances  as  he  pleased. 

1790. — Trustees  take  notice  in  their  report,  of  machinery 
now  erected  in  different  places  to  go  by  water  for  spinning 
Linen  yarn,  and  of  machinery  for  threshing  corn. 

On  16th  February,  letters  were  received  from  the  Provosts 
of  Glasgow,  Dundee,  and  Dunfermline,  to  the  effect  that  the 
Linen  Hall  in  Edinburgh  for  the  sale  of  Linens  was  not  now 
deemed  of  consequence  to  the  manufacturers.  Board  resolved 
to  suppress  it,  the  Hall  not  having  been  found  to  answer  the 
purpose  intended.  Premiums,  however,  for  cloth  competed  for 
still  given. 

On  17th  November  1790,  a  petition  from  James  Ivory  &  Co., 
of  Brigton,  Kinnettles,  setting  forth  that  they  had  erected  there 
one  of  the  patent  machines  for  spinning  Linen  yarn  to  go  by 
water,  having  purchased  a  license  for  that  purpose  from  John 
Kindrew  &  Co.,  of  Darlington,  the  patentees,  which  with  the 
expense  of  the  machinery,  and  of  a  water  mill,  has  cost  them 
about  £1000,  was  read  to  the  Trustees.  This  subject  is  referred 
to  in  the  "  Popular  Lectures,"  page  238.  In  the  petition  they 
state  that  "it  is  their  intention  upon  this  machine  to  try  the 
spinning  of  heavy  yarn  fit  for  the  Osnaburg  manufacture,  which 
hitherto  had  not  been  attempted,"  and  as  the  succeeding  in  this 
experiment,  and  the  success  of  this  new  mode  of  spinning,  is 
highly  interesting  to  the  Linen  manufacture  of  Scotland, 
they  pray  that  the  Board  will  patronise  and  encourage  them  in 
the  foresaid  undertaking. 

1791. — On  19th  January  this  year  the  Secretary  acquainted 
the  Board  that  samples  of  the  coarse  Linen  yarn  spun  at  the 
water  mill  at  Brigton,  and  of  the  thread  and  cloth  made  from 
the  yarn,  have  lately  been  sent  to  this  office  for  inspection,  and 
that  the  same  had  been  accordingly  inspected  by  four  judges, 
whom  the  Secretary  (by  Mr  Graham,  of  Fin  tray's  desire),  called 
for  the  purpose.  The  Secretary  then  presented  the  judges'  report, 
in  which  they  say  that  the  yarn  is  well  and  regularly  made,  more 
so  indeed  than  the  generality  of  what  is  spun  by  hand,  and 
that  the  cloth  manufactured  from  the  mill  yarn  is  a  good  mar- 
ketable article,  and  equal  to  anything  of  the  kind  they  have  seen  ; 
and  the  Secretary  presented  a  certificate  from  a  number  of  the 
principal  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  Linen  at  Dundee,  a  let- 
ter from  the  Rev.  Dr  Small  there,  and  one  from  Professor  Play- 
fair  of  the  College  of  Edinburgh,  all  testifying  the  public  spirit, 
and  the  probable  utility  that  will  result  from  the  erection  of  this 
water  mill,  and  the  merit  and  ingenuity  of  Mr  Ivory,  the  princi- 
pal undertaker  of  the  project,  which  being  considered,  the  Board 


SCo'n  i!  459 

:\vd  hy  ;i  majority,  "as  it  \\ould  appear  thai  this  i^  tin1  first 
Undertaking  of  thfl  kind  which  IMS  hren  set  on  foot  ill  Scotland, 
anil  that  the  undertakers  have  incurred  a  lai  UN  in  it, 

that  they  shall  he  allov.ed  a  premium  of  £iM),  payable  in  three 
moities  of  £100  per  annum,  provided  always  it  shall  appear  thai 
the  patent  of  the  hailin^ton  Company,  1  .y  whom  the  machinery 
was  invented,  does  not  extend  to  Scotland,  as  to  which  the 
Secretary  was  directed  to  enquire  and  report." 

On    26th    January,    Secretary    lepoited    that    he    had    made 
inquiry  at  the  Office  of  ChaDOttJ,  and  that  he  linds  tint  it  dett 
extend  to  Scotland,  \\hennpon    it   was  resolved  that  "in  • 
sideration  of  the  patent,  they  cannot  contirm   tin-  j.remiuin   ; 

<l  without  deviating  from  the  constant  and  uniform  practice 
of  this  Board." 

The  Trustees  propose  to  purchase  the  vested  rights  of  the 
foreign  weavers  in  Picardy,  these  weavers  having  found  it  neces- 
sary to  apply  themselves  to  other  trades,  the  cambric  manula< - 
ture  having  failed  them. 

Awarded  to  Alexander  Webster,  damask  and  diaper  weaver, 
on  account  of  his  having  introduced  and  established  that  branch 
of  manufacture  at  Dundee,  £20. 

1793. — William  Allan  instructed  to  do  one  pattern  for  the 
damask  manufacture.  This  was  done  occasionally,  he  being 
bound  to  do  two  patterns  every  year,  such  as  the  J*oard  may 
appoint,  in  ornamental  manufactures  or  house  work. 

Thomas  Moncur,  Yarn  Inspector,  Alyth,  having  been  charged 
by  Mr  Nairn,  of  Drumkilbo,  Mr  Dalgairns,  of  Ingliston,  Mr 
William  Watson,  Ochtertyre,  &c.,  of  spreading  seditious  prin- 
ciples, especially  of  having  drank  at  the  Cross  of  Meigle,  the 
toast  of  "  Success  to  the  French  Liberty  and  Equality,"  ordered 
to  return  answers  what  he  has  to  say  for  himself. 

1794.—0ii  llth  June,  Alex.  Aberdein  &  Co.,  of  Arbroath, 
petitioned  the  Board  for  aid  to  erect  a  mill  house  for  holding 
machinery  for  spinning  Linen  yarn  l>y  water,  which  they  pro- 
pose erecting  on  the  Broihock,  the  machinery  to  be  constructed 
upoo  original  principles  of  their  own. 

1797. —  Awarded  to  Henry  Meldrum,  waver,  Dunfermline, 
for  discovering  an  ingenious  method  ot  weaving  Marseilled 
quilting  with  coloured  sprigs,  £10  10s. 

1798. — Premium  awarded  to  Thomas  Arbuthnot  &  Co.  for  en- 
couraging a  new  establishment  formed  by  them  f<  »r  earry  ini;  on  the 
manufacture  of  sail  cloth,  &c.,  at  Peterhead.  Wm.  Ford,  manu- 
facturer, Montrose,  applied  for  a  reward  for  inventing  a  method 
of  making  sail  cloth  on  a  new  plan — the  warp  being  twisted  and 
w«  >ven  without  any  starch  or  tallow  applied  to  it.  On  inspect  i<  m . 
sonic  manufacturers  report  that  the  method  is  new  to  them. 

179D.  —  Patrick  }l/'re.  Edinburgh,  petitions   for  a  reward   tor 


460  MODERN  LINEN. 

constructing  a  machine  for  calendering  and  glazing  cotton,  which 
performs  the  work  in  an  excellent  manner,  and  at  one-third  less 
than  at  Manchester.  Messrs  Gilchrist,  haberdashers,  Edinburgh, 
report  that  the  machine  is  applicable  to  Linen  as  well  as  cotton, 
that  it  it  the  first  machine  of  the  kind  which  has  been  set  up  in 
Edinburgh,  that  he  does  their  goods  in  all  respects  as  well  as  they 
formerly  had  them  done  at  Manchester,  and  upon  more  reasonable 
terms.  Board  grant  premium  of  £30. 

1800. — The  Board  refused  application  from  Sir  J.  Sinclair  for 
spinning  schools  at  Caithness,  in  as  much  as  spinning  is  now  so 
generally  known,  and  so  easily  acquired,  as  in  their  opinion  to 
render  spinning  schools  almost  unnecessary. 

1801. — Petnium  of  £10 10s  allowed  John  Lamb,  wheelwright, 
Dunkeld,  for  a  decided  improvement  on  the  spinning-wheel.  On 
27th  November,  1805,  additional  premium  of  £10  10s  allowed 
him. 

1802. — To  Andrew  Steele,  Alyth,  a  premium  for  his  ingenuity 
and  industry  in  weaving  with  a  wooden  arm  and  hand,  £10  10s. 

The  Trustees  report  for  many  years  an  annual  decrease  of  the 
quantities  of  Linen  manufactured,  thus — "The  decrease  is  chiefly 
in  the  fabrics  which  are  manufactured  for  exportation,  and  upon 
which  a  bounty  is  payable,  without  which  bounty,  as  the  Trustees 
have  repeatedly  thought  it  their  duty  to  observe,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  the  Scottish  manufacturers  to  contend  with 
foreigners,  while  they  are  obliged  to  purchase  from  the  latter  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  raw  material." 

1803. — The  Board  approves  of  some  very  bad  Linen,  forfeited, 
being  publicly  burnt  on  the  market-day  at  each  of  the  towns  of 
Forfar,  Kirriemuir,  Glammis,  Dundee,  and  Brechin. 

1804. — Thomas  Parker,  Edinburgh,  petitions  as  inventor  of  a 
machine  for  recovering  Flax  out  of  the  waste ;  allowed  £40  to 
erect  one  as  an  experiment. 

1806. — David  Bonar,  weaver,  Dunfermline,took  out  a  patent  for 
improvements  on  the  damask  looms,  and  had  sold  the  patent  to 
the  Operative  Weaver  Society  there  for  £350. 

In  April,  1806,  a  quantity  of  faulty  foreign  Linseed  was  seized 
at  Leith  by  an  officer  of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  who  brought  an 
action  before  the  Sheriff  to  have  it  forfeited,  in  terms  of  the 
Statute  regulating  the  importation,  and  the  Sheriff  pronounced 
sentence  of  forfeiture.  The  owner  appealed  to  the  High  Court 
of  Justiciary,  who  affirmed  the  Sheriff's  decision,  and  found  the 
proprietor  liable  in  expenses. 

The  premiums  offered  in  January,  1807,  by  the  Trustees  for 
the  best  Ravens-duck,  sheeting,  diaper,  huckaback,  plain  Linen, 
&c.,  were  from  £15  to  £20  each  fabric  for  the  best,  and  £10 
to  £15  for  the  second  best  in  colour,  fabric,  and  design,  &c.  In 
December,  same  year,  the  names  of  the  successful  competitors 


SCOT-  H   I.IVBK.  i';l 

were  adv.  -five  of  them  bclon  :«  d  to  Kast   \\Ymyss  thn-.- 

to  Dunfermline.   two  to    Kdii  '  -s,  being 

'  in  all  for  Linen  fabrics. 

•  on  an«l  cotfec  baggin  This  year 

tin-  Stamp-inaM.Tv  in  I  hmdee  wen;  I>avid  l>!air.  An-hihald  Neil- 

nd  John  All 
To  U'illhim  T;iyl«>r,  Kdinbi:  .mis  tin'  expense  of  en 

.ihiery  I'm-  juvpariiiLr  tow  yarns  for  Linen,  railed 

.  (firs!  mention  ofthii),  t' 

Tin-  Trustee-  tor  Manufactures  showrd  commendable  cap- 
tin-  interots  of  tin-  trade  in  the  early  years  of  the  century.  In 
equence  of  complaints  of  false  reel  and  falpe  tale  of  Linen 
yarn,  and  putting  np  the  yarn  irregularly,  intimation  was  given 
that  tlie  pciialtir-  enforced  1>\  la \v  would  he  rigorously  inll; 
upon  those  infringing  the  law,  and  their  officers  were  authorised 
to  enter  into  shop*,  warehouses,  etc.,  to  search  for  same.  They 
also  advertised  that  they  would  henceforth  rigorously  seize  all 
faulty  linseed,  and  aid  in  enforcing  the  penalties  ordained  by 
statute  against  selling  old  or  bad-sowing  seed.  The  seller  was 
bound  to  deliver  an  account,  subscribed  by  him,  along  with  every 
parcel  of  linseed  sold,  specifying  the  quantity,  price,  port  from 
which  it  came,  year  of  its  growth,  and  the  country  where  grown. 
The  Trustees  recommended  that  none  excepting  Biga,  Dutch, 
or  Philadelphia  seed  should  be  sown,  as  none  else  was  good. 

In  1800  the  Trustees  had  allowed  importation  of  linseed  for 

crushing  for  oil,  on  security  being  granted  that  it  would  be  so 

i       In    1804  the  liberty  was  removed,  finding  it  injurious 

•wing  of  lint.     This  appears  from  minute,  4th  February, 

1807. 

1807. — Alexander  Robertson,  Pathhead,  invented  an  improve- 
ment in  heckles,  the  chit  -f  of  which  was  attaching  a  spring  to  them, 
which  makes  them  yield  gently  to  the  pull  of  the  Flax-dr- 
thus  lessening  the  breakage  of  the  Flax,  and  the  consequent  yield 
of  tow — £25  premium  allowed. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  in  April,  1809,  intimated  that   the 
premiums  for  raising  Flax  and  Flaxseed  for  crop  1807  were  then 
payable.     The  premium  on  Flax  was  9d  a  stone,  and  on  Flaxseed 
9d  a  peck,  if  it  was  err  titled  by  the  Mirvevor  to  be  fit  for  sowing. 
i  July,  1810. — Joseph  Crompton.  of  Manchester,  presently 
residing  in  Dundee,  asks  premium  tor  a  sail-cloth  loom,  which 
he  had  invented  to  go  by  water  or  steam,  find  presenting  a  cert  iri- 
ironi  several  manufacturers  in  favour  of  the  loom  ;  but  Mr 
ir  reporting  unfavourably — Petition  refused. 


462  MODERN  LINEN. 

About  1813,  and  for  a  year  or  two  thereafter,  Lee's  scutching 
machine  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Trustees. 

2d  June,  1813. — A  Petition  from  millspinners  in  Fife  to  help 
them  in  getting  bill  to  impose  a  duty  on  all  foreign  yarn  imported 
was  refused,  "  because  the  mills  have  hitherto  been  wholly  em- 
ployed in  spinning  yarn  for  the  manufacture  of  Osnaburgs  andother 
coarse  cloth  made  in  Forfarshire,  while  the  greatest  part  of  the 
manufactures  in  Fife  and  Perth  are  still  dependant  on  hand- 
spinning  at  home,  but  chiefly  what  is  spun  in  Ireland  and  Germany, 
which  last  is  understood  to  be  preferred  to  Irish  by  our  manu- 
facturers." 

1813.  — Keward  of  £52  10s  given  to  Francis  Blair,  Linen 
manufacturer,  Edinburgh,  for  invention  of  a  sail  cloth  loom  to  go 
by  water,  the  chief  excellence  of  which  is  that  it  gives  both  an 
open  and  close  stroke  everything  the  shuttle  passes  through. 
Reported  favourably  of  by  Professor  Playfair  and  others. 

25th  May,  1816. — Sunn  Hemp  or  India  Hemp  for  manufac- 
turing into  bagging  first  introduced  into  Dundee  by  Mr 
Maberly,  of  London.  Board  resolve  that  the  bagging  shall  be 
stamped  "  India  Hemp,"  to  distinguish  it  from  Baltic  Hemp, 
if  the  former  be  coloured  to  represent  Baltic  Hemp. 

1816. — Several  experiments  having  been  made  at  Airdrie,  by 
order  of  the  Board,  of  Lee's  machinery  for  scutching  Flax  with- 
out steeping — of  the  ordinary  hand-scutcher  and  breaker  from 
Yorkshire — and  of  the  ordinary  Flax  mill ;  Reports  decidedly 
in  favour  of  the  mill. 

In  1817  instructions  for  growing  Flax  and  for  the  culture  and 
preparation  of  Hemp  were  published  by  the  Trustees.  For 
Hemp,  4  to  5  bushels  the  English  acre  were  necessary  for  seed. 
It  was  said  to  be  a  most  beautiful  crop,  and  to  leave  the  land 
clean.  It  grows  more  than  six  feet  in  eight  weeks.  In  the 
morning  the  head  of  each  plant  is  turned  to  the  east  to  meet  the 
rising  sun,  it  follows  it  during  the  day,  and  in  the  evening  it  is 
found  pointing  to  the  west.  In  the  night  it  collects  a  large 
quantity  of  dew,  which  falls  to  the  ground,  and  keeps  it  in  a 
moist  state  till  the  crop  is  pulled. 

22d  January,  1817. — Reward  of  £50  given  to  George  Dow, 
Panmure,  for  improvement  in  scutching-mill,  chiefly  because  the 
farmers  certify  that  he  dresses  their  Flax  so  well. 

Patent  by  Samuel  Hill,  of  London,  for  new  machinery  for 
breaking,  rubbing,  and  heckling  Flax,  whether  watered  or  un- 
watered,  brought  before  the  Board,  and  recommended  by  Sir 
J.  Sinclair  ;  ordered  to  be  examined,  and  report. 

No  more  applications,  for  twisting  machines  for  thread  manu- 
facture made  after  this  period. 
The  manufacture  of  Forfarshire  now  very  far  exceeds  that 


BOOT-  it  Ul  463 

of  any  other  county,  consisting  almost  entire'y  of  the  coarse 
(al  tries. 

1  -is  —Of  31,283,1  OOJ  yards  stamped,  19,000,000  stamped  in 

Forfar.-diiiv  alone.      Bounty  still  allowed  (,n  exportation  nt'tlu-r. 

Premium  of  £5  5s,  awarded  t<>  James  Lcitch,  Galas) . 
improvement  on  two-handed  spin:  1. 

Last  payment  foi  .spinning  s« -hools — to  Mi-s  Cunningham 
Ballantine  for  school  at  <  'ampbelton. 

1819. — Premium  of  £30  awarded  to  Henry  M.-ldnnn.  \v.-;r 
and  Robert  M*GiegOr,  pattern-drawer,  I>uiiferm]ine.  tor  iraprove- 

incnts  in  weaving  diaj>er. 

A  trial  "f  Hill's  method  of  scutching  Flax.  Dundee,  and 

statement  drawn  up  by  Messrs  l»r«>\\  n.  mill-spinners,  in  its  I'avi.ur 
—it  )>n»d i  i  ing  inn re   clean    Flax  than   the  mill.       Hoard    delay 

consideration  till  comparative  expense,  A.-C.,  !>••  ascertained 

Premium  of  l'i_M  allowed  John  Spence.  Linlithgow,  lor  great 
improvement  in  spinning-wheel,  by  which  yarn  is  laid  on  pirn, 
evenly  without  stopping  wheel  to  change  from  tooth  to  tooth 

2d   March.    I*lli. — The   Trustees  issued    their   annual   N- 

:din«^  the  premiums  on  Flax  and  Hemp.     In  it  ii 

8,  thai  for  the  yea/  isi'.i.  tliey  will  distribute  tbr<-u-li<.nt 
land,  o(|iially  according  to  the  Claims  that  shall  be  made, 
in  terms  of  the  Regulations  given,  a  sum  not  to  exceed  £2000, 
in  premiums,  on  the  Max  or  Hemp  raised,  not  exceeding  one 
shilling  pt-r  stone.  The  same  to  be  clean  scutched,  and  tit 
I'm-  the  heckle.  No  claim  to  be  admitted  fr«»m  any  person  sow- 
ing less  than  16  pecks  of  seed,  in  one  farm,  and  one  parish. 
Should  the  claims  exceed  £2000,  the  rate  of  premiums  to  be  re- 
duced in  proportion.  Persons  sowing  seed,  with  a  view  to  the 
premium,  to  M  nd  intimation  to  the  office  in  Edinburgh  before 
l>t  .June,  of  the  pecks  ami  acres  sown,  farm,  parish,  and  shire, 
each  in  x-parate  lines,  and  to  mention  it' it  wa>  >olely  for  his  own 
behoof.  A  copartnery  required  hi  peckl  for  each  person,  and 
when-  the  ground  sown  was  not  measured,  h  \\as  held 

equivalent  t"  two  aeivs.  The  <  a  me  part  ies  applying  for  the  pre- 
miums had  to  send  affidavit  t"  the  otlice  bt-tore  the  end  of  De- 
<-emher  1S1M),  in  a  pn-seribrd  torm.  specifying  the  acres  and 
p.  . -ks  >own,  and  the  total  producv  in  l'li\or  Hemp,  tarm 
The  crop  mi-ht  be  sold  while  growing,  but  the  buyer  had  to 
furnish  the  grower  with  the  lint  millers  eertitieate  of  the  pn»dn.-e. 
At  the  foot  of  each  affidavit  the  manager  of  the  Flax  mill  was 
required  to  certify,  from  the  book  kept  at  the  mill,  the  stones  of 
el.  an  produce,  fit  for  the  heckle,  and  free  from  tow.  Growers 
were  recommended  t<»  attend  at  the  Flax  mills  while  their  Flax 
was  being  scutched,  and  \\ri-h  out  equal  quantities  of  rolled 
Flax  to  each  workin:  ^ive  waste  in  scutching,  <fec. 


464  310DERX  LINEN. 

The  premiums  were  paid  shortly  after  the  affidavits  were  given 
in,  and  notice  of  the  time  advertised  in  the  Edinburgh  news- 
papers and  put  on  the  parish  church  doors,  and  the  parties  get- 
ting premiums  had  to  grant  receipt  in  a  prescribed  form.  The 
Notice  also  contained  instructions  about  the  quality  of  seed  fit  for 
sowing,  and  mode  of  buying  it  to  prevent  imposition  on  the  part 
of  the  seller  ;  directions  for  watering  Flax  ;  description  of  the 
best  scutching  mill,  and  other  useful  information. 

1821. — Crop  of  Flax  very  much  decreased,  owing  to  the  low 
price  of  the  commodity. 

In  1822  the  King  approves  of  £15,000  being  expended  on 
building  an  Institution  at  north  end  of  Mound,  Edinburgh. 
The  total  cost  of  building  the  Institution,  as  appears  from  the 
Trustees'  Annual  Report  for  1828,  was  £20,424  Os  lid. 

1823. — Flax  seed  sown  for  premiums — 661  growers,  19,900 
pecks  of  seed,  on  2487  acres. 

In  1824,  2861|-  acres  were  sown  with  Flax  seed  in  Scotland  ; 
in  1825,  1819J;  in  1826,  1350J  ;  in  1827,  865£  ;  in  1828, 
811f  ;  in  1829,  778. 

26th  May,  1825. — Weavers  of  Dunfermline  in  alarm  at  pro- 
posal by  Mr  Huskisson  to  take  off  the  duties  on  the  importation 
of  foreign  damask.  The  Board  agree  to  request  that  these  duties 
may  not  be  taken  off  all  at  once,  but  gradually. 

1827. —  Appropriation  of  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  Trus- 
tees altered  to  such  as  may  be  specified  in  any  Royal  Warrant. 

1829. — £1700  paid  still  for  premiums  to  Flax  growers. 

The  abolition,  on  27th  June,  1823,  of  the  law  for  the  Inspec- 
tion and  Stamping  of  Linen  in  Scotland,  greatly  abridged  the 
duties  of  the  Trustees,  and  their  proceedings  subsequently  had 
little  influence  on  the  Linen  Trade.  It  is  therefore  unnecessary 
to  give  farther  extracts  from  their  Minutes  or  Annual  Reports. 

By  the  Linen  Laws  those  engaged  in  the  Linen  trade  were 
relieved  from  all  corporation  fees.  This  in  former  times  was  a 
valuable  privilege,  as  no  Linen  manufacturer  was  required  to 
become  a  freeman  in  any  town,  or  to  join  any  Guildry  or  Trades' 
Incorporation  ;  obligations  which  were  very  burdensome  on  mer- 
chants and  other  tradesmen. 


SCOTCH  1  i 


THE     STAMP     AC  I 

The  Act  of  Parliament  13  George  I,  passed  in  1727,  is  fre- 
quently called  u  The  Stamp  Act."  Some  extracts  from 
annual  nports  and  minutes  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Board  of 
Linen  Manufactures  appointed  by  His  Majesty  in  terms  of, 
and  as  authorised  by,  that  Act,  have  already  been  given,  and 
tlu-  matters  relating  to  the  stamping  of  Linen  might  have 
been  embodied  with  same ;  but  as  they  refer  to  a  distinct 
portion  of  the  duties  of  the  Trustees,  some  account  of  the 
working  of  the  stamping  laws,  taken  from  the  proceedings  of 
th..  TrnMres  and  other  sources,  are  given  separately. 

By  this  Act  it  was  declared  that  no  Linen  cloth  could 
be  sold  or  exposed  for  sale  till  it  had  been  inspected  and 
stamped,  under  a  penalty  of  £5  on  the  seller  and  the  same  on 
the  buyer.  For  the  convenience  of  dealers  in  Linen,  public 
officers  were  established  in  different  districts  under  the  authority 
of  the  Trustees  whom  His  Majesty,  by  the  same  Act,  was 
empowered  to  appoint  for  overseeing,  directing,  and  improving 
tin  Linen  manufacture  in  Scotland.  These  officers  were  called 
"  Stamp- masters,"  and  their  duty  was  to  superintend  the 
measuring,  inspecting,  stamping,  and  lapping  of  all  Linens 
manufactured  for  sale  throughout  the  country.  No  Linens  of 
any  kind  made  for  home  use  required  to  be  stamped,  as  the  law 
only  extended  to  goods  made  for  sale.  The  Trustees,  in  some 
instances,  granted  private  seals,  which  authorised  manufacturers 
to  stamp  their  own  cloth,  according  to  the  directions  of  the 
Act;  but  these  seals  were  afterwards  recalled  by  the  Trustees, 
at  the  request  of  the  stamp  masters,  as  they  were^  found  to  be 
injurious  to  their  pecuniary  interests. 

This  Act  contained  soi  Jar  clauses,  and  it  may  be  called 

the  ground-work  of  the  Linen  La*  I  in  Scotland.  The  preamble 
states  the  necessity  of  laws  and  regulations,  on  account  of  great 
frauds  and  abuses  being  daily  committed,  whereby  the  demand 
is  K-sened,  and  the  credit  of  these  manufactures  distrusted. 
It  imposed  ^v.r  penalties  on  yarn  irregularly  reeled  It 
OG 


466  MODERN    LINEN. 

regulated  the  width  of  the  cloth,  fixing  the  breadth  at  full  £ 
yard,  or  full  f ,  f ,  {,  },  1 J,  or  1 J ;  and  if  any  part  of  any  piece 
did  not  stand  one  or  other  of  these  widths,  it  was  to  be  stamped 
as  of  the  next  narrower  breadth.  Each  piece  of  broad,  double, 
or  single  diaper,  made  for  table  cloths,  had  to  be  full  two  yards 
wide.  All  cloths  to  be  whitened  must  contain  at  least  12J  yards. 
A  weaver  was  required  to  run  a  coarse  coloured  thread  through 
every  200  threads  of  the  warp,  to  distinguish  the  number  of 
hundreds  of  threads  in  the  breadth  of  the  cloth ;  and  another 
coloured  thread  within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  former,  through 
every  40  threads  of  the  warp,  to  distinguish  the  number  of  beers 
or  scores.  By  the  statute  no  manufacturer  was  allowed  to  set 
up  until  he  had  given  security  that  he  would  not  weave  any 
cloth  contrary  to  these  laws,  failing  which  he  would  forfeit  all 
the  cloth  woven  by  him.  He  was  also  obliged  to  take  an  oath, 
to  be  administered  by  the  stamp-master  every  time  he  took  cloth 
to  the  stamp-office,  that  all  the  goods  were  really  the  manufac- 
ture of  Scotland  or  Ireland,  and  of  no  other  place.  The  cloth 
was  all  to  be  measured  by  the  "  standard  yard  wand/'  The 
stamp-master  or  lapper  might  apply  to  a  magistrate  to  forfeit 
the  cloth  if  faulty,  and,  if  so  adjudged,  it  was  cut  into  several 
pieces  for  the  use  of  the  lapper.  The  stamp-master  was  required 
to  make  good  the  value  of  the  cloth  to  the  party  who  bought  it 
on  the  credit  of  the  stamp,  if  faulty  or  wrong  measured,  and  also 
pay  £5  for  each  dereliction  of  duty,  besides  being  dismissed.  The 
stamper  was  required  to  stamp  the  cloth  within  twenty-four  hours 
after  being  offered  to  him. 

When  the  Act  was  passed  actual  measurement  and  inspec- 
tion might  have  been  frequently  necessary.  The  Flax  was 
horne-grown  and  ill  cleaned ;  the  yarns,  spun  by  the  distaff 
or  hand-wheel,  variable  in  quality  and  weak;  and  the  cloth 
{l  bleached  on  the  gowan  brae,  and  beetled  in  the  burn." 
The  manufacturer  nearly  corresponded  to  the  weaver  of  the 
present  day ;  and,  from  his  insignificance  and  the  distance  of  his 
dwelling,  little  known  to  the  purchaser  of  his  cloth.  These 
reasons  did  not  warrant  the  imposition  of  such  trammels  and 
restrictions  upon  the  trade,  but  at  that  early  period  fiscal 
regulations  were  common,  and  their  injurious  effect  not  fully 
understood. 


The  fee  for  inspecting,  measuring,  stamping,  and  lapping 
Linen,  was  one  penny  sterling  per  40  yards,  not  exceeding  lOd 

a  yard,  and  2d  above  that  value,  which  fee  went  t<>  the  stamj>- 

master.       When  iv.jiiiivd  to  beetle  the  cloth,  double  fees  were 

authorised  to  be  charged. 

Th<    dilltTcnt  d< •»< -riptiocs  of  Linens  subject  to  stamping  in 

17'JT  wen-   i h^   foll.win^,  vix.  : — White   Linen,  brown   Li: 

diaper  ami  damask,  striped  Linen,  checked   Lim-n  and  Bengals, 

tykens,  checked    handkerchiefs.  niu>lin   handk- 

lawns  or  Carolines,  muslins  or  Glasgows,  muslin  cravats  or 

Paisleys.    In  1730  harns,  straitzens,  and  tweels  were  added ;  and 

in  1731  calico,  satinet,  and  cambric  Holland. 

Sail-cloth  and  vitries  were  exempted  from  the  operation  of  tho 

Stamp  Act,  but  the  Legislature  required  that  manufacturers  of 

tlu>o  fabrics  should  make  them  of  a  defined  description  of  yarn, 
and  stamp  his  name  on  the  cloth,  under  a  severe  penalty  for 
non-performance.  These  restrictions  were  imposed  by  an  Act 
coeval  with  the  Stamp  Act,  and  they  were  withdrawn  by  Par- 
liament in  1820.  The  bill  for  this  purpose  says,  "  Whereas 
an  Act  was  made  in  the  9th  year  of  the  reign  of  Geo.  II. ,  entitled 
an  Act  for  the  further  encouraging  and  regulating  the  manufac- 
ture of  British  sail-cloth,  and  for  the  more  effectual  securing  the 
duties  now  payable  on  foreign  sail-cloth  imported  into  this 
kingdom  ;  and  whereas,  in  consequence  of  the  great  improve- 
ments, <fec.,  the  Act  should  be  repealed,  be  it  enacted,  <fcc.,  that 
so  much  of  tho  said  Act  as  relates  to  the  materials  to  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  British  sail-cloth,  and  the  manner  of  manu- 
facturing the  same,  shall  be  and  is  hereby  repeal  d." 

•nsiderable  period  cotton  bagging  did  not  come  within  the 
operation  of  the  Stamp  Act,  but  great  complaints  were  made  by 
purchasers  about  the  fraudulent  manner  in  which  it  was  frequently 
made  up — a  good  sheet  being  put  outside,  while  the  great  bulk 
of  the  piece  was  thin  and  of  inferior  yarn.  By  a  decision  of  the 
Court  of  Session,  given  in  the  beginning  of  1814,  cotton  bagging 
was  found  to  be  subject  to  the  fees  of  the  stamp-master.  The 
Trustees  thereupon  intimated  that,  in  consequence  of  the  deci> 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary,  cotton  bagging  should  be 
inspected  and  stamped  by  the  public  stamp-master  the  same  as 
other  cloth,  and  that  any  pieces  exposed  to  sale  unstamped 
a  g2 


468  MODERN  LINEN. 

should  be  seized,  and  the  vender  fined.  That  makers  might 
have  time  to  dispose  of  their  present  stock,  it  was  ordered  that 
no  seizure  should  be  made  before  1st  June,  1814.  The  article 
thereafter  continued  to  be  stamped  during  the  existence  of  the  Act. 

The  Trustees,  in  their  regulations  to  the  stamp-masters, 
advised  them  to  be  careful  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  as 
they  were  to  look  sharply  after  them,  and  to  pay  no  regard  to 
the  common  excuse  of  the  first  fault.  Notwithstanding  this 
standing  regulation,  in  the  course  of  time  abuses  crept  into  the 
system  as  practised  by  the  stamp-masters,  which  gave  rise  to 
general  and  loud  complaints.  To  obviate  some  of  these  well- 
founded  objections,  respectable  manufacturers  were  allowed  to 
erect  measuring  reels  in  their  own  premises,  and  the  stamp- 
masters  held  their  measurement  of  the  goods  as  correct,  and 
stamped  them  accordingly.  This  saved  these  manufacturers 
the  trouble  and  expense  of  taking  all  their  goods  to  the  public 
stamp-office.  Others  commuted  their  fees  for  one-half,  and  in 
some  cases  for  one-third  of  the  price  fixed  by  the  Act. 

The  Glasgow  merchants  applied  to  the  Board  of  Trustees  to 
allow  the  national  stamp  to  be  cut  from  Linens  exported  to 
foreign  countries,  but  they  peremptorily  refused  their  consent. 
These  parties  then  applied  to  Government,  who  agreed  to  their 
request,  and  an  Act  was  passed  in  1814,  54  Geo.  III.,  cap.  127, 
altering  the  law  to  the  extent  prayed  for.  After  this  change  the 
national  stamp  was  cut  from  nearly  all  the  Linen  exported,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  pieces  so  cut  off  were  sold  for  shoe  lining. 

About  this  period  the  mill -spinners  made  out  an  unanswerable 
case  for  being  relieved  from  the  odious  seizure  of  their  yarns 
under  the  antiquated  statutes  called  the  Linen  Laws.  It  was 
shown  that  it  was  then  impossible  to  reel  every  cut  with  pre- 
cisely 120  threads,  and  that  to  seize  yarn,  as  was  frequently 
done,  for  having  a  thread  too  few  or  too  many,  was  both  vexa- 
tious and  unjust.  The  Board  of  Trustees  clung  to  their  laws  as 
if  they  were  infallible,  and  not  to  be  touched  with  mortal  hands, 
and  refused  to  permit  any  alteration.  The  spinners  did  not 
have  the  courage  to  go  to  Parliament  with  their  case,  or  they 
might  have  been  as  successful  in  getting  rid  of  such  frivolous 
and  useless  restrictions  as  the  Glasgow  merchants  were. 

In  1820  a  series  of  ably  written  letters  appeared  in  the  Dun- 


'/'  <>  Advertiser  pointing  out  the  abuses  which  then  existed  in  the 
administration  of  the  Act,  and  the  injurious  tendency  which  the 
law,  however  wrought,  had  upon  the  progress  of  tin-  trade.      It 
was  shown  that  the  stamp-masters  regularly  and  systematically 
broke  the  law  them>el\vs  in  many  wa\-     that,  if  it  was  to  be 
•vrd  MI  ictly,  it  would  put  a  stop  to  the  manufacture  of  Os- 
nal.urgs  and  sheetings,  the  then  principal  Linen  fabrics,  as  they 
not  of  any  of  the  widths  auth..n  he  act:  that 

(ili.  i  ti-xtile  fabrics  manufactured  in  Scotland  wen   n  4  -nhject 
to  the  operation  of  any  such  law,  and  yet  they  had  prosp 

i  more  than  the  Limn  trade:  that  tin  Linen  manufactures 
of  England  were  free  from  such  iv>tricti»ns,  and  yet  they  were 
in  as  flourishing  a  condition  as  those  of  Scotland:  that  even 
sail-cloth  arid  vitries,  It  ranches  of  the  Linen  trade  in  Scotland, 
were  exempt  from  the  control  of  the  stamp-master,  but  did  not 
suffer  in  con>«  «ju<  ncc  :  that  the  stamp  was  a  stigma  on  the 
trade,  as  unnecessary  as  it  was  impolitic :  and  that,  whether 
or  not  the  Stamp  Laws  were  founded  on  erroneous  principles  ot 
1. it  ion,  they  had  outlived  the  period  and  the  circumstances 
under  which  they  were  originally  framed,  and  ought  to  be  re- 
pealed. The  charge  for  stamping,  though  small,  was  said  to  be 
as  much  on  a  piece  as  the  expense  of  carrying  it  to  London- 
1 1  was  a  burden  on  a  manufacture  in  which  we  have  rivals 
that  meet  us  almost  on  an  equal  footing,  which  was  very  differ- 
ent from  one  on  an  article  in  which  we  had  an  undouhted  pre- 
eminence. It  is  a  tax  counteract. -d  by  a  bounty,  and  the 
bounty  "  is  exceptional^-  in  the  great  scale  of  commercial  policy." 

The  WMollms  of  Yorkshire  were  at  one  time  subject  to  sealing 
or  stamping,  much  as  Linens  were  in  Scotland,  hut  those  made 
in  the  adjoining  county  of  Lancashire  were  free  from  this  law. 
In  is-Jl  the  subject  was  referred  to  a  select  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  who  recommended  the  repeal  of  the  Act ; 
and.  in  hi  inging  up  the  report,  Mr  Wortley,  the  chairu 
"competition  was  enough  to  keep  every  one 
Act  was  repealed  and  the  manufacturers  relieved  from  inqui>i- 
torial  control. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  proceedings  of  the  Board  ot 
Trustees  have  reference  to  the  Stamping  Laws,  and  are  expla- 
natory of  tlu  foregoing  particulars  on  the  subject : — 


470  MODERN  LINEN. 

On  13th  July  1737,  a  web  of  Linen  (insufficient)  stamped  by 
David  Dalgleish,  stamp-master,  Dunfermline,  having  been  dis- 
covered, he  was  dismissed,  and  the  Magistrates  of  Edinburgh 
were  desired  "  to  cause  burn  publickly  one  part  of  the  said  web 
here,  and  the  other  part  at  Dunfermline." 

20th  November  1786. — The  Linen  and  cotton  printers  of 
Glasgow  petition  the  Trustees  that  the  stamping  of  these  fabrics 
be  discontinued. 

17th  January  1787. — The  Board  determine  that  cloth  made 
of  Linen  and  cotton  mixed,  may  be  excluded  from  the  operation 
of  the  law,  but  not  cloth  made  wholly  of  Linen. 

5th  December  1787. — The  Board  agree,  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  manufacturers  of  cambric  in  Glasgow,  to  discontinue 
stamping  that  kind  of  cloth. 

8th  July  1789. — Petition  received  from  the  Linen  merchants 
of  Dundee,  complaining  of  the  ignorance  of  the  stamp-masters 
in  Fife  as  to  Osnaburgs,  this  manufacture  having  been  lately 
introduced. 

20th  January,  1790. — A  third  stamp-master  appointed  to 
Dundee. 

6th  June  1792. — Board  resolved  that  all  sail-cloth  shall  be 
stamped,  being  specially  influenced  by  a  letter  from  William 
Sturrock,  manufacturer  of  sail-cloth,  A.  Wilson,  linen-dealer, 
and  D.  Blair,  stamp-master,  Dundee,  setting  forth  the  great 
necessity  of  sail-cloth  being  stamped  to  prevent  frauds,  especially 
in  case  "  a  manufacturer  should  mark  his  cloth  with  a  No.  it 
did  not  deserve,  and  a  vessel  is  furnished  with  sails  of  such  cloth, 
it  may  be  the  means  of  the  vessel  and  cargo,  and  every  person 
on  board  perishing." 

llth  July  1792. — -Remonstrances  against  this  resolution  from 
the  manufacturers  in  Dundee  and  Arbroath,  "  as  it  will  not  only 
put  them  to  great  inconvenience,  but  subject  them  to  a  kind  of 
tax,  from  which  the  sail-makers  in  England  are  freed."  The 
Board  resolved  to  adhere. 

22d  May  1793. — Secretary  reports  that  everything  was  ready 
for  issuing  orders  as  to  stamping  sail-cloth,  but  having  heard 
that  it  would  likely  be  very  unpopular,  and  would  be  opposed  at 
all  places  where  the  manufacture  is  carried  on,  he  has  thought 
right  to  ask  the  opinion  of  the  Board.  The  Board  is  nonplussed, 
and  defer  consideration.  On  llth  December  same  year,  Board 
finally  determine  that  they  have  no  power  to  enforce  the  stamp- 
ing of  sail-cloth,  and  cancel  the  resolution  of  6th  June,  1792. 

28th  May  1800. — Petition  received  from  owners  of  water 
spinning-mills  in  Fifeshire,  praying  to  have  their  mill  spun  yarn 
relieved  from  inspection  by  the  Board's  officers. 

25th  February  1801. — Various  reports  from  manufacturing 


801.  il    i  ISBN.  1  .  1 

being  read  as  to    this,  which   wen    veatj  OOOfti 

adjoin  -ned  consideration  of  the  jH-titi..u  sine  die. 

> — Keport.s  il,:ii  officers  had  seized  a  quantity  "f  yarns, 

iMt  reelrd  accHnliiiL:  to  law,  and  that  Sheir  had  declared 

it   Inrti-it- il.      Appeal   taken  to  (  'iivuil    ( 'oiirt  at  Perth,  and  -  u 
M!'  Sheritl'  C'.nliniu-d. 

L806,  — The   Proprietors  of    Kirkland   Mill.    Fife,   refused 
admittance  t-»  the  Cupar  Inspector  t<>  inspect    their  yarn,  and 
officers  accordingly  instructed   to  in-i-t  on  bein^  admitted, 
if  ai^ain  refused,  to  prosecute  tor  tin-  }»enalty  under  24  Ucu.  U., 

A 

IVtiti'-n  r<c«i\(d  tV"in  mill-Kj>iimcT8  against  present  law,  in- 
tiinatinLC  that  tlu-y  intend  aj»plyin«x  to  Parliament  for  altera' 
and  wi.shin^  1  H.ard's  c«'ncunvnce  Wrote  to  them  to  print  tln-ir 
Hill  and  send  it  tor  consideration.  Tin-  purport  of  the  Hill  waa 
— n.'li<-\  ini;  >pinn«-rs  tn-m  control  and  insjiection  of  the  Board 's 
officers,  and  irivinu  tin-  pnwi-r  of  proM-cutin^  for  bad  yarn  to 
aggrieved  purchaser  only.  l>ratt  of  the  Hill  sent. 

I  n  1  >i  >S. — Board  resolve  to  resist  change  of  law. 

1811.  —  The  opinions  of  various  manufacturing  towns  in 
Forth r.  Kite,  ana  IrVrth shires,  hostile  to  the  change,  public 
inurs  being  convened  for  the  purpose  at  Dundee,  torfar, 
Ivirrieniuir,  Hrechin,  Arbroath,  Kii  kcaldy,  and  Dunfermline ; 
ans\\er  ol  the  spinners  thereto  ;  and  Mr  Blair's  own  opinion 
on  the  subject  before  the  Board.  The  whole  matter  having 
been  taken  into  consideration,  the  Board  find : — 

1.  That  the  proposed  law,  even  though  it  were  expedient  that, 
an  alteration  should  be  made,  provides  no  sufficient  check  against 
fraud. 

2.  That  the  checks  imposed  by  the  present  law  are  whole- 
some. 

That  there  are  spinning  mills  in  Forfarshire  where  yarn  is 
regularly  made  up  according  to  law  without   inconvenience  to 
and  whose  yarn  has  not  been  seized  for  years. 

4.  That  the  opinion  of  the  great  body  of  manufacturers  in 
Foiiar  and  Fifeshiros  is  hostile  to  a  change. 

5.  That  these  opinions  have  been  freely  expressed  at  public 
meetings  called  to  consider  the  question. 

1811. — Petition  tn-in   J,.hn  Melville,  stamp-master,  Dysart, 
toallow  duck  and   she.  ting,  made  in  imitation  of  Russian. 
pass  unstamped,  that    they  may  pass  for  Ku«biun.     Petition   re- 
fused. 

1812. — David  Lawson,  of  Dundee,  appealed  against  seizure 

agjging  made  of  Hemp,  because  unstamped,  and    Sheriff 
eided  in  hi-  favour.      Trustees   appealed   to  Court  of  Justiciary. 
and  Sh.-i  .  -i-d. 


472  MODERN  LINEN. 

17th  February  1813. — Memorial  from  certain  Glasgow  mer- 
chants against  intended  seizure  of  Linen  cut  up  into  short 
lengths  and  made  up  so  as  to  resemble  German  and  French 
Linen  for  exportation  to  South  America,  which  used  to  be  sent  ex- 
clusively from  Old  Spain  and  Portugal.  Of  late  years  they  were 
largely  imported  into  Britain  from  Germany,  and  carried  to 
these  colonies  by  the  Americans,  but  in  consequence  of  the 
war  with  America,  and  other  changes  in  our  foreign  relations,  are 
likely  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  British  merchants  The  memo- 
rial represented  that  the  people  in  the  Spanish  colonies  in  South 
America  would  not  buy  the  Linen  if  stamped  with  Scotch  or 
Irish  stamps,  which  had  to  be  cut  off,  so  great  was  their  preju- 
dice in  favour  of  French  and  German  Linen.  Board  con- 
nive at  this,  being  assured  that  the  Linen  had  been  originally 
stamped. 

3d  March. — Petition  from  Glasgow  merchants  asking  the  Board 
to  recommend  doing  away  with  stamping  Linen  for  exportation. 

13th  April.  —  The  Board  depone,  on  opinion  of  Mr  Blair, 
that  the  Stamping  Act  is  one  of  the  wisest  in  the  Statute 
Book,  and  give  their  reasons  at  length. 

20th  June.  —  Remonstrance  from  merchants  and  calender- 
ers,  Glasgow,  presented.  The  Board  adhere  to  resolution  of 
13th  April,  but  agree  to  dispense  with  oath  of  calenderers. 

6th  July  1814. — Bill  introduced  for  doing  away  with  Stamp- 
ing Linen  for  exportation.  The  Board  strongly  disapprove  and 
resolve  to  oppose.  Bill  passed  23d  July,  1814. 

December,  1817. — It  appears  that  a  recent  act  of  Parliament 
authorises  national  stamp  to  be  cut  off  Scotch  Linen  exported — 
and  that  manufacturers  were  in  the  habit  of  cutting  stamp  off, 
even  before  sending  the  Linen  to  London. 

21st  November  1820. — Mr  Blair  draws  attention  of  Board  to 
a  motion  made  in  the  Convention  of  Royal  Boroughs,  to  the 
effect  that  Linen  stamping  is  useless,  is  a  tax  upon  the  manu- 
facture, and  ought  to  be  abolished.  Board  resolve  on  a  series 
of  resolutions  in  defence  of  the  practice,  and  the  policy  of  its  con- 
tinuance, and  send  copies  of  these  to  the  chief  magistrate  of  each 
Royal  Borough  in  Scotland. 

19th  December  1820. — Memorial  from  seventy  merchants  and 
manufacturers  of  Linen  in  Dundee,  noticing  resolutions  in 
favour  of  the  repeal  of  the  Law  for  Stamping,  passed  at  a  public 
meeting  of  manufacturers,  merchants,  and  flaxspinners,  in 
Guild  Hall  of  Dundee,  on  30th  November  1820,  and  urging 
that  the  meeting,  though  respectable,  did  not  consist  ot 
more  than  sixty  people — giving  their  opinion  that  the  law  was 
beneficial  to  the  trade,  and  asking  the  Board  to  resist  alterations. 
Ordered  to  lie  on  the  table. 


resolution  'in  1  hinder  f«'r  and  a-; 

tli.-  Namp  Act  and  tlu-  Sta!i;p-maslei>  ,    also  tioni  (  'ustoin-li 
at  (ii  urging  tliat  \\eie  stamping  alx-li  re-  would 

be  great  ri*U  of  fraud-  H  t"  the  bounties,  low-priced  cloth  1  • 

red  as  of  a  higher  value.     The  11  >ard  defend  tin-  -tamp- 
masters,  and  argue  against  any  change ;  and  unanimously  R 
to  adlieiv  present  practice. 

L822,  -  Kepori  by  tlirir  Secretary  to  tin-  Linen  I'-.ard  in  Lv- 
land  sli-  .winij  the  good  effect  of  public  stamping.  Presented  and 

laid  un  1 

25th  March  Is-J.'V-   I  from  <  'ommittee  of  Privy  Council 

en    Trade,  mentioning  that    in    consequence   of  representations 
:    various   manutactnrcrs   in    Scotland,   their   Lord;  hips  had 
under  tln-ir  consideration    the  scvt  ral  acts  ivlal  ivc  to   the    Linen 
manutacturc;  and  th<  ir  Lordahipfl  Uing  of  opinion  that   it   • 
be  advisable  to  suhmit  to  1'arlianient .  during  the  present  session, 
a  hill   to  n-peal  -nch  parts  of  these  acts  as  ha\. 
incasiiriiiLr,  lapping,  and  stanipintr  such  l/nn-n>,  and  atlixin.i;  the 
nam-  nianutacturer  to  each  piece,  and  re(|iii>tin;4  any 

iLinaik>.  Hoard  send  letter  deprecating  the  repeal  as  u  fraught 
with  danger  to  all  but  a  few  capitalists  of  manufacturers,  who 
are  probably  aiming  at  obtaining  a  monopoly  of  the  Scotch 
Linen  Trade." 

5th    May. — Secretary  (in    London)   reports  that   Mr   Hus- 
kisson   had   resolved  to  bring  in   a  bill   to  repeal  the  laws  for 
the  stamping  of  Linen,  or,  as  it  is  reported,  to  make  it  optional 
to  the  manufacturers  to  stamp  them>elv<  s.  or  have  them  stamped 
by   public  stamp-masters — that  a   Deputation  of  buyers  from 
iMindee  are  in  London,  have  printed  their  case,  and  are  d 
what  they  can  to  defeat  the  bill.     Also  presented  a  letter   from 
J.  Pi.  Miller,  on  the  part  of  the  Deputies  of  the  Dundee  hi; 
stating  that  in  the  interview  which  they  had  with  Mr  Huskisson, 
at  which  Mr  C.  Grant  was  also  present,  they  found  him  i 
in  his  purpo>c  of  hrin«:inir  in   the   bill,  and  that    the   facts  and 
iiich  they  brou-ht    into  his  view  in  support  of  the 
long  established  system  of  public  stamping  made  no  impression 
whatever  on  him. 

20th  M^ay.— Secretary  (in  London)  reports  that  he  and 
the  Board's  London  solicitor,  with  one  of  Dnnde,-  I  hputies,  had 
waited  on  Mr  Hu-ki^on,  '•///,//  Mr  //.  <•„///,/  n»t  i • 

purpose"  that  the  bill  had  been  brought  in  and  read  a  second 
time.  and.  from  a  copy  which  he  had  sten.  it  sweeps  away  the 
whole  re-ulat ions  of  the  Acts  L'.th  (in,.  I.,  and  iMth  Cieo.  11. 
for  the  u  of  linseed.  Linens,  yarn.  Linen  cloth,  and 

bleaching  materials. 

29th  May.—  A  .  ii«.nal   clause.   £\-  mamnV- 


474  MODERN  LINEN. 

turer  power  either  to  stamp  himself  or  by  stamp-master,  Mr 
Blair's  opinion  read  that  it  would  be  wholly  nugatory  or  ineffi- 
cient. Board  pass  series  of  resolutions  deprecating  the  con- 
templated change,  and  foretelling  the  ruinous  effects  thereof. 

8th  July. — "  The  Secretary  printed  a  copy  of  an  Act  of  Par- 
liament passed  on  27th  June,  1823,  which  puts  an  end  to  the 
inspection  of  lintseed,  Linen  yarn,  bleaching  materials,  and  the 
inspection  and  stamping  of  Linen  by  the  officers  appointed  by 
the  Board,  and  leaves  it  to  manufacturers,  sellers,  and  buyers, 
to  act  as  they  think  proper/' 

"  The  Board  directed  the  Secretary  to  transmit  a  circular  to 
all  the  surveyors  of  lintseed,  inspectors  of  yarn,  stamp-masters, 
and  general  surveyor,  informing  them  that  they  must  immedi- 
ately cease  to  act,  and  return  their  commissions,  stamps,  and 
types  to  this  office/' 

The  Trustees  in  their  Annual  Report  for  1823  notice  that  the 
law  requiring  Linen  to  be  stamped  and  inspected  having  been 
repealed,  their  duties  ceased  at  midsummer  1823. 

For  several  years  after  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  a  system 
of  inspection  was  in  operation,  but  it  was  entirely  voluntary, 
there  being  no  law  to  enforce  it.  The  inspectors,  in  most  cases, 
were  the  same  parties  who  had  acted  as  stampers  under  the  Act, 
and  they  were  generally  well  qualified,  from  their  knowledge  and 
experience  in  examining  Linens,  for  being  inspectors.  Manufac- 
turers either  took  their  cloth  to  the  inspector,  or,  as  was  more 
generally  the  case,  got  the  inspector  to  their  own  works  to  go 
over  and  examine  the  pieces ;  and  if  he  was  satisfied  with  the 
quality,  the  cloth  was  stamped  with  the  name  of  the  inspector, 
which  was  an  evidence  that  it  was  of  proper  workmanship,  and 
fair  quality. 

Such  a  system  was  liable  to  abuse,  because,  by  collision  between 
the  manufacturer  and  inspector,  inferior  goods  might  have  been 
stamped  and  sold  for  the  genuine  quality  ;  but,  in  practice,  this 
was  rarely  or  ever  done,  as  the  inspectors  were  generally 
men  of  character,  and  they  would  have  been  personally  re- 
sponsible for  any  loss  arising  from  such  a  dereliction  of  duty. 
The  practice  was  continued  for  a  number  of  years,  but  it 
ultimately  died  out.  Merchants,  by  and  bye,  became  better 
acquainted  with  the  quality  of  the  goods  they  were  in  the  practice 
of  buying,  and  were  content  to  take  them  on  their  own  judgment, 
without  the  intervention  of  inspectors. 

The  law  requiring  the  stamping  of  Linen  was  no  doubt  founded 


SCOTCH  LINEN.  IV 

M  apparent  views  of  publie  utility,  and  prohaMy  in  tin-  infancy 
ot    the    trade,  when  buyers,  irom  want   of   « 
ill  able  to  judge  of  tin-  Duality  of  th«-  rl.-tli,  it  may  have  been  of 
k-netit  to  the  trade,      At  the  p  f  the  pawing  of  the 

and  for  long  afterwards,  almost  all  manufacturers  p 
simply  weavers,  \vh<>.  \\itli  i  )>•  assistance  of  the  members  of  their 
family,  or  a  few  apprentices,  produced  a  piece  or  two  a  week, 
whk-li    they  took  to  tin-  nearest  market-town  for  sale.       Such 
parties  had  lessint<T.M  in  ke«-pin«:  c  quality  of  their 

goods  than  tin  large  producers  of  tin-  [.reseat  day,  and  proba- 
bly on  this  ground  tlic  Act  may  have  been  at  the  time  a 
judicious  one.  It  18  very  doubtful,  however,  whether  any  advan- 
tage which  could  have  U-en  deri\ed  from  it,  even  at  the  outset 
of  the  Linen  manufaeture,  was  sufficient  to  compensate  for  the 
inquisitorial  annoyance,  expense,  and  loss  of  time  to  which  it 
Mil  jrctcd  the  manufacturer. 

It  could  not  have  been  expected  that  a  person  who  had 
no  connection  with  the  trade,  and  whose  emoluments  depended 
on  the  quantity  that  he  stamped,  would  be  as  scrupulous  of 
affixing  the  seal  of  his  approbation  on  the  pieces  as  if  his  interest 
depended  on  the  quality.  In  practice,  especially  after  mill-spun 
yarns  came  into  general  use,  the  approbation  of  the  stamp- 
master  was  not  found  to  have  much  influence  on  the  judgment 
of  the  merchant.  If  stamping  was  then  requisite  at  all,  the 
safest  way  for  the  public  would  have  been  to  allow  the  manufac- 
turer to  stamp  his  own  cloth,  and  his  credit  and  interest  was  a 
guarantee  that  no  improper  goods  would  be  sent  into  the  market 
as  genuine.  This  has  virtually  been  the  case  since  the  abolition 
of  stamping,  and  the  practice  has  been  found  to  wmk  well,  and 
given  satisfaction  both  to  buyer  and  seller.  The  fewer  trammel8 
then-  ;MV  upon  trade,  and  the  less  interfnvne,-  between  the  pro- 
ducer and  purchaser  of  any  a  rtiele,  the  inure  will  that  trade  prosper. 
"Let  us  alone  unto  f  was  the  reply  of  an  enlightened 

manutaetmvr  to  the  great  Sully,  when  he  proposed  to  protect 
and  encourage  trade  by  a  Royal  edict  ;  and  trade  and  manufac- 
l'-t  ah  '11-.  have  in  all  ages  been  found  to  prosper  most. 

The  Act  was  beneficial  in  tuini>hinur  >t a tistics  regarding  the 
Mt  and  progress  of  the  trade  during  its  continuance,  and  the 
following  taMes  <  xtraeted  from  the  proceedings  of  the  Tru^ 
throw  much  li^ht  on  the  Linen  Tr.  i  lungseri-  is:- 


476 


MODERN  LINEN. 


io^ao 

CO  CO  CNI 

of  of 


r-i  c  o-  a 

aoio-'a'fMascococoeo 

»O          t^rHOCO          CM 


s 


ear  to  1M 
171 


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^SGOT-<      :  I-H      ;  00  O5  QO  t^  CO  r-l  CO  -* 
^Cil>-      .  QO      IcOCOiOOCO-^u'JtO 


O  CO  i-l  O 

^  rH  b-  ;H 

C~  1O  T-I  O  OS 

r-TtcT-^ro  c*f 

-^  co  o  co  us 
01  co  -^  t>  -^ 


rf  «O  CO  Oi  OS 
t~  CO  C5  CO  (M 
CO  t  t>  <M  rH 


^f»<C|»t-|«>«Bf»<C|Q 
CO  CO  !>•  OS  »H 


CM  OS  t- 

C>s  i—  1  O 

CO  ^  ^ 


SSS 

CO  COiM 


s 


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2^I=o 


per 
un 


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11H 

^^^^ 
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§cB^^^ 

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c<:^^^ 


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£^ 

il 

a  .a 

5  -g 

s  w 


477 


oo  o  *^ -*  *"•  o  —  «P    : 


^  O  CO  W  OOCO<0  —  W 

e«  o  <o  »a  oo  o  co  to 


•«•  «  »o  «  o 


§c»»  »O  oo  «    '  »a  O  «o 
»     V-     o     « 


o  •*•  b-    • 

1-1-70 


"b-    •  «o  «5  on 


-^  eo  oo  c^  «o  cc 


—  t  -  ?  i 

— i  •-«  CO 

b-  *< 


-.N^ 


i«00>0 

:    ;  o  t  •-  •-  ~  >  ~  i  « - 


e  «  2  S  5  5  5s  cs  ir  f^  «  ^  <=:  -  r  •. 

Soo«c5«'^-'      ^t^      ^«  o  r.  n  ~r  -o»t«'- 

«          «* 


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478 


MODERN    LINEN. 


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£  4 


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oO'-H(MOOO'-lOOO'-<T-<O'-lF-tOi-HOT-(OOO 


e*  HIM       HUH**  H^H«H«Me*j<  HH       HIM 

CD  CO  O  <M  t^»         ^         OO"—  l(Mt>>lO'^fOI>»?O'—  iCi-^^OS'^CO'—  'COGO'—  'COCO 

TH   i—  1   r-  !  ,—  1  i-^  I—  I 

CO  O  O  CO  O         CO         OOCO<NCOCO*a<>lCOCOC>:lC>JCOC<»COCOaOCOCX|COa}i-l-H»a 


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«  »-i  •*-^  t»  ^«  o  t- 


(Mt^iOOi-l 
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rH  ^-  -H  i-H  <N  O  O  O  T-.  -^  O  O  O  r-l          OO 


1-1   ^!   1-H   ^  ^H        •  t-t 

i-ii-iOi-iO'-iO      'o 


COCOidCOCOCO  i-HSMCOb-b-OiOCO  »OCOr-lc<ICOCOO'^Hb-CiOO  rH 

:  :cob--*^O5vcoiO5  :oicoco^coco'*ioi>-oi>oc5  :^o 

COb-CO      ;  -OiOlMO^iOt^f-l  :r-.^b-CDO>(NCMOCOCO»OO  ;»O 

•—  i  CO  O      •  •  CO  O  -"f  >—  I  rO  CO  <M  O  -CO-^I         t^THt^b-tOCOCOO^^I  -CO 


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co"of ^0210  •  r-r<N*'t>vo'co'>c<rr-r<xrc<r 

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«  t*  o  ^«  o  « 


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r  ***ti£*ttK  irftfrf-'tf  !    is's'^s"10  5 


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oo  ^H  'io"«o  o  o  a.  -N  o 


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•3 


480  MODERN  LINEN. 


QUANTITY  AKD  VALUE  OF  LINEN  GOODS  STAMPED  IN  SCOTLAND. 


Tear 
to  1st 
ov. 

dumber  of 
Yards. 

Estimated  Value. 

vrge. 
'rice. 

ear 

1st 
'o 

Number  of 
Yards. 

Estimated  Value. 

£         S.       D. 

S.     D. 

£            S.          D. 

728 

2,183,978 

103,312     9     3 

11 

776 

3,571,948£ 

638,873     9    8 

1729 

3,  225,  15541  14,383  19     8T\ 

8A 

777 

4,793,888| 

710,633  18     7J 

1730 

3,755,6222 

131,262   15  II9 

8S 

778 

3,264,41  Of 

592,023     5     4£ 

1731 

3,891,573 

145,656   14     3 

8U 

779 

2,867,238 

551,148     3     3^ 

1732 

4,  384,  832  2 

168,322   14  106 

9 

780 

3,410,934! 

622,187  16     4£ 

1733 

4,720,105! 

182,766     2     I3 

9A 

781 

5,  177,  800  1 

738,482  13  ll£ 

1734 

4,893,499 

185,224     3  11 

9 

782 

5,348,7444 

775,098     7     6| 

1735 

4,880,633* 

177,466     3     911 

8^ 

783 

7,074,777| 

866,983  10     6 

1736 

4,538,478* 

168,177  13     O10 

8 

784 

9,138,593 

932,617     1  11£ 

1737 

4,72l,4206 

183,620  13    9r 

»A 

785 

7,275,071£ 

835,081  14    3| 

1738 

4,666,0115 

185,026  11     96 

9S 

786 

7,501,375| 

823,447  13     IJ 

1739 

4,801,537* 

196,068  16  II11 

9|| 

787 

9,  425,  03  ij 

843,920  13    5| 

1740 

4,609,672«  188,777  16    56 

41 

1788 

0,506,3104 

854,900  16     2| 

1741 

4,858,  1906  187,658  15     38 

9fV 

1789 

9,  996,  075  J 

779,608     8    OJy 

1742 

4,431,450*  191,689     6     63 

10A 

1790 

8,092,249 

722,544  12     6 

1743 

5,061,311  1215,927     6     7* 

iog 

1791 

8,739,725 

755,546    7     8 

1744 

5,480,727    229,364  12     310 

log 

1792 

1,065,386 

842,543  14     2£ 

1745 

5,536,925*224,252     8     0* 

9A 

1793 

0,676,  620  J 

757,332     0     0 

174 

5,486,334   222,870  13     22 

9JJ 

1794 

0,535,633 

797,416  19     4 

174 

6,661,  788*'262,866  10     26 

0   9A 

1795 

1,374,196 

827,003  13     3 

174 

7,353,09s1  .293,864  12  11° 

0    9^ 

1796 

3,102,404 

906,202     8     4 

174 

7,360,286*i322,045     8     95 

oiog 

1797 

9,475,241 

735,084     4     0 

175 

7,572,5403 

361,736  12     57 

0  11 

1798 

1,297,059 

850,403    9     9 

175 

7,886,3746 

367,167  11     62 

0  nA 

1799 

4,506,007 

1,116,022     4     7 

175 

8,759,943! 

409,047     6     76 

0  11 

1800 

4,235,633 

1,047,598  10  1.0 

175 

9,  422,  593  6 

445,321  18     I1 

0  11* 

1801 

25,271,870 

1,018,642     8     0 

175 

8,914,369 

406,816     8     O7 

0  10 

1802 

23,803,255 

915,103  17     9 

175 

8,122,  4723 

345,349  10     61 

0    108 

1803 

15.890,878 

687,692     4     6 

175 

8,547,  1535 

367,721  10  101 

0    108 

1804 

15,198,676 

749,115  13     4 

175 

9,764,  408r  401,  511     9     97 

0     9i 

1805 

19,413,057 

936,453     6     8} 

175 

10,  624,  4355  424,  141  10    73 

0    9* 

1806 

21,490,123^ 

973,171     2     8j 

175 

10,830,707   451,390  17    31 

0  10 

1807 

20,776,774 

957,238  16     0 

176 

11,747,728"  523,153  10     41 

0  108 

1808 

19,390,497 

1,014,629  18     4 

176 

11,995,494*516,354    5  103 

0  103 

1809 

22,469,990 

1,171,880     8  10 

176 

11,303,237  474,807  13    5* 

0  10 

1810 

26,457,079' 

1,265,669  17     2 

176 

12,399,656*1552,281     9     2 

0  108 

181 

21,499,765; 

999,439     4     5 

176 

12,823,0483  573,243  12     73 

0  108 

181 

18,975,862- 

1,020,493  11     2| 

176 

12,746,659*J579,227  11     2* 

0  101 

181 

19,799,146i 

977,382     1     7j 

176 

13,242,557 

637,346  11     2 

0  II7 

181 

26,126,620^ 

1,253,574  16  10} 

176 

12,783,043 

633,854    2     1 

0  II1 

181 

32,056,015; 

1,403,766  15     2 

176 

11,795,437 

599,669     4    2 

1     O2 

181 

26,112,045; 

1,026,674     1  11| 

176 

13,406,125 

689,790  16     2 

1     0* 

181 

28,784,967; 

1,092,689     2     8J 

177 

13,049,535 

634,411     7     1£ 

0  11^ 

181 

31,283,100; 

1,253,523     8     o| 

U7 

13,466,274^620,322     6     2\ 

0  10T 

181 

29,334,428; 

1,157,923     4  11 

177 

13,089,006^579,833     7     5* 

0  10^ 

182 

26,259,011; 

1,038,708  18     5£ 

177 

10,748,  110|  '462,751     0  11J 

0    9^ 

182 

30,473,461 

1,232,038  15     4| 

177 
177 

11,422,115   492,045  13     8, 
12,139,683^561,527  10    2 

1     0 

o  114 

182 

36,268,530J|1,  396,295  19  11J 

The  Bounty  Act  was  passed  in  1742.     Bounties  ceased  6th  April  1754. 

481 


KIND  MF  I.INEN  STAMPED. 
IMS, 

l.inen*,  not  exceeding  1*  per  yard,        .         Ymd*,  10,536,996) 
Do.       do.,      exceeding  !•        ,  390,622 

5,208,247$ 
Harden*,  Tweela,  and  Striken.. 

Dowla*  and  Duck,  .  .  4,700,215 

Sacking  and  Bagging,        .... 
Checks  and  Stripe*,  .... 

"««t  .  .... 

Dinpens     .  ... 

Cambric*,  ..... 

Lawn*,       ...... 

Linen  C* •:/  .... 

Faulty. 


623,831. i 

;.r»9ii 

105,155$ 
M 

6,224* 

3,160 

78.190J 

-,530 A 


Until  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  large  pro  • 
portion  of  the  Linen  Trade  of  Scotland  was  of  a  domestic  kind. 
In  many  parishes  the  Flax  was  raised,  spun,  weaved,  and  bleached 
l»y  tin-  cottier  tanner  and  his  family.  These  processes  were  a 
source  of  pleasant  and  healthy  employment  to  a  large  and  indus- 
trials population,  at  seasons  when  other  avocations  did  not 
require  their  attention.  Flax  was  the  rent-paying,  luxury-pro- 
viding crop  ;  and  as  it  was  the  only  commodity  which  brought 
wealth  into  many  parishes,  it  is  well  named  u  The  golden 
crop." 

In  order  to  give  a  succinct  view  of  the  state  of  the*  trade, 
scattered  as  it  then  was  throughout  the  rural  districts  of  the 
country,  an  account  of  the  processes  practised  in  the  various 
l»ari>hrs  where  the  manufacture  was  chiefly  carried  on  will 
now  be  given.  These  details  are  taken  from  the  "  Statistical 
Accounts  of  the  Parishes  of  Scotland/'  made  up  by  th«- 
spective  ministers  (the  phraseology  used  by  them  being  generally 
retained),  and  a  variety  of  other  sources,  and  are  interesting 
as  pourtraying  the  IIIMIIIMTS  and  cu<t«m,>  «t'  a  bygone  age.  In 
H  H 


482  MODERN  LINEN. 

many  of  these  parishes  the  manufacture  died  a  natural  death, 
consequent  upon  the  changes  which  the  spinning  mill  produced 
on  the  trade  of  the  country,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  follow  in 
many  cases  the  various  phases  which  preceded  its  extinction,  as 
the  causes  were  generally  the  same  in  all.  The  spinning-mill, 
when  fairly  established,  so  cheapened  spinning  that  the  hand- 
wheel  was  driven  from  the  contest.  The  young  people,  deprived 
of  their  usual  employment,  sought  labour  in  the  mills  ;  and 
when  these  became  concentrated  in  the  manufacturing  towns, 
the  workers  left  the  country  districts,  and  became  absorbed 
with  the  town  population.  Then  the  ancient  manufacture 
waned  and  died,  and  in  many  districts  where  it  had  formerly 
been  conducted  with  vigour,  not  a  trace  of  it  now  remains. 

In  some  of  the  country  districts  where  spinning-mills  were 
early  erected,  the  rise,  progress,  and  final  extinction  of  the  works 
have  been  briefly  noticed,  because  their  history  is  now  little 
known,  although  highly  interesting.  At  first  the  works  were 
planted  where  water  as  a  motive  power  could  be  rendered  avail- 
able, because  the  steam-engine  was  then  rude  in  construction, 
uncertain  in  its  operation,  and  costly  to  work.  These  country 
works  were  far  from  the  market,  and  had  many  other  disad- 
vantages, some  of  them  of  a  formidable  character.  As  improve- 
ments in  the  steam-engine  were  discovered,  the  cost  of  spinning 
by  steam-power  decreased,  and  larger  works  were  put  up  in  the 
towns.  The  mills  driven  by  water  being  limited  in  size  by  the 
available  power  of  the  stream,  were  generally  of  small  extent. 
With  the  advance  of  steam  they  became  less  and  less  valuable  ; 
and  many  of  them  which  at  first  rose  like  a  rocket,  and  for  a 
time  flashed  like  a  meteor,  dazzling  the  country  around,  were  at 
last  burned  out  by  an  accidental  fire,  and  only  a  heap  of  rubbish 
remains  to  mark  the  spot  where  once  they  stood.  In  several  of 
the  smaller  towns  and  villages,  chiefly  in  the  counties  of  Fife 
and  Forfar,  the  Linen  manufacture,  in  some  of  its  processes,  is 
still  a  living  one  ;  and  details  regarding  its  present  state  in 
some  of  these  are  given. 

For  more  easy  reference  the  towns  and  parishes  described  are 
arranged  alphabetically. 

A  short  description  of  the  former  arid  present  condition  of  the 
Linen  manufacture  in  a  few  of  the  larger  towns  in  Fife  and 


KCO'K   M    LINEN. 

1-Wfar.  shrwing  where  the  trade  is  still  in  active  <>|  will 

follow  under  tin    tit  It       I  These  are  also  given 

m alphabetical  ..i.l.r.     Thereafter  an  account  of  the  rise,  pro- 
gress, and  present  condition  of  the  trade  in  Dundee,  the  \: 
(•••litre  o!'  the   Linen  manufacture  of  Sootl:mil  ;   tn^'tln-i-   with. 
various  statistical  tables  in  connection  with  the  trade  of  the 
town  and  district,  will  conclude  this  portion  of  the  work. 


RURAL     DISTRICTS. 

ABKRNETHY. — In  1792  there  were  82  male  and  female  weavers 
in  the  parish,  many  of  whom  excelled  in  making  all  kinds  of 
household  Linen  ;  but  the  greater  number  of  them  were 
employed  in  weaving  Silesias  for  the  Perth  merchants.  They 
got  the  webs  warped  and  ready  for  the  loom,  and  were  paid  so 
much  a  yard  for  weaving.  The  manufacture  was  then  on  the 
decline  ,  hut,  some  years  before,  the  weavers  were  handsomely 
paid  for  their  labour. 

AIM  .KNYIK. — About  1790  fully  sixteen  acres  of  Flax  were 
annually  grown,  ten  pecks  being  sown  per  acre,  which  j 
duced  a  little  over  or  under  twenty-five  stones  of  Flax.  The 
seed  of  the  Flax  grown  was  generally  saved  and  sold  for 
about  a  shilling  a  peck  to  the  oil  mills,  very  little  of  it 
beinij  tit  f..r  sowing  again.  There  was  then  a  Flax-mill  in  the 
parish,  and  tin-  charge  for  scutching  Is  6d  a  stone.  On  the 
\\  Mream  which  separates  the  parish  tVom  Longforgan  there 
were,  within  the  space  of  a  mile,  nine  mills,  of  which  four 
were  for  Flax-scutching.  The  manufacture  of  coarse  Lii 
employed  a  considerable  population  before  this  period;  but  the 
number  of  weavers  was  then  greatly  reduced  by  the  distinction 
of  the  cottages  which  they  had  occupied.  Tl.  kinds  manufac- 
tured were  coarse  sheeting,  and  ham  or  pack-sheet.  This 
stuff  thru  sold  for  from  3Jd  to  4jd  a  yard,  and  an  ordinary 
H  H  2 


484  MODERN  LINEN. 

weaver  was  able  to  weave  from  20  to  30  yards  a  day.  The 
women  not  engaged  in  service  were  employed  in  spinning  yarn 
for  Linen  and  thread,  for  which  they  received  from  Is  2d  to 
Is  3d  a  spindle,  and  they  span  half  a  spindle  a  day.  The 
statistical  report  of  this  parish  says — "  It  appears  from  Boetius 
that  Linen  was  very  early  a  considerable  manufacture  of 
Dundee  ;  and  it  still  continues  the  staple  of  this  country/' 

ALYTH. — Flax  has  been  grown  in  this  district  from  time 
immemorial ;  and  towards  the  end  of  last  century,  the  quan- 
tity sown  had  increased,  and  the  quality  was  generally  good. 
Three,  and  often  four  stones,  of  24  Ibs  avoirdupois,  was  no 
uncommon  return  from  the  peck  of  seed  ;  and  there  were  then 
three  lint  mills  in  the  parish,  which  were  well  employed.  The 
chief  articles  made  were  yarn  and  brown  Linen,  of  which  a 
large  quantity  was  spun  and  weaved  in  the  town  and  district 
around,  this  manufacture  having  been  established  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  1 8th  century.  The  quantity  of  Linens  stamped  from  1  st 
Nov.  1787,  to  1791  was,  at  an  average,  258,639  yards  yearly,  and 
the  medium  value  £6939 10s3d.  This  branch  of  the  trade,  although 
then  much  larger  than  in  former  years,  was,  it  was  thought,  still 
capable  of  being  much  enlarged  and  improved,  as  it  well 
deserved  to  be.  Perhaps  not  half  the  yarn  at  this  period  spun 
in  that  part  of  the  country  was  manufactured  in  it,  although  it 
might  all  have  been  weaved  with  advantage  to  all  parties.  The 
distance  between  Dundee  and  Alyth,  where  most  of  the  cloth 
was  sent,  was  compensated  for  by  cheaper  labour,  and  the 
intercourse  was  soon  to  be  made  more  easy  by  the  turnpike  road 
between  Meigle  and  Dundee,  which  was  then  nearly  finished. 
At  that  time  it  was  also  in  contemplation  to  erect  a  bridge  over 
the  Isla,  and  continue  the  road  to  Alyth,  which,  it  was  expected, 
would  be  of  essential  benefit  to  the  district.  The  bridge  was 
subsequently  built  and  the  road  opened,  which  assisted  to 
develop  the  resources  of  the  country  ;  and  although  the  growing 
and  spinning  of  lint  has  long  been  discontinued,  the  weaving 
of  Linen  from  mill-spun  yarns  has  prospered  and  given  employ- 
ment to  very  many  people.  Twenty  years  ago  the  quantity  of 
coarse  Linen  made  exceeded  10,000  pieces  a  year ;  and  the 
railway  recently  opened  will  still  farther  stimulate  the  exertions 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  add  to  the  wealth  of  the  town  and  dis- 


1   .  I 


an.und.    This  year.  IS64,  Da\i«I   Smith  &   Son,  feXt 
handlonm    manufacturers   areeivetinu'   a    |»ower-l,...m 

li>liin«  nl.  whieh  will  be  driven  by  a  steam-engine  of  1  1 
horse  power.  and  i>  intended  In  contain  100  looms.  Tlti-  will 
tend  to  give  more  regular  employment  to  tin-  labouring  popula- 
tion, and  thu*  IHJ  of  great  benefit  to  the  town.  The  goods 
math  in  tin-  di>trict  are  now  chiefly  hessians,  brown  sh«  .  tiiu 
and  other  coarse  fabrics. 

AICIUHLOT.  —  F<>!  tl  years  prior  to  1790,  tin-  farmers  in 

tlii-  parish  paid  e..n-iderable  attention  to  tin-  raising  of  Flax. 
and,  as  they  received  several  premiums,  it  appears  th«  ii 
labours  had  been  crowned  with  3U00808,  That  yetr  {M  .-. 

sown  with  lin-<rd  in  the  pari-h,  and  procured  tin-  premium 
given  l»y  the  Soei.-ty  for  rai>-in-  Flax  in  the  country.  The 
inhabit  ants  were  celebrated  in  a  hi^h  decree  for  rai^in.ur.  \\atiT- 
ini:.  drrs^in--.  and  spinnin.LC  Flax;  but  there  were  th«-n  no  Linen 
manufactures  in  the  parish. 

AucHTi:i:Ai:ni:K  —  Kit^lity  years  ago  there  were  but  one  or  two 

two-handed  spinning  wheels  in  use  here,  and  the  want  of  them 

was  deplored,  as  they  tended  to  increase  the  materials  for  the 

Linen  manufacture,  and  better  the  condition  of  the  working- 

ially  the  women,  for  which  there  was  little  empl'>y- 

meiit  in  the  parish.  About  the  year  1770,  a  considerable  manufae- 

tim  nf  yarn  and  narrow  Linen  cloth  was  carried  on,  and  it  was 

_dit,  both  in  the  brown  and   bl-.-aeh.-d  stat",  by  the  Glasgow 

ini  rehants  ;  but  the  trade  had  declined,  and  in  1700  was  alni«'>t 

;et.     Sale  Linen  continued  to  be  manufactured  in  the  town 

and  neighbourhood,  and  also    Linen   of  a  fabric  peculiar  to  the 

.  whidi   went  by  its  name.     Near  Auehtcrarder  was  the 

village  of  Borland  Park,  built  by  Government  for  the  accommo- 

dation of  the  soldiers  who  were  disbanded  after  the  war  in  1  , 

d    the  place,   and  soon  leff   it  ;    and    in    171K)  it 
was    occupied    by   lin   people,    mostly    all    of    win 
weavers.   Linen  has  now  ceased  to  be  manufactured  in  tl.is 
pariah. 

AUCHTERMUCHTY.  —  About   90  acres  were   annually  appro- 
priated  for  the  growth  of  Flax    in   th"   parish,   about    K 
and    re-ret    was   expressed  at    the    l',..ard    «.f  Trustees   ha^ 
curtailed  the  bounty  on  it.  as  the  crop  was  generally  indifferent, 


486  MODERN  LINEN. 

and  did  not  pay  the  farmer  well.  The  chief  manufacture  was 
Linen  >  and  the  quantity  made  from  1st  Nov.  1790  to  1791,  as 
appears  from  the  Stamp-master's  books,  was— 

35  inch  brown  Linen,  valued  at  9£d  per  yard,  239,244|  yards,  £.9470    1    8$ 
27 and 30 do.  do.,  Silesian  do.  do.,  8d        „         260,093        „        8,6691510 
White  Linen,  do.  do.,  8d        „  2212|        „  73  15    2 


Total, 


Great  part  of  which  was  made  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood. 
An  ordinary  journeyman  weaver  could  work  9  spindles  a  week, 
but  an  expert  hand  could  weave  17  spindles,  at  Is  per  spindle. 
About  1770  the  ordinary  price  for  weaving  was  5Jd  a  spindle, 
and  the  rate  had  more  than  doubled  within  20  years.  About 
£50,000  Was  annually  expended  by  Linen  merchants  in  the 
town  in  the  end  of  last  century.  In  1817  a  blight  is  said  to  have 
come  over  the  manufacturing  industry  of  the  town,  and  the 
trade  was  thenceforward  carried  on  chiefly  by  agents,  instead  of 
native  manufacturers.  In  1843  there  were  about  700  weavers 
in  the  parish,  one-third  of  whom  were  females,  who  earned 
about  5s  6d  a  week.  The  Linen  manufacture  is  still  the  staple 
of  the  town  and  parish,  and  in  addition  to  weaving  there  is  now  a 
bleachfield  belonging  to  Peter  Skinner  in  active  operation,  which 
gives  employment  to  about  30  hands,  and  is  yearly  increas- 
ing. The  Linens  now  made  include  dowlas,  sheetings  of  all 
widths,  towelling,  table-cloths,  &c.,  &c, 

AVOCH. — In  the  end  of  last  century  a  considerable  quantity  of 
Flax  was  raised  by  the  tenants,  which  was  spun  and  woven  by 
themselves  into  Osnaburgs  and  other  Linens.  This  brought  in 
yearly  from  £300  to  £500,  and  no  foreign  material  was  required 
excepting  a  few  barrels  of  Dutch  linseed.  As  much  hemp  was 
sown  by  the  farmers  as  was  sufficient  to  make  sails  and  cord- 
age to  the  fishing-boats. 

BANFF.— The  thread  and  Linen  manufacture  was  carried  on 
to  a  great  extent  in  the  parish  from  1780  to  1790.  For 
the  thread  manufacture  about  3500  mats  of  Dutch  flax  was 
imported  annually,  which,  at  an  average  price  of  £3  5s,  cost 
upwards  of  £11,000  sterling,  and  gave  employment  to  about 
60  men  in  heckling  and  other  operations.  The  spinning 


487 

employed  about  40UO  persons   in  tin-  <li  >l   the  Flax 

yielded    ab.»ut    150,000  spindles  of   yarn,    circulating  ab..nt 

£10,00()  7«Urlj  amon-th-  Tbi  d-iiblm-  ami 

the  yarn,  which  was  dom-  in  I'.mtF,  employed  about  200  Women 
and  children,  and  the  bleaching  ah'.ui  10  more.  The  thread 
was  sent  to  Nottingham  ami  L.-i.vster.  ami  was  value. I  at  about 
£30,(MM).  Ultimately  the  trade  gave  place  to  the  stocking 
manufacture,  which  was  long  *  on  successfully,  and 

tin  Linen  manufacture  at  last  became  extinct  in  the  dis- 
trict. 

BARUY.  —  "In  the  parish,"  says  the  Statistical  Heport, 
11  ahnost  every  householder  was  a  manufacturer,  as  weavers  were 
th'  'i  generally  called,  there  being  about  a  humhvd  of  them  in 
1790,  Exclusive  of  considerable  quantities  of  home-grown 
Flax,  the  manufacturers  used  yearly  of  foreign  Flax  from  Riga 
and  St  lVter>burij  several  tons,  amounting  in  value  to  more 
than  £800.  In  the  foreign  markets  the  Linen  stamped  at 
Aberbrothock  had  acquired  a  high  reputation  ;  and  it  could  not 
be  denied  that,  to  the  cloth  made  at  Barry,  which  had  long 
been  distinguished  for  the  goodness  of  its  material,  and  the 
superiority  of  its  workmanship,  the  stamp  of  that  town  was 
indebted  for  part  of  its  fame.  By  introducing  honour  as  a 
prompter  to  excellence,  the  manufacture  of  Barry  had  reached 
its  then  state  of  perfection.  For  more  than  40  years  the 
inspection  of  the  weaving  had,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the 
manufacturers,  been  assigned  to  an  annual  olli'vr,  who 
allowed  to  choose  two  assistant  councillors.  The  officer,  with 
were  eagle-eyed  to  discover  every  bl.^.Uh.  an  1  a 
pecuniary  fine,  or,  what  Wftl  more  dreaded,  the  correction  of 
ridicule,  o \vrtook  every  one  who  was  in  fault.  Th. ->e  circum- 
stances had  contributed  to  fix  such  habits  of  attention  and 
accuracy,  that  some  workmen  had  not  had  a  piece  cast  at  the 
Stamp  Office  for  20  years.  The  com  lit  ion  of  the  manufacturers 
illicit  have  been  ameliorated  by  in>urin_r  to  them  at  all  times 
abundance  of  Flax  at  a  reasonable  rate,  by  continuing  the 
encouragement  to  the  Linen  trade,  and  by  rescuing  them  from 
a  twofold  combination  Of  Flax  and  brown  Linen  merchants,  by 
which  they  enhanced  at  pleasure  the  price  of  th  f..r.  ign  Flax 
they  sold,  and  depressed  the  price  of  the  cloth  which  they 


488  MODERN  LINEN. 

bought/'  It  is  doubtful  if  the  people  of  Arbroath  believed  that 
so  much  of  the  fame  of  their  town  for  Liuen  was  owing  to  the 
superior  manufactures  of  Barry,  although  there  is  no  doubt  that 
Barry  Linens  were  really  good.  The  condition  of  the  manufac- 
turers of  the  present  day  would  be  very  much  improved  by 
having  at  all  times  abundance  of  material  at  a  reasonable  price  ; 
but  this  never  has  been,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  never  can  be, 
guaranteed  to  any  trade. 

Since  the  period  referred  to  Barry  has  risen  into  considerable 
importance  for  its  manufactures.  The  village  of  Carnoustie, 
situated  in  the  parish,  which,  at  the  beginning  of  the  century 
was  quite  an  insignificant  place,  is  now  a  very  thriving  and 
populous  village,  and  almost  deserving  to  be  classed  among  the 
towns  of  the  county.  It  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its 
manufacture  of  bleached  sheetings,  and  similar  goods,  large 
quantities  of  which  were  produced  by  its  weavers,  who  still 
rank  high  among  those  of  their  class  in  the  county.  In  1857 
"  Panmure  Works"  was  erected  there  by  the  enterprising  and 
respectable  firm  of  James  Smieton  &  Son,  merchants  in  Dun- 
dee, which  is  a  perfect  model  of  a  power-loom  work,  not  only 
for  its  handsome  external  appearance,  but  also  for  the  excellent 
arrangement  of  its  machinery  within,  and  which  is  specially 
referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  Linen  Weaving.  The  work  is 
intended  to  contain,  when  finished,  from  400  to  500  looms,  with 
all  the  necessary  preparing  and  finishing  machinery,  and  to  be 
driven  by  two  engines  of  25  horse-power  each,  with  a  third  of 
10  horse-power  for  driving  the  calendering  machinery,  &c. 
At  the  present  time,  one  of  the  large  engines,  and  the  small  one, 
are  going,  and  the  number  of  looms  now  at  work  are  216.  The 
firm  have  also  upwards  of  100  handlooms,  and  they  employ  in 
all  400  hands,  to  whom  they  pay  about  £8000  in  wages 
annually.  The  class  of  goods  chiefly  made  are  various  qualities 
of  ducks,  paddings,  sheetings  and  dowlas,  and  the  firm  have 
acquired  high  celebrity  for  the  new  class  of  mixed  fabrics,  cheap 
yet  sightly,  which  they  produce.  Including  goods  purchased  by 
them,  there  are  about  3000  bales,  containing  5,000,000  yards, 
finished,  packed,  and  sent  off  from  the  Works  yearly  ;  and  the 
quantity  is  increasing  rapidly.  Messrs  Smieton  have  erected  a 
number  of  excellent  houses  for  the  accommodation  of  their 


so  KH  .  489 

empl  whose  comfort  every  attention  is  paid.     They  are 

aln.ut  t"  p-it  up  a  hmds< .in-- building  of  two  storeys  for  a  1. 
rary  lust  into,  to  contain  reading  room,  class-room,  I  'rial 

school  fur   females,  hall   for   l.-ct tires,  Ac.      Thi-  will  be  a  ^ 
boon  to  the  people   i«mplM\rd.   and   th.-   liU  taliiv  ami   kindly 
spirit  displayed  by  the  firm  is  \\vll  worthy  nf  imitation. 

I  i:\ii:.  —  In  they,  u  1 7  f>n  a  sail-cloth  manufactory  was  estab- 
lished in  Inv.-iaVrvi.-  liy  a  (••mipaiiy  of  Montrose  mci  and 
long  carried  on  with  great  success;  but  after  an  -e  of 
al»- nit  t'urty  \var>,  it  was  entirely  -.riven  up.  After  this  t  he  weavers 
bought  tlax,  span,  weaved,  and  bleached  it,  each  lor  his  own 
int.  The  .jiiantity  of  Lin<-:i  so  made  was  not  large;  but 
the  Duality  was  SO  superior,  that  at  country  lairs,  where  much  of 
it  \\as  sold,  it  l-r.Mi'4-ht  a  penny  a  yard  more  than  cloth  of  a 
similar  kind  hleached  at  the  regular  hleachtields.  About  1785 
the  bleaching  of  cloth  was  a  considerahle  trade  there  ;  but  alter 
that  period  it  gradually  declined  About  1775  a  thread  manu- 
factory was  established  in  Bervie,  and  was  long  carried  on 
successfully.  Fully  50  people  were  employed  iu  the  trade, 
and  the  thread  long  found  a  ready  sale  in  the  London 
market.  In  1787  a  building  was  erected  by  Walter  Sim  and 
Walter  Thorn,  under  the  firm  of  Sim  and  Thorn,  on  the  baughs 
of  Bervie,  for  spinning  Linen  yarn  ;  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  it 
was  the  tirst  l'la.\spinnin;;-inill  in  Scotland.  This  firm  was  granted 
a  license,  by  Kendrew  and  Porthouse  of  Darlington,  to  put  up 
r  spinning  rlax,  on  the  principle  tor  which  they 
had  that  year  taken  out  a  patent.  The  machinery  was  procun  d 
t'r..m  Kn-land.  through  the  patentees,  and  they  personally 

ised  regarding  the  erection.     The  mill  lias  now  be.-n  at 
for  77  years,  and  it  is  still  in  active  operation.     Its  extent  at 

I  of  J  1  >pindlt-N   each,  in  all,  192 

spindlc.>  tor  spinning  Flax  yarn.   Three  years  after  it>«-:vetion  the 
mill  had  not  been  all  tilled  with  machinery;  but  when  full,  it 
would  contain  from  600  to  700  spindles,  and  employ  20  t 
men  and  women,  and  «',()  boys  and  girls.     The  mill  was  • 
n ally  driven  by  water-power,  but  a  steam-engine  w 
many  years  ago  to  give  additional  power  and  a  steadier  motion. 
Now  it  contains  808   spindles,  for  spinning  from  three  to  tour 
pound    t<>w-yarn,  the   original   machin*  ry   bavin-   1.  n   all  (for 


490  MODERN  LINEN. 

placed  long  ago.     James  G.  Gibb,  the  present  proprietor,  in 
reply  to  an  enquiry  on  the  subject,  says — "  At  what   precise 
period  the  spinning  actually   commenced   I   cannot   say,   but 
it  was  in   the  same  year,  1787  ;    Linen  thread   being  what 
the  firm   manufactured."      In   corroboration   of  this    the  fol- 
lowing   circumstances    may    be    mentioned:  —  In    "Leigh's 
Koad-book  of  Scotland"  it  is  stated  that  the  town  of  Bervie 
presents  two  things  to  the  notice  of  travellers — a  small  harbour 
for  fishing-boats,  and  a  machine  for  spinning  Linen  yarn,  said 
to  be  the  first  of  its  kind  in  Scotland."     No  date  is  given.     In 
the  "  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland,"  under  the  title  "  Parish 
of  Bervie,"  written  by  Walter  Thorn  in  1790  or  1791,  it  is 
stated  — "  Three   years   ago,  a  machine   was    erected  on  the 
Haughs  of  Bervie  for  spinning  Linen  yarn,  being  the  first  of  the 
kind  in  Scotland."     On  taking  down  part  of  the  machinery  for 
improvement,  many  years  ago,  it  is  stated  in  the  "  Eeminiscences 
of  Flaxspinning,"   "  there  was   found  within   a   driving-drum 
an  inscription  of  date  Vi  87,  written  by  one  of  the  mechanics 
who  first  fitted  up  the  machinery,  stating  the  work  to  have  been 
erected  that  year ;  also  some  lines  as  to  the  nature  of  it  and  the 
offence  given  the  handspinners  of  Bervie,  whose  living  was  en- 
dangered thereby,  and  whose  rage  consequently  was  bitter  against 
all  concerned  in  the  erection."    James  Ivory  and  Co.  of  Douglas- 
town,  in  their  petition  to  the  Board  of  Trustees,  say  they  were 
to  try  the  spinning  of  heavy  yarn,  fit  for  the  Osnaburg  manufac- 
ture, which  hitherto  has  not  been  attempted.    Sim  &  Thorn  sprn 
yarn  for  their  thread  manufacture.     The  assertion  of  Messrs 
Ivory  is  therefore  correct,  although  they  may  not  have  been  the 
first  to  spin  by  machinery  in  Scotland.     Bervie  may  therefore 
well   claim   the  priority   of  spinning   Flax   by  machinery   in 
Scotland.     Although  exceedingly  imperfect  at  first,  within  a 
year  or  two  considerable  improvements  were  effected  upon  the 
machinery,  and  the  yarn  then  spun  was  of  good  quality,  and  fit 
for   any   sort   of   manufacture.      There    are    now  other   four 
spinning-mills  in  Bervie,  containing  1024  spindles,  all  of  which 
are  adapted  for  spinning  small  sizes  of  tow-yarn.     A  sail-cloth 
manufactory  was  at  one  time  erected  in  the  town,  where  about 
100  weavers  were  employed  in  Linen  weaving;  but  bleachfield 
and  sail-cloth  factory  have  long  since  disappeared,  and  weaving 


8C<>  '' 

is  all  but  extinct.  Little  sign  of  manufactiirini:  industry  is  now 
visihle  in  tin-  town,  excepting  tin- ancient  spinning  mill  of  B-ivie, 
and  the  progeny  which  have  risen  up  aroun<l  tin-  parent  work. 

BKNDOCHY. — Towards  tin-  end  of  last  cvntury,  about  43  acres 
of  Flax  was  grown  hen'.  Tin  linseed  was  sown  about  the  end 
of  April,  alter  a  slight  shower,  or  when  the  ground  was  v 
about  10  pecks  being  allowed  the  acre.  The  Fli\  was  pulled 
ah.. ut  tin-  end  of  Augi.M.  and  yielded  from  18  to  20  stones  an 
The  Flax  was  steeped  for  five  or  six  days  in  water, 
then  laid  on  the  grass  for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  very  little 
linseed  was  saved. 

P>!M!»LM. — At  Johnsliaven  in  this  parish,  a  manufaetory  of 
sail-cloth  was  established  about  1790,  by  a  company  l>el..nLrinLr 
to  Dundee,  and  a  few  years  thereafter  th.-\  Mployment  to 

about  50  men,  besides  a  number  of  women.  At  that  time 
tin-re  were  5  Flax -dressers,  and  63  weavers  in  tin-  parish.  In 
1^'>G  about  230  people  weft  employed  in  the  Linen  manufac- 
ture in  the  paiish,  and  the  trade  is  still  carried  on  successfully, 
and  hy  Dundee  parties,  although  not  so  extensively  as  it  once  was. 

r.ii;<AY  AND  HAUUAY. — From  1780  to  1800  the  women  span 
a  great  deal  of  lint,  which  was  grown  in  Orkney,  excepting  an 
•sionalbag  of  foreign  which  they  bought,  and  for  which  they 
paid  a  guinea.  Besides  making  a  good  many  pieces  of  Liiu-n. 
both  of  fine  and  coarse  quality,  for  themselves,  a  considerahle 
quantity  was  weaved  for  sale,  generally  through  an  8'°  reed. 
It  was  sold  in  Newcastle,  Edinburgh,  and  other  places,  and 
brought  lid  a  yard. 

BLAIR  ATHOLK. — Among  the  principal  crops  in  the  parishes  of 
Blair  Athole  and  Strowan  in  17l'2,  Flax  is  mentioned,  and  one 
of  the  chief  exports  was  Linen  yam.  It  was  spun  from  honn  - 
grown  lint,  and  almost  every  person  had  a  share  in  the  busi- 
Theiv  was  then  little  iv;idy  money  in  the  parish,  and 
what  little  there  was,  was  the  produce  of  the  Linen  yarn,  which 
went  to  pay  the  rents. 

CAIKNIK. — About  17'JO  the  rents  in  the  parish  were  chiefly 
paid  by  the  women  spinning  Linen  yarn.  A  piece  of  land  was 

;larly  allotted  for  i  ith  Flaxseed,  which  always  n. 

out  to  good  account.  The  proprietors  were  recommended  to 
encourage  that  branch  of  trade,  as  it  would  increase  the  riches  and 


492  MODERN  LINEN. 

prosperity  of  the  country.  In  Fowlis- Wester  the  weavers, 
besides  household  Linen,  made  scrims,  a  thin  narrow  Linen,  for 
the  Glasgow  market.  This  manufacture  ceased  all  at  once  on 
the  commencement  of  the  war  in  January,  1793,  and  as  suddenly 
revived  in  June,  1794,  on  the  capture  of  the  French  West  India 
Islands,  and  the  speculation  which  was  thereby  encouraged 
among  the  Glasgow  traders. 

CAMBUSLANG. — The  weaving  of  Hollands  or  fine  Linen  made 
from  lint  grown  in  the  parish  was  begun  about  1730,  and  it 
then  gave  employment  to  a  few  looms.  About  1783  the  art  of 
weaving  received  a  considerable  improvement  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  fly  or  picker  shuttle,  which  was  then  for  the  first 
time  applied  to  the  fabrication  of  Linen  in  the  parish.  Eight 
or  ten  years  thereafter  the  weaving  of  lawns  and  cambric  took 
the  place  of  Hollands,  the  yarn  being  furnished  by  the  mer- 
chants of  Glasgow,  who  took  back  the  cloth. 

CAPUTH. — Flax  was  early  grown,  to  some  extent,  in  the  parish, 
and  the  manufacture  of  Linen  was  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
people.  In  1792  there  were  10  flaxdressers  and  130  weavers 
amongst  the  male  population  of  the  parish.  In  the  year  from 
1st  November,  1775  to  1776,  the  quantity  of  Linen  stamped 
by  the  stamp-master  was  79,264  yards,  value  £3,265  15s  7 Jd  ; 
in  the  year  ending  1st  November,  1785,  it  was  107,653  yards, 
value  £4,831  Os  1  jd ;  and  in  the  year  ending  1st  November, 
1792,  it  was  104,451  yards,  value  £4,610  Is  8d.  In  the  seventeen 
years  from  1st  November,  1775,  to  1st  November,  1792,  the  total 
quantity  stamped  was  1,680,938  yards,  valued  at  £69,555 
13s  2fd.  It  consisted  partly  of  bleached,  but  chiefly  of  brown 
Linen,  the  latter  consisting  of  scrims  and  Silesias.  About  half 
the  quantity  stamped  was  made  in  the  parish,  but  there  was 
manufactured  in  it,  in  addition,  about  12,000  yards  for  household 
use  ;  and  about  20,000  yards,  manufactured  in  the  parish,  were 
stamped  at  Dunkeld  and  Blairgowrie.  The  Board  of  Trustees, 
by  bestowing  well-judged  rewards,  and  giving  other  encourage-, 
ments,  had  contributed  much  to  the  success  of  the  trade  in  the 
parish.  In  the  Statistical  Keport  of  the  parish,  written  in  1839, 
it  is  said,  "  Happily  for  the  peace  and  purity  of  our  quiet  rural 
population,  no  spinning  mills  have  yet  been  erected,  neither  is 
any  great  public  work  going  on  at  present  in  this  parish." 


— -Thesoil  is  excel  1  ntly  calculated  dagood 

deal  was  cultivated  about    17'.">,  tin-  annual  pn.dinv  having  been 
about     l.')00  st"i|,  Linen    trade    \\as   then,  as    now.  the 

principal    one,    a:id    tln-iv  \\ere  7  tluxd 
engaged  in  it.     A  spinning  mill  was  erected  at 
ami    (wo    at     i  I    in    1S-J7.         In    1S_';>    a    hleaehtield  WOS 

•  lished  at  Ceres,  I  -  to  tin-  civet  i  >n  of  \\hich  1  : 
Silesias  w.i- the  fabric  chietly  made;  but  afterwards  dowlti  and 
sheeting  were  weaved.  iV..in  700  to  900  being  engaged  ii: 
inanutactiiic  in  ls;jD,  the  valut'  of  tbe  goods  made  being  iron  i 
£50,000  to  £60,000 yearly.  The  Statistical  Report  says:  «'Toany 
one  who  reads  this  vtati-nu-nt  "t'thc  inanntai-tinc.  it  will  be  evident 
that  the  works  are  most  profitably  arr.in-vd.  The  milU  supply  th-- 
bleachfield,  and  it  the  weavers;  and  while  there  is  thus  a  saving 
of  carriage,  there  is  also  an  encouragement  to  the  manufacture 
of  the  place.  Thriv  i-  '  \ery  likelihood  that  the  manufactures  of 
this  ilourishinur  place  will,  in  a  ti-w  years,  become  more  extended, 
as  there  are  some  proposals  of  erecting  another  mill  on  a  very 

Hive  plan."  How  different  these  liberal  sentiments  i 
than  expressed  by  the  Minister  of  Caputh  at  same  period.  The 
Linen  trade  is  still  in  a  flourishing  condition  in  the  parish, 
spinning  at  Pitscottie  and  Tarvit  Mills,  bleaching  by  W.  W. 
Yool,  St  Ann's,  and  weaving  being  carried  on  extensively  and 
successfully.  Upward-  of  £1000  is  paid  annually  in  wages 
by  -I  i  i  Annan.  Pitscottie  Mill,  alone. 

Cu'NY. — About  eiirhtv  years  ai;o  Flaxspinnin^  was  the  chief 
employment,  but  the  peopk-  did  not  like  it,  as  it  required  more 
conti  -ion  than  knitting  stockings,  which  they  did 

f.>r  the  manufacturers  of  Aberdeen.     'I  •  of  the  common 

class  was  then  cloth  made  from  their  own  sheeps'  wool,  Dundee 
bonnets,  and  shoes  of  leather  tanned  by  themselves.     About  that 
time  an  heritor  of  the   di>tri«-t   joined   himself  to   the  ( 'amisars, 
a  sect  of  enthusiasts  from    France,  who  were  so  called 
the  Kivneh  word  chemise,  they  being  clothed  in  Linen  ^ar; 
i  Mem  of  purity. 

COMIIIK. — The  staple  manufacture,  near  the  end  of  last  c<  -ntury. 
irn.  (.f  which  a  great  <niantity  was  spun  and  sold 
yearly,    and    with    the  money  thus   got,  most   of  the  farmers 
paid  -Teat  part  Oi   their   :  Tiie    Flax  yarn    sold   for  2 


494  MODERN  LINEN. 

a  spindle,  and  from  the  tow  of  the  lint  was  spun  harn  yarn, 
which,  when  made  into  cloth,  brought  from  9d  to  Is  a  yard. 
The  finer  sorts  of  this  harn  were  used  by  the  men  and  women  for 
shirts,  and  the  coarser  for  sailors'  jackets  and  trowsers. 

COUP AR- ANGUS. — For  more  than  one  hundred  years  the 
manufacture  of  Linen  has  been  carried  on  in  this  town 
and  parish,  and  Coupar  harn  has  been  long  a  well-known 
article  in  the  trade.  In  1792  the  quantity  made  within 
the  bounds  of  the  parish,  and  stamped  at  the  stamp-office 
in  town  was  97,810  yards  of  brown  Linen,  weaved  in  about 
a  600  reed,  and  116,793  yards  of  harn.  These  goods 
were  sent  to  the  English  market.  The  harn  was  worth  about 
5d  a  yard,  and  was  used  for  packsheet  ;  and  the  Linen,  when 
bleached,  was  used  for  buckram  and  hat  linings,  and  was  of  the 
average  value  of  9d  a  yard.  There  was  then  a  bleachfield  at 
Balgersho,  within  the  parish,  which  bleached  about  200,000  yards 
annually,  but  in  1793  the  quantity  had  decreased  to  90,000 
yards.  In  the  neighbouring  parish  of  Kettins  there  were  at 
that  period  three  bleachfields,  two  of  which  put  through  100,000 
yards  each  annually,  and  the  other  30,000  yards.  At  that  time 
there  were  101  weavers,  and  11  flax-dressers  in  Coupar,  and  in 
the  parish  of  Kettins  100  looms  and  3  flaxdressers.  Flax  was 
then  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent  in  both  parishes,  and  in 
favourable  seasons  it  succeeded  well — -the  lippie  of  seed  frequently 
giving  a  stone  of  dressed  Flax.  Bleaching  has  long  been  dis- 
continued in  both  parishes,  but  in  Cupar  Linens  are  still  manu- 
factured to  a  large  extent — one  manufacturer,  John  Kobertson, 
employing  about  300  hand-loom  weavers,  about  three-fourths  of 
whom  are  females,  on  hessians,  sackings,  sheetings,  drills,  &c, 
As  in  most  country  districts  weaving  is  only  an  auxiliary  em- 
ployment, out-door  labour  in  summer  arid  household  duties 
taking  up  much  of  the  time,  the  number  of  hands  is  there- 
fore no  just  criterion  of  the  work  done  ;  and  this  is  pre-eminently 
the  case  with  weavers  in  and  around  Coupar- Angus.  A  power- 
loom  work  on  a  small  scale  is  now  in  course  of  erection  there, 
which,  when  in  operation,  will  help  to  give  more  vitality  to  the 
town. 

CRAIL. — Towards  the  end  of  last  century,  the  women  were 
generally  employed  in  spinning  lint  yarn  for  the  manufacturers 


ucoi   i!  LINEN.  495 

in  other  places,  and  they  span  to  tl  many  thousands 

of  tpindlefl   every  year.      Nearly  40,000  yards  of  sheetings, 
Lilies,  an  1  coarse  brown  Linen  were  made  by  the  weavers 
for  sale,  besides  what  was  man  i  t  r  private  > 

GRUFF,   -In   the   town  and  pari>h  tin-  in  fft  of  Lim-n 

was  early  carri. -d  <.n,  and  packsheet,  sacking,  ami  other  coarse 
fabri  chietly    made.         In      17*5     a     hl.-a<-h!ield,    with 

suitable  machinery,  was  erected,  and  shortly  after  that  time  tin? 
manufacture  of  a  tliin  k'nd  of  coar>e  Linen,  ealled  Silesia  (vul- 
garly scrims),  was  commenced.  They  were  mad«-  fmm  27  to 
30  inches  broad,  were  laid  92  yards  Ion.;.  an«l  mea-un-d  in, in 
tlu-  loom  about  Inr,  \.mls.  Each  piece  brought  tin-  weaver  a 
-a,  and  occupied  about  lM  days  in  weaving;  but  on  the 
introduction  of  the  tly  .shuttle  in  1791,  the  same  work  was 
done  in  M  days.  This  cloth  was  all  sent  tu  Glasgow,  whc: 
was  bleached  and  printed.  In  17(.»<»  only  _!<  »7*  yards  of  this 
cloth  wa>  \\.a\vd  and  stamped  ill  Crieft,  but  in  1792  it  had 
increased  to  14,777  yards,  and  the  value  was  about  a  shilling  a 
yard.  The  Linen  manufacture  in  Crieff  has  long  since  been 
supplanted  l»y  that  of  cotton. 

Ci TAK-FII T:. — Max  was  cultivated  in  this  parish  from  a  remote 
].erio,l.  and  the  soil  was  well  adapted  for  its  growth,  but  for  many 
years  it  may  l»e  said  to  have  been  a  thing  of  the  past.  The  Linen 
manufacture  has  long  been  the  staple  trade  of  the  town,  and  the 
chief  article  made  from  1780  to  the  end  of  the  century  was  what 
wascalled  "yard-wides"  for  buck  ram,  glazed  Linens,  &c.  ;  Osna- 
1'iirgs,  tow  sheetings  and  Silesias,  were  also  made  at  that  period, 
and  there  was  then  about  500,000  yards  annually  stamped  in 
( 'upar.  of  the  value  of  about  £20,000.  There  were  at  that  time 
six  Linen  merchants  in  the  town,  and  the  number  of  looms  in 
the  parish  was  223.  Cupar  being  the  principal  market  in 

the  yard-wides  mentioned,  webs  to  the  value  of  more  than 
£20,000  were  brought  in  from  the  adjoining  country,  and  sold 
then'.  The  1  inen  merchants  of  the  day  were  said  to  purchase 
annually  from  the  manufacturer^  and  weavers  to  the  value  of 
b.  tween £40,000 and £50,000 of  Linens,  which  they  paid  in  i 
money,  and  sent  to  London,  Glasgow,  and  other  markets.  The 
Linen  was  bleached  at  a  tield  on  the  Eden,  which  was  then  in 
good  repute  for  bleaching  The  pn-perity  whieh  attended  the 


496  MODERN  LINEN. 

Linen  trade  some  time  prior  to  1793  had  been  the  means  of 
increasing  the  population  considerably,  and  there  were  then  few 
begging  poor  in  the  parish.  In  1836  there  were  three  flax- 
spinning  mills  in  the  parish,  employing  in  all  236  hands.  There 
were  then  ten  manufacturers  in  the  town,  employing  about  600 
weavers  there,  besides  many  others  in  the  various  villages  around 
Cupar.  Since  then  manufacturing  industry  has  had  its  seasons 
of  distress  and  prosperity,  but  it  is  still  the  staple  of  the  parish, 
and  the  mill-spinners  and  manufacturers  at  present  give  employ- 
ment to  very  many  hands  in  the  town  and  district  around. 
Russell  Mill,  belonging  to  Smith,  Laing  &  Co.,  has  a  water- 
power  of  about  50  horses.  It  contains  2200  spindles,  and  employs 
200  hands,  who  reside  in  comfortable  houses  near  the  work. 
Their  physical  comfort,  moral  well-being,  and  mental  culture 
are  carefully  attended  to  by  the  firm.  Cupar  Mill  employs 
nearly  100  people,  and  belongs  to  William  Smith  &  Son. 

CULLEN. — The  Earl  of  Findlater,  who  presided  at  the  Board  of 
Trustees  in  Ediuburgh,resolved  to  introduce  the  Linen  manufacture 
into  Cullen  about  1748.  He  took  to  that  town  two  or  three  young 
men,  sons  of  gentlemen  in  Edinburgh,  who  had  been  regularly 
bred  to  the  business,  and  who  had  some  patrimony  of  their  own. 
To  encourage  them  to  settle  so  far  north  he  gave  them  £600  for 
seven  years,  the  money  to  be  then  repaid  by  yearly  instalments, 
free  of  interest  during  the  whole  period  of  the  loan.  He  also 
built  weaving  shops  and  furnished  every  accommodation  at  rea- 
sonable rates.  From  his  position  at  the  Linen  Board  he  ob- 
tained for  the  young  manufacturers  premiums  of  looms,  heckles, 
reels,  and  spinning-wheels,  with  a  small  salary  to  a  spinning 
mistress.  So  good  a  scheme  and  so  great  encouragement  could 
not  fail  of  success,  and  in  a  few  years  the  manufacture  was  es- 
tablished to  the  extent  desired.  All  the  young  people  were 
engaged  in  the  business,  and  even  the  old  found  employment  in 
various  ways  in  the  manufacture.  Thus  a  spirit  of  industry 
was  diffused  over  the  place  and  neighbourhood  in  a  very  short 
time,  which  soon  appeared  in  their  more  comfortable  mode  of 
living  and  better  dress.  The  manufacture,  as  in  other  places, 
had  its  vicissitudes  owing  to  good  or  bad  markets  or  demand, 
but  still  it  continued  long  on  the  whole  in  a  prosperous  state. 
In  1791  there  were  in  the  town  65  looms  constantly  employed  in 


SCOT-  II    I  INEN.  4l'7 

Lin«-n,  :i  l'« -\v  of  them  be  ing  on  damask.     Ti.<  Dial 
hirers  also  gave  out  a  great  many  w  IroftO  in  tin-  country. 

Flax  cull ivat inn  had  been  tried  in  the  parish,  l»ut  the  soil  and 
climate  was  too  dry,  and  it  was  only  in  moist  seasons  it  di<l  well. 
This  is  one  of  the  mo>t  interesting  experiments  which  was  « 
made  to  introduce  the  Linen  manufacture  into  Scotland.  The 
success  \vliich  Ibr  some  time  attended  the  attempt  gradually 
waned,  and  the  trade  at  hist  became  extinct.  Now  even  the 
title  of  the  good  Karl  who  made  it  is  dormant;  l»ut  his  deeds 
are  still  to  memory  d« 

DEKB. — In  this  parish  about  1G  hogsheads  of  linseed,  mostly 
American,  were  sown  annually  in  the  last  decade  of  last  century. 
Thi-  koned  a  sullicient  quantity  for  3G  acres,  and  tin- 

produce  was  about  1000  stones  of  scutched  Flax.    Tho  tenant  of 
one  ol'  tlie  lint  mills  had  for  several  years  about  that  period  re- 
d  the  greatest  premium  for  raising  Flax  of  any  one  in  the 
county  of  Aberdeen. 

DOWALLY. — From  a  peck  of  linseed,  on  the  average,  three 
stones  Dutch  weight  of  dressed  Flax  was  grown  near  the  end  of 
last  century.  Each  tenant  of  half  a  ploughshare  sowed  eight 
pecks  of  Flax-seed  yearly.  They  began  to  keep  their  own  s 
and  found  it  little  if  at  all  inferior  to  what  was  imported  ;  and 
they  generally  had  the  best  crop  of  Flax  after  grass. 

DUNKELD. — Linen  yarn  was  long  the  staple  commodity  of  the 
town  anddistrict  around, and  the  merchants  theredealt  in  it  exten- 
sively, not  less  than  200,000  spindles  being  bought  yearly.  The 
price  varied  greatly  in  different  seasons,  according  to  the  state  of 
i  lie  Flax  crop,  and  of  the  Linen  market.  In  1776  it  brought  from 
Is  8d  to  Is  lOd  a  spindle,  and  in  1706  it  was  from  3s  to  3s  3d, 
the  rise  having  been  gradual  for  some  years  prior  to  the  latter 
date.  The  yarn  bought  in  Dunkeld,  and  not  manufactured 
there  was  sold  in  Perth,  Dunfermline,  or  Glasgow.  Some  im- 
provements on  the  construction  of  the  spinning-wheel  had  been 
invented,  about  1790,  by  a  whcel-wri-ht  in  Ihmkcld.  which  on 
trial  produced  easily  about  one-third  more  than  the  common 
wheel,  and  the  1  Hichess  of  Athole  palmm/cd  the  invention.  It 
was  thought  in  the  district  that  the  Tr.  dd  have  found  it 

a  proper  object  for  their  encouragement,  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  they  took  any  notice  of  the  invention,  and  it  is  uncertain  in 
i  I 


498 


MODERN  LINEN. 


what  it  consisted.  The  Linen  manufacture  was  then  carried  on 
by  some  spirited  individuals  to  a  very  considerable  extent.  They 
employed  such  weavers  as  they  could  find  accommodation  for  in 
the  town,  and  many  more  in  the  country.  They  also  purchased 
a  great  proportion  of  the  Linen  which  was  brought  from  the  dis- 
trict around  to  the  Stamp  Office  in  Dunkeld.  From  the  report 
of  the  stamp-master  to  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  progress  of  the  trade  is  taken  : — 


In  1789  there  were  Stamped    34,441  Yards, 
1790  63,244 


1791 
1793 
1794 
1795 
1796 


89,605 
115,215 
117,752 
130,684 
149,554 


Value,  £1,533  13  10 

3,100  4  6 

4,480  5  0 

4  80 "  12  11 

5,396  19  4 

6,534  4  6 

7,477  14  0 


The  ancient  trade  of  Dunkeld  has  long  ceased  to  flourish,  and 
now  scarcely  a  vestige  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  parish. 

DUNNOTTER. — Stonehaven  and  other  parts  of  the  parish  of  Dun- 
notter  long  abounded  with  the  best  spinners  of  Flax  yarn,  and  in 
Stonehaven  alone  about  £2,650  was  paid  yearly  for  spinning,  from 
1770  to  the  end  of  the  century,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  manu- 
facturers in  Aberdeen,  Montrose,  and  Arbroath.  The  manufacture 
of  sail-cloth  was  begun  about  1780,  and  for  some  years  carried 
on  extensively  and  successfully,  by  an  Aberdeen  merchant,  75 
looms  having  been  employed,  but  on  his  death  it  was  discon- 
tinued. In  1793  another  on  a  smaller  scale  was  commenced, 
and  the  previous  year  the  manufacture  of  Osnaburgs,  sheeting, 
Linen  checks,  &c.,  had  been  established  by  Arbroath  merchants. 
About  that  time  a  few  small  cargoes  of  Flax  were  annually 
imported  from  the  Baltic. 

DUNNICHEN. — Here,  from  1780  to  1790,  about  ten  bolls  wheat 
were  raised  on  an  acre ;  and  sixteen  stones  of  scutched  Flax, 
worth  12s  the  stone,  was  the  average  produce.  The  enclosed 
fields  were  let  at  from  40s  to  50s  an  acre  for  pasture,  and  at 
£5  an  acre  for  Flax.  Many  weavers,  principally  of  coarse 
Linen,  then  inhabited  the  parish.  The  village  of  Letham  has 
long  been  in  repute  for  its  Linen  fabrics,  and  a  considerable 
quantity  is  still  made  there. 

DYSART. — The  manufacture  of  checks  and  ticks  was  begun  in 


I.  IN  EN. 

tin*  parish  between  the  years  1710  and  ITvM  It  pi 
slowly  until  177»'>,  when  ii  did  imi  exceed  in  value  £8,500  an- 
nually. Before  the  introduction  of  these  fabrics,  Lin< -n  t'..r 
shirting  and  -In-.-tin-  \va>  mad.'  extensively,  but  they  were  ulti- 
mately o  1 1 1  i  i  oly  superseded.  A  bout  1 780,  two  or  three  of  the  esta- 
blMied  manufacturers  got  into  the  English  trade,  and  having 
made  goods  suitable  for  that  market,  increased  the  manufac 
beyond  what  their  capital  was  equal  to,  and  beyond  what  they 
could  <*ol  hands  in  tin-  l..\vn  \<>  execute.  The  manufacturers  gave 
their  orders  for  common  goods  to  other  makers  in  the  MighboOT- 
hood  who  employed  two  or  three  looms.  These  parties  by  economy 
saved  money  and  got  more  looms,  but  the  value  of  the  goods 
made  increased  more  rapidly  than  the  capital  of  the  manufac- 
turers,  owing  chiefly  to  the  too  ready  facilities  offered  by  the 
1 'ranch  hanks.  ( )n  this  inundation  about  one-third  of  the  goods 
were  then  made,  and  the  cloth  was  of  an  inferior  quality  \<> 
what  was  made  by  men  of  capital.  Those  who  began  the  manu- 
facture had  had  to  work  with  the  sweat  of  their  brow  for  eight 
or  ten  years  before  they  made  the  first  hundred  pounds  of 
their  capital,  but  it  is  stated  in  the  Statistical  Keport  (from 
which  part  of  this  article  is  taken)  that  towards  the  end 
of  the  century  a  weaver  without  capital  could  get  credit  for  a 
few  hundred  pounds  in  yarn,  or  in  cash  on  a  bill  with  two  or 
thn-e  names  upon  it.  To  retire  these  bills  the  goods  had  to  be 
expeditiously  manufactured,  and  to  accomplish  this  the  weavers 
of  the  established  manufacturers  were  said  to  have  been  seduced 
by  drink  and  extravagant  wages,  the  consequences  of  which  were 
obvious.  About  171")  the  sales  of  Linen  in  the  parish  were  not 
under  £48,000  to £50,000  a  year,  and  in  the  trade  with  England 
very  few  bad  debts  had  been  made.  The  sales  exceeded  the 
produce,  because  the  manufacturers  bought  cloth  from  other 
parishes,  and  also  employed  workers  there,  but  at  the  same  time 
a  number  of  the  weavers  of  Dysart  were  employed  by  the  manu- 
fac hirers  of  Kirkcaldy,  <fec.  The  number  of  looms  in  the  paribh 
at  this  period  was  700  to  750,  employed  on  checks  and  ticks,  and 
the  quantity  of  cloth  then  manufactured  annually  was  about 
.000  yards,  which  at  a  medium  price  ui  i  l£d  a  yard  makes 
the  value  £38,093  15s,  about  one  half  of  which  was  sold  in 
London;  one-fourth,  chiefly  the  coarse  kinds,  in  Glasgow  ;  and 
i  i  2 


500  MODERN  LINEN. 

the  other  fourth  in  Manchester,  Liverpool,  Nottingham,  Leeds, 
and  some  other  towns  in  Yorkshire.  In  the  Linen  trade  ten 
hands  were  reckoned  to  be  employed  by  each  loom,  but  as  three- 
fourths  of  the  Flax  consumed  in  the  trade  was  foreign,  seven  to 
a  loom  might  be  a  fair  proportion,  which  for  725  looms  gives 
5075  persons  employed,  but  a  number  of  the  hands  lived 
in  the  adjoining  parishes.  Seven-eighths  of  the  Flax  used 
in  making  bleached  yarn  was  imported  from  Eussia,  and  spun 
in  Fife.  What  was  used  for  the  blue  stripes,  &c.,  was  mostly 
made  from  home  grown  Flax,  but  as  a  sufficient  quantity  could 
not  be  got,  Dutch  Flax  was  imported  and  spun  to  make  up  the 
deficiency.  Not  above  a  fourth  of  the  yarn  used  in  the  parish 
was  spun  in  it.  The  great  inconveniency  the  parish  then 
laboured  under  was  a  scarcity  of  good  weavers.  The  people  took 
apprentices,  but  were  unable  to  teach  them,  and  the  men  grew  up 
bad  weavers,  and  of  course  made  bad  cloth.  Shortly  after  the 
date  referred  to,  the  trade  became  bad,  and  little  or  no  money  could 
be  got  from  the  banks,  v^hich  greatly  crippled  the  manufacturers, 
and  did  injury  to  all  classes  in  the  town  and  district.  Some  time 
after  that  period  trade  began  to  revive  again,  and  in  1836  the 
number  of  looms  employed  on  checks  and  ticks  in  the  town  and 
parish  was  2088,  producing  about  37,000,000  yards  annually, 
of  the  value  of  fully  £150,000.  These  goods  were  sold  in  Glas- 
gow, London,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  &c.,  and  to  various  parts  of 
Europe,  America,  &c.  Including  winders,  warpers,  weavers,  <fec., 
from  5000  to  6000  persons  were  then  employed  in  this  depart- 
ment of  trade  in  the  parish,  and  in  addition  the  Dysart  manu- 
facturers employed  about  1000  looms  in  Ceres,  Strathmiglo,  and 
other  places.  Since  then  the  trade  has,  with  some  interruptions, 
gone  on  steadily,  and  at  present  it  is  in  a  very  prosperous 
state.  There  is  a  small  spinning -mill  to  the  east  of  the 
town,  belonging  to  Thomas  Millie  &  Son,  but  the  great 
establishment  in  the  place  is  that  of  James  Normand  &  Son, 
who  employ  a  steam  power  of  80  horses,  driving  about  300 
power-looms,  with  all  the  necessary  preparing  and  finishing 
machinery  for  these  and  for  about  400  hand-looms.  ^Within 
the  walls  of  the  work  they  employ  close  on  500  people,  and  pay 
upwards  of  £8000  a  year  in  wages.  The  goods  they  make  are 
chiefly  hucks,  diapers,  damasks,  &c.  This  respectable  firm  are 


sco     i!  r  i  501 

now  erecting  an  exuiaive  spinning-mill  U  sido  their  p«.\\er- 
work,  which.  \slici)  in  operation,  will  add  greatly  to  the  number 
of  their  employees,  and  to  tin-  importance  of  Dysart. 

EL<:IN.— In  tlu-   reipi  of  William  tin-  Lien,   lint  paid  tiend 
in  tin    parish,  which  shows  that   it   had  been  grown  to  some 
extent  at  that  early  p<  rind.     Prior  to  1740  the  trade  was  j 
<i pally  carried  on  with  Holland,  hut  after  that  dat«-  it  waschieily 
with  London,  and  other   Mnglish  cities  and  towns.     In   IT!1  ' 
Linen  yarn,  to  the  value  of  £2000  sterling,  was  export* -I 
at  that  time  the  spinning  of  Flax  had  taken  the  place  of  tin- 
manufacture  of  gloves  and  woollen  stuffs.      In  tin-  country  ]  art 
of  the  parish  there  were  then  19  Linen  weavers,  anil  in  the 
town  of  Elgin  70.     Twenty  years  before  that  date,  wheat  was 
much  run  upon  ;  hut  it  was  then  said  to  be  justly  on  the 
dine,  as  the  high  price  did  not  compensate  for  the  injury  done 
to  the  soil  by  so  exhaust  in;/  a  <  rop.     The  same  remarks  were 
afterwards  made  about  the  Flax  crop. 

FALKLAND. — Flax  was  raised  some  years,  from  1770  to  the 
end  of  the  century,  in  considerable  quantities,  but  the"  whole 
produce  was  not  sufficient  for  the  consumption  of  the  inhabi- 
tants The  weaving  of  coarse  Linen  was  the  principal  manu- 
facture carried  on  in  the  parish.  About  200  looms  were  then 
employed,  which,  at  300  spindles  to  each  loom,  is  60,000 
spindles  a  year ;  the  value  of  which,  manufactured  and  taken 
to  market,  was,  at  3s  9d  a  spindle,  £11 ,250.  An  expert  trades 
man  could  weave  400  spindles  in  the  year,  which,  at  9d  a  spindle, 
the  highest  price  given,  is  £15  ;  from  which  deduct  winding 
200  spindles  weft,  at  IJd  a  spindle,  £1  5s — leaving  for  the 
weaver's  wages  £13  15s  per  annum.  The  markets  for  the 
green-cloth  were  Auchtermuchty  and  Cupar.  William  Lurns- 
den  &  Son,  Freuchie,  are  now  the  largest  manufacturers  in  the 
parish.  In  1860  they  erected  a  power-loom  factory,  with  a 
steam-power  of  25  horses,  containing  at  present  100  looms  ;  in 
addition  to  which  the  firm  employ  320  hand-loom  weavers,  em- 
ploying from  450  to  500  people,  and  paying  in  wages  about 
£12,000  annually.  Linen  sheeting  and  bucks  are  the  principal 
fabrics  made ;  and  of  these  about  1,000,000  yards  are  produced 
annually.  John  Scott's  trustees  have  a  small  spinning-mill  and 


502  MODERN  LINEN. 

power-loom  factory,  and  the  quantity  of  goods  made  by  others 
in  the  parish  is  trifling. 

FOBDOUN. — In  1795  a  mill  for  spinning  Flax  yarn  was  erected 
at  Auchinblae,  in  the  parish  of  Fordoun,  and  it  was  long  carried 
on  with  considerable  success.  The  yarn  was  manufactured  into 
Linen  in  the  parish,  and  afforded  employment  to  many  of  the  inha- 
bitants. In  1835  about  50  people  were  employed  in  the  mill,  and 
the  yarns  spun  annually  consisted  of  45,000  spindles  Flax,  value 
£6,200,  and  25,000  of  tow,  value  £3,800  ;  together,  about 
70,000  spindles,  value  £10,000.  In  addition  to  the  employment 
given  at  the  mill,  about  29,700  spindles  of  yarn  were  weaved  in 
the  town,  producing  about  117,680  yards  of  Linen.  The  value 
of  the  yarn  manufactured  was  about  £3,712,  and  of  the  cloth 
made  £4,640,  the  price  paid  for  weaving  being  about  Id  to  If  d 
per  yard,  as  in  quality.  About  seven  years  ago  the  machinery  of 
the  mill  was  sold,  and  the  building  applied  to  other  purposes ;  but 
it  has  been  again  rilled  with  spinning  machinery,  and  is  now 
once  more  in  active  operation  as  a  spinning-mill.  Few  Linens 
have  been  weaved  in  the  parish  for  some  years  ;  but  now  that 
the  mill  is  again  at  work,  the  quantity  may  be  increased. 

FORDYCE. — The  Linen  manufacture  would  appear  to  have 
existed  in  this  parish  in  the  fifteenth  century,  for  amongst  other 
privileges  granted  to  the  weekly  market  at  Fordyce,  by  charter 
from  the  Crown,  that  of  Linteum  latum  et  arctum  was  given  in 
1490.  There  was  a  bleachfield  at  Portsoy.  which  was  stopped 
towards  the  end  of  last  century.  It  employed  a  good  many 
people ;  but  after  it  was  given  over  no  manufacture  of  conse- 
quence was  carried  on  in  the  parish  ;  and  in  1790,  although 
most  of  the  inhabitants  raised  as  much  Flax  as  make  Linen  to 
serve  the  household,  perhaps  not  more  than  1000  yards  of  it 
were  sold  out  of  the  parish. 

FORGAN. — The  women  in  the  parish,  towards  the  close  of  the 
century,  were  employed  in  spinning  coarse  yarn  for  Osnaburgs, 
of  which  the  merchants  of  Dundee  then  exported  large  quan- 
tities. The  war  at  that  period  for  a  time  caused  great  stagnation 
in  the  trade,  and  the  price  of  spinning  fell  from  Is  6d  to  Is, 
and  even  to  lOd  a  spindle.  While  the  encouragement  was  high 
it  was  difficult  to  get  maid-servants.  It  was  supposed  that  the 


constant  sitting  at  the  wheel,  and  tin  immoderate  waste  of 
snliva,  was  not  favourable  to  the  health  of  the  young  women. 
There  wcro  then  14  weavers  in  the  par 

FORRES. — In  the  parish  and  surrounding  (list  rid  Flax  was  an 
important  article  of  cultivation  during  the  latter  halt' of  last  cen- 
tury. The  Linen  Board  assisted  in  erecting  lint  mills,  which 
encouraged  the  growth  of  that  plant.  The  spinning  of  the  Flax 
and  manufacturing  so  much  of  the  yarn  as  was  required  for 
domestic  purposes,  long  employed  a  considerable  number  of  the 
women,  The  merchants  of  the  town  bought  the  yarn  and  sent 
it  to  Glasgow,  where  it  generally  found  a  ready  sale,  unless  when 
the  market  there  was  overstocked  with  Irish  yarn  ;  which,  \\  \> 
reported,  was  at  certain  times  preferred,  but  only  on  account  of 
its  cheapness.  From  1760  to  1770  this  trade  brought  a  con- 
siderable supply  of  money  to  the  district,  and  was  of  g; 
advantage  to  the  women  who  span  it,  as  well  as  beneficial  to  the 
public.  About  1784,  owing  to  the  increase  of  cotton-spinning, 
and  the  large  importation  into  Glasgow  of  Linen  yarn  from 
Ireland,  the  yarn  from  this  town  fell  greatly  in  price,  and  the 
trade  began  to  decline.  That  year  one  of  the  merchants  of  the 
town  sent  to  Glasgow  23,290  spindles  of  yarn,  which  had  been 
collected  in  the  neigbourhood,  and  the  other  dealers  sent  at 
least  47,000  spindles,  the  weaving  of  which,  at  2s  a  spindle, 
then  the  current  rate,  produced  £7,029  sterling,  a  very  important 
sum,  indeed,  to  be  brought  into  the  district  for  wages  from  this 
article  alone.  After  the  decline  of  the  trade,  many  of  those  who 
had  formerly  been  employed  in  spinning  yarn  for  sale  took  to 
spinning  Dutch  flax  for  the  manufacturers  of  Aberdeen  and 
Inverness.  In  1790  there  were  25  weavers  in  the  town  of  Forres 
and  8  in  the  country  part  of  the  parish,  The  following  was  the 
wages  paid  in  the  parish  about  the  two  periods  named : — 

1750.  1790. 

A  labouring  mun-scrvant.  yearly,        £1108  £5    0    0  to  £7    0    0 

A  woman-senrant,  do.,  0  10    8  to  20s  1  1C    0  to    2    2    0 

A  man  during  harvest,  0  10    0  and  victual*  150  and  2  meals. 

GALSTON. — About  1790,  from  20  to  30  acres  were  gene- 
rally sown  with  Fhix,  and  the  produce  dressed  by  a  water- 
mill  in  th«  village.  Tin-  '|U;mtit\  of  Fl;ix  <cutdir<l  there 


504  MODERN  LINEN. 

was  from  900  to  1000  stones  avoirdupois,  and  about  half  of  it 
was  heckled.  Little  Flax  was  then  dressed  in  any  other  way 
than  by  the  mill,  although  scutching  by  the  hand  was  considered 
by  far  the  safest  method,  and  subject  to  much  less  waste  than 
when  the  water-mills  were  employed. 

GLAMIS. — The  manufacture  of  Linen  has  long  been  car- 
ried on  in  the  parish.  Before  the  end  of  last  century  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  Flax  was  grown,  and  the  spinning  and 
weaving  of  it  gave  employment  to  many  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  1806  a  mill  was  erected  for  spinning  Flax  and  tow-yarn 
on  the  Glamis  Burn,  which  was  driven  by  a  water-wheel 
of  16  horse-power ;  and  in  1820  a  steam-engine,  of  10  horse- 
power, was  added,  to  assist  when  the  water  was  scarce. 
There  was  also  a  plash-mill,  for  cleaning  yarn,  upon  the 
stream ;  and  in  1836,  about  66  persons,  of  both  sexes,  were 
employed  in  the  wofks.  The  yarn  spun  in  the  mill  was 
manufactured  into  Osnaburgs  and  sheetings  in  the  parish, 
and  produced  about  4000  pieces  annually.  There  were  also 
manufactured  in  the  parish,  by  parties  not  connected  with 
the  mill,  about  7500  pieces  of  same  description  of  goods 
yearly.  Subsequently  to  that  period,  a  new  overshot-wheel, 
of  about  40  feet  in  diameter,  was  erected,  and  great  expenses 
laid  out  in  the  construction  of  a  dam  in  the  Den  of 
Glamis,  and  in  conducting  the  water  to  the  wheel.  Some 
years  ago  the  lessee  of  the  mill  died,  and  the  work  was  discon- 
tinued ;  and  about  three  years  since,  the  machinery  was  sold,  and 
the  mill  dismantled.  There  is  still  a  considerable  quantity  of 
Linen  made  in  the  parish  for  manufacturers  residing  in  the 
district,  or  for  those  in  Forfar  ;  but  since  the  stoppage  of  the 
spinning-mill,  the  village  has  never  been  its  former  self. 

GLASGOW. — Not  until  after  the  Union  of  the  two  Kingdoms, 
were  manufactures  to  any  extent  carried  on  in  this  city.  Between 
1725  and  1750,  the  spirit  for  manufactures  become  prevalent,  and 
since  then  it  has  extended  greatly.  The  Linen  trade  was  begun 
in  1725,  and  for  a  long  period  it  formed  the  staple  manufacture, 
not  only  of  the  city,  but  of  the  west  of  Scotland  generally. 
Cotton,  after  its  introduction,  to  a  great  extent  supplanted  it ; 
but  up  to  the  end  of  the  century,  lawns,  cambrics,  checks,  dia- 
pers, and  other  Linens,  continued  to  be  made  on  a  small  scale- 


sco  505 

it  17M>  >000  looms  were  employed  in  the  Barony 

parish  on  the.-  tahries,  and  mi  Limn  handkeri-hiets  for  print- 
ing, and  on  "  blouriks,"  a  cloth  consisting  of  Linen  warp  and 

.    which   was  all    printed    for    n.-ck    hand!. 
gowns,  and  bed-enrtains.     Ten  years  later  this  trade  had  c 
pletcly  ehan.  oa  having  superseded  Flax,  and  the  looms 

were  then  on  muslins,  <fec.  For  a  long  period  St  Rollox  Flax- 
mills,  belonging  to  Alex.  I •'!•  -t» -her  &  Coy.,  have  been  in  arti\. 
operation  in  Glasgow  This  large  work  is  driven  by  steam- 
engines  of  520  horse -power,  contains  upwards  of  20,000 
spindK -s  and  employs  about  850  hands,  Within  the  last  two 
years  W.  &  J.  Fleming  &  Co.  have  put  up  a  new  work  for 
spinning  and  jute,  with  a  steam-power  of  150  horses, 

which,  when  tilled  with  machinery,  will  he  a  large  establish- 
ment. Some  other  details  regarding  the  trade  in  Glasgow  are 
given  in  other  parts  of  the  work. 

GKANOK. — In  this  parish,  a  kind  of  short  Flax  was  at  onetime 
grown,  but  no  description  of  the  plant  is  given,  and  it  was  en- 
tirely banished  from  the  country,  perhaps  about  a  hundred  years 
ago.  The  raising  of  Flax,  and  the  various  operations  required 
to  bring  it  into  yarn  and  cloth,  occupied  many  people,  and 
brought  much  money  into  the  parish.  The  products  were  sold  in 
Keith  market,  which  was  then  resorted  toby  purchasers  of  Linen 
cloth  from  all  parts  of  Scotland.  In  1791  spinning  Dutch  li  x 
brought  about  £1500  a  year  into  the  parish,  and  it  had  then 
nearly  superseded  home-grown  Flax. 

Gi:  —In  1725  a  rope- work  was  established  here,  and 

shortly  after  a  duck  or  sail-cloth  manufactory  was  commen* 
Other  works  of  a  similar  kind  were  soon  erected  in  this  distriet. 
large  quantities  of  cordage  and  sail-cloth  having  been  made, ! 
for  home  consumption  and  for  export.     Since  that  early  period 
the  original  rope- work  has  been  enlarged  from  time  to  time,  and  it 
isstill  in  a  prosperous  condition, a nd  with  every  modern  applia 
Some  other  successful  establishments  of  the  same  kind  are  also 
in  active  operation  here.     There  has  long  been  a  large  and  well- 
conducted  Flax-spinning  work  there,  and  the  sail-cloth  made 
from  the  yarn   by  the  Gourock  Rope- work  Company  is  very 
highly  celebrated,  and  it  is,  perhaps,  second  to  none  made  in 
the  whole  kingdom.     Latterly,  jute-spinning  and  weaving  by 


506  MODERN  LINEN. 

power  has  also  been  commenced  by  the  Greenock  Spinning 
Company,  and  already  some  progress  has  been  made  in  both 
departments. 

HUNTLY.  —  The  Linen  manufacture  was  introduced  about 
the  middle  of  last  century,  and  was  long  carried  on  with  much 
success  and  great  advantage  to  the  parish.  In  1792  there  were 
in  the  town  52  flaxdressers,  who,  at  an  average,  dressed  40  mats 
of  Flax,  weighing  109  Ib.  each,  in  a  year,  the  value  being 
about  £3  a  mat.  It  was  spun  into  yarn,  of  from  4  to  12  hanks 
to  the  pound,  and  worth,  when  spun,  £7  16s  a  mat ;  or,  in  all, 
about  £16,224  sterling.  There  were  then  209  weavers  in  the 
parish,  exclusive  of  those  employed  by  the  manufacturers  of 
Huntly,  &c.,  who  wrought,  at  an  average,  73,150  yards  of  Linen 
yearly,  which,  at  2s  a  yard,  amounted  to  £7315  sterling.  These 
details  show  the  importance  of  the  trade  at  that  period  ;  but  it 
has  long  been  lost  to  the  district 

INVERABY. — About  the  year  1748,  the  Duke  of  Argyle  intro- 
duced the  Linen  manufacture  into  the  parish.  The  manufac- 
ture made  rapid  progress,  and  for  a  long  period  it  was  attended 
with  very  beneficial  consequences  to  the  country,  as  it  brought 
ready  money  into  the  parish,  but  it  does  not  now  exist. 

INVERNESS. — In  this  town  a  hemp  manufactory  was  early 
established,  and  in  1791  about  1000  hands  were  employed 
in  spinning,  dressing,  and  weaving  the  hemp  (of  whom  130 
were  weavers),  for  which  they  were  paid  from  Is  to  10s  a 
week  of  wages.  The  hemp  was  imported  from  the  Baltic 
and  manufactured  into  cloth  for  bags,  sacking,  and  tar- 
pauling,  which  was  consumed  in  Britain  and  throughout  the 
East  and  West  Indies.  About  1780  a  white  and  coloured  thread 
manufactory  was  begun,  and  it  increased  so  rapidly  that,  within 
ten  years,  about  10,000  people  were  engaged  in  heckling,  spin- 
ning, twisting,  bleaching,  and  dyeing,  for  which  the  wages  paid 
was  from  Is  to  12s  a  week.  The  Company  had  then  nineteen 
agents  in  the  neighbouring  districts  to  manage  the  spinning  depart- 
ments. The  Flax  was  imported  from  the  Baltic,  and  the  thread 
sent  to  London,  whence  it  was  dispersed  over  the  world.  A 
bleachfield  was  established  on  the  Ness,  and,  for  some  time, 
carried  on  successfully.  The  thread  manufacture  has  long 
been  lost  to  Inverness,  and  to  many  districts  in  Scotland  where 


8C<  •  KN.  507 

it  once  flourished,  and   il    is  now  .  i  in  a  few  spots, 

where  the  yarn  is  spun  and  the  thread  made  by  steam-power 
The  hemp  manufactory  acquired  a  name  and  fame  in  tin- 
t-mint ry  for  the  superioiity  of  its  cloth,  and  it  .still  has  a  vigon-n- 
existence.  1 1  s  products  have  long  been  celebrated  and  sought  t  «r 
in  London  and  elsewhere,  and  they  are  still  largely  used  for  (>"al 
Backs,  and  other  kindred  purposes,  for  which  they  are  specially 
adapted. 

KEITH.— The  chief  trade  in  the  parish  was  Fl;i\--div->in<_r. 
spinning,  and  weaving,  but  brt\\.-en  1787  and  17'.'(>  the  two 
first  declined  greatly,  partly  owing  to  the  advanced  pi-ice  of 
Dutch  1  la\.  from  which  the  yarn  had  for  sometime  been  n 
but  chiefly  to  the  large  importation  of  Linen  yarn  from  Ireland 
into  Glasgow,  which  hud  been  the  principal  mart  for  Keith 
yarn.  The  yarn  had  heside>  d<  teriorated  in  quality,  and  got 
into  disrepute,  but  a  resolution  was  come  to  by  the  manufac- 
turers t«>  take  no  yarn  thereafter  from  the  spinners,  but  what 
was  of  the  very  best  quality,  and  this  was  expected  to  revive  the 
trade.  A  Meachfield,  very  complete  in  every  respect,  had  been 
erected  at  considerable  expense  on  the  banks  of  the  Isla,  which 
it  was  said  equalled  in  execution  any  field  in  the  north. 

KEMBACK. — Ceres  Burn,  although  a  small  stream,  drives  a 
large  quantity  of  Flax-spinning  machinery.  After  leaving  the 
paiish  of  Ceres  it  enters  Kemback,  in  which  are  Blebo  Works, 
belonging  to  Alex.  Watson  &  Son.  These  works  consist  of  three 
Flax-spinning  mills,  with  all  the  necessary  adjuncts  for  carryingon 
t  he  trade.  The  oldest  of  the  three  mills  was  erected  early  in  the 
century,  and  the  largest  one  in  1839.  In  winter  the  water-po 
which  is  equal  to  100  horses,  drives  the  whole  machinery,  one 
of  the  wheels  being  39  feet  in  diameter,  and  10  feet  wide  ;  but 
there  is  also  a  steam-power  of  from  70  to  80  horses,  which  is 
employed  in  summer  when  the  water  is  low.  The  mills  con- 
tain 4500  spindles,  and  employ  300  hands.  The  situation  of 
the  works  in  the  famed  Dura  Den,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
in  Fife  ;  and  the  village  attached  to  them,  which  consists  of  80 
houses,  and  contains  500  inhabitants,  is  pretty  and  picturesque 
Twenty  years  ago  only  about  200  hands  were  employed,  which 
shows  that  considerable  extensions  have  taken  place  since  then. 
In  the  adjoining  parish  "t  Dainie  if  l.\  !  >\  Mill,  with  between 


508  MODERN  LINEX. 

600  and  700   spindles  for  Flax-spinning.     It  belongs  to  Mr 
David  Annan,  and  employs  about  40  hands. 

KENMORE. — In  the  parish  Flax  was  cultivated  to  a  consider- 
able extent  towards  the  end  of  last  century,  the  return  of  lint 
being  commonly  a  stone  of  Flax  to  the  lippie  of  linseed. 
The  Flax  was  spun  in  the  parish,  a  portion  of  the  yarn  being 
made  into  cloth  for  household  purposes,  and  the  remainder  sold 
to  help  to  pay  the  rents  of  the  small  farmers,  by  whom  it  was 
chiefly  grown.  In  1794  there  were  20  Flax-dressers  and  63 
weavers  in  the  parish. 

KETTLE.  — About  eighty  years  ago,  the  parish  grew  fully  a  hun- 
dred Scotch  acres  of  Flax  yearly.  Linens  were  manufactured  so 
early  as  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteen  century,  and  in  1790 
there  were  170  looms,  belonging  to  about  60  masters,  with  their 
journeymen  and  apprentices.  The  gross  produce  of  a  loom  per 
annum  was  about  £60,  but  a  good  hand  could  fetch  considerably 
above  £100.  The  average  gross  expense  to  the  masters  for  lint, 
spinning,  boiling,  working,  &c.,  was  about  £46  15s,  most  of 
which  was  laid  out  in  the  parish  and  neighbourhood,  and  the 
manufacture  circulated  about  £10,000  annually,  the  greater  part 
paid  in  the  parish.  Of  the  Flax  used  about  one-eighth  was 
Dutch,  one-eighth  Riga,  the  remaining  three-fourths  being  the 
produce  of  Kettle.  The  Linen  brought  from  7d  to  2s  6d  a  yard,  a 
small  part  being  bleached,  but  the  greater  part  was  sold  as  it 
came  from  the  loom,  in  Cupar  or  Auchtermuchty,  and  thence 
sent  to  Glasgow,  Leeds,  or  London.  In  1836  there  were  378 
hand-looms  in  the  parish,  chiefly  employed  on  weaving  dowlas, 
&c.  Latterly  the  number  of  looms  has  greatly  diminished,  and 
nearly  the  whole  are  employed  by  Alex.  Lawson,  who  manufac- 
tures sheetings  for  family  use,  and  other  bleached  Linen  fabrics 
extensively. 

KILBKIDE.  — In  strong  clean  land  Flax  succeeded  well  in  the 
parish  of  West  Kilbride,  and  the  attention  of  parties  had  been  so 
much  directed  to  its  cultivation  nearly  a  century  ago  that  greater 
quantities  were  raised  there  than  in  any  of  the  neighbouring  dis- 
tricts. It  was  commonly  sown  after  potatoes.  The  only  species 
of  manufacture  then  in  the  parish  was  coarse  Linen,  of  which 
considerable  quantities  were  made  every  year  by  the  peasants.  The 
females  span  the  yarn  during  the  winter,  and  brought  a  consi- 


SCOTCH  LINEN.  ">09 

derahle  siiin  into  the  parish.  The  Linen  was  bleach  <1  at  home 
by  simple  exposure  In  the  sun.  In  .him-  there  was  an  annual 
market  or  fair  I'm  the  >ale  of  it,  where  it  was  bought  by 
the  Limn  dialers  in  Glasgow  and  Paisley,  who  expo 

t..  ill.   \\Yst    Indies.     Nearly  7000  yards  of  cloth 
were  made  yearly,  which -old  at   frotnlaiolil  1      The 

value  of  this  and  of  tin- yarn  sold,  divided  among  tanners  and 
hnn  enabled  thorn  to  pay  off  their  domestic  d.-l.ts  with 

ease  and  jnmctuality.  11  i-  idea  maybe  correct,  hut  it  must 
have  originated  with  the  village  shopke-t 

KILCHOMAN,  IN  ISLA. —  Tin-  n  a  ring  of  Flax  was  actively  fol- 
lowed  by  the  common  tenantry,  who,  a  century  ago,  p, 
]iart  <>f  their  : 'induce.     It  was  pre-eminently  a 

Flaxen  country,  alx.ut  80  hogsheads  being  annually  sown  in  the 
parish;  and  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  and  manufacturing  the 
lint  constituted  the  principal  business  of  the  people,  they  l.ein;^ 
much  more  «;iu  -n  to  the  making  of  Linen  than  to  any  other  work. 
Travelling  merchants  took  the  Flax  seed,  and  gathered  the 
yarn,  which  was  mostly  sold  to  the  Glasgow  manufacturers. 
Many  of  the  more  genteel  families  in  the  parish  kept  weavers  em- 
ployed for  themselves  all  the  year  through,  and  the  clearness  of 
t  heir  Linen  showed  how  well  the  waters  were  adapted  for  bleach- 

K 1 1. 1, ix.  —One  of  the  principal  crops  raised  in  this  parish  about 
1790  was  Flax,  the  quantity  grown  beinjj  very  considerable.  It  was 
n  about  the  end  of  April,  and  the  rotation  of  crops  was  oats 
in  lea  ground,  or  after  fallowing,  then  potatoes  or  bear,  and  then 
Kl ax.  The  return  of  Flax  varied  from  half  a  stone  to  a  si 
of  Flax  from  the  lippie  of  seed,  the  stone  weighing  22  Ib.  avoir. 
The  Flax  was  spun  by  the  women  of  the  parish  during  the 
winter  months,  and  some  of  it  weaved  into  Linen  for  the  wants 
of  the  district ;  but  the  greater  part  of  it  was  sold  at  the  fairs.  -i\ 
of  which  were  held  annually  in  the  village  of  Killin,  the  pur- 
chasers taking  it  to  Glasgow,  and  other  manufacturing  to 
There  were  then  in  the  parish  9  Flax-dressers  and  36  weavers. 

K  i LWINN  INC?  (for  many  hundred  years  famous  for  masonry  and 
archery),  about  eighty  years  ago  manufactured  lawns  and  Linen 

r  the  Irish  market.     About  12  or  14  hogshead  of  1 
were   sown    in    the    parish   annually,    and    the   produee 


510  MODERN  LINEN. 

spun  and  manufactured  for  home  purposes ;  a  part  of  it  having 
been  made  into  harn,  a  coarse  kind  of  cloth  which  was  sold 
for  shirts  to  the  common  people.  Great  complaints  were 
about  that  period  made  in  the  district  regarding  the  high  duty 
charged  by  the  Irish  upon  Scotch  goods,  if  they  contained 
even  a  single  thread  of  cotton  yarn  in  them,  while  at  the 
same  time  Irish  Linen  was  admitted  into  Scotland  free  ; 
and  unless  Ireland  repealed  this  duty,  it  was  proposed  to  petition 
the  British  Parliament  to  lay  a  proportionate  duty  on  all  Irish 
Linen  brought  into  this  country. 

KINGHORN. — One  of  the  first  spinning-mills  established  in 
Fifeshire  was  in  this  town.  The  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland 
says : — "  About  1792  the  teasing,  rolling,  and  spinning  of  flax  by 
means  of  the  Arkwright  and  Darlington  machinery  was  started 
here."  Shortly  after  that  period,  James  Aytoun,  who  died  on 
8th  February  1864,  and  who  was  in  very  truth  the  father  of 
the  Flax-spinning  trade,  started  a  work  with  four  frames  of  36 
spindles  each,  being  144  spindles  in  all,  at  Kinghorn.  Previous 
to  this  Mr  Aytoun  studied  Flax-spinning,  under  Kendrew  & 
Co.,  the  patentees  of  the  spinning  machines  of  Darlington, 
and  agreed  with  them  for  a  license  to  work  the  four  frames, 
for  which  he  paid  them  £1  a  spindle.  A  third  work  was 
started  there  about  the  same  time,  the  three  trusting  to 
the  Loch  of  Kinghorn  being  sufficient  to  drive  the  spin- 
ning machinery  of  the  three  mills,  the  falls  being  in  cumulo 
more  than  100  feet.  This  was  found  not  to  be  the  case, 
as  the  Loch  was  speedily  drained.  Mr  Aytoun  put  up  a 
coal-work  engine  on  the  old  principle,  to  assist  in  driving  his 
machinery,  but  it  proved  so  constant  a  source  of  annoyance  to 
him  that  he  left  the  (by  him)  hated  place  in  1802.  The  other 
parties  erected  Bolton  and  Watt's  engines,  only  then  coming 
into  repute  in  Scotland  for  driving  machinery,  and  succeeded 
better  in  their  attempts.  Twenty  years  ago  there  were  three 
Flax-spinning  mills  in  the  town,  employing  467  hands ;  and 
Tyrie  bleachfield  in  the  parish,  having  70  workers,  making  a  total 
of  537  people  employed  in  these  branches  of  the  Linen  trade. 
There  were  also  a  number  employed  in  weaving,  winding,  &c. 
Two  of  the  mills,  St  Leonards  and  Mid  Mill,  and  the  bleach- 
field,  all  belonging  to  the  respectable  firm  of  Swan  Brothers,  of 


STOTCII  i. IN  fir]  1 

Kirkcaldyand  Dundee,  are  still  in  aeti\v  operation,  and  give 
employment  to  a  large  portion  of  Hi--  inhabitants. 

KiNLocn. — Flax  was  grown  largely  in  the  parish,  a  ml   the 
raising,  spinning,  bleaching,  and  weaving  of  it  occupied  the 
labour  of  a  considorable  number  of  tin-  inhabitant*      I 
in  (he  Statistical  Account  of  the  parMi.  that   it' Fla\  was  sown 
tor  the  second  or  third  crop  on  marled  ground  (marl  was  lat 
Qfed  in  the  district  about  171K),  ha.  D  some  lochs 

in  the  parish) — that  is,  while  the  influence  of  the  marl  in  tin- 
ground  was  most  powerful,  though  the  crop  had  a  promising 
appearance  till  towards  the  middle  of  July,  when  the  plant  is 
about  seven  or  eight  inches  long,  the  swelling  and  agitation  of 
the  earth,  caused  by  the  powerful  operation  of  the  marl  under 
the  strung  influence  of  the  sun,  breaks  the  tender  fibres  of  the 
plant  while  in  its  quickest  growth,  and  causes  it  to  decay. 

KIN  NETTLES. — Of  2065  acres  cultivated  in  the  parish  in 
IT'.'l,  '2$  were  Flax.  It  was  usually  sown  from  20th  to  the 
end  of  April,  and  pulled  from  12th  to  25th  August,  but  occa- 
sionally a  few  days  later.  If  sown  much  earlier  it  was  often 
injured  by  frobt,  and  lay  long  in  the  ground  before  ger- 
minating ;  some  of  it  being  sickly  nearly  all  the  season,  and 
not  ready  for  pulling  earlier  than  if  it  had  been  sown  at  the 
usual  f  ime.  The  women  were  generally  occupied  spinning  the 
Max  during  winter,  and  when  their  services  were  not  required 
in  farming  or  other  operations.  In  1791  there  were  58  per 

ged  in  weaving  green  Linen  or  Osnaburgs,  which  were 
chiefly  disposed  off  in  Forfar.  It  is  stated  in  the  Sta'istical 
He  port  that  the  fluctuations  which  affected  the  manufacture 
of  Linen  in  the  parish,  arising  from  various  causes,  were 
sometimes  distressing.  About  the  years  1787  and  1788  the 
subject  of  spinning  Flax  by  machinery  was  attracting  very 
general  attention,  and  some  parties  in  Dundee  resolved  to  try 
the  experiment.  With  that  view  arrangements  were  made  with 
William  Douglas,  of  Brigton,  in  this  parish,  for  the  use  of  part 
of  a  corn-mill  which  ad  j-  >ined  his  mansion-house.  The  grinding 
machinery  was  removed,  the  building  converted  to  suit  its  altered 
circumstances  and  the  spinning  machinery  and  apparatus  put 
up.  The  trial  was  to  be  made  on  a  small  scale,  being  for  120 
pirns  or  spindles,  and  it  was  in  the  contemplation  of  the  company 


512  MODERN  LINEN. 

to  extend  their  plan,  if  the  experiment  was  found  to  answer  their 
expectations.  In  the  end  of  1788  or  the  beginning  of  1789  the 
machinery  had  been  so  far  put  in  order  as  to  admit  of  a  trial 
being  made,  and  the  yarn  it  threw  off,  which  was  intended  for 
the  manufacture  of  Osnaburgs,  waa  then  said  to  look  well,  and  to 
be  of  very  good  quality.  The  work  was  carried  on  by  virtue  of  a 
lease  of  patent  privilege  from  Kendrew  &  Co.,  of  Darlington. 
The  experiment  must  have  come  up  to  the  expectation  of  the 
promoters,  because,  under  the  firm  of  James  Ivory  &  Co.,  they 
leased  ground  for  a  new  mill  and  a  village  for  the  workers,  for 
45  years,  from  Mr  Douglas,  and,  as  the  lease  expired  in  1834,  it 
must  have  been  entered  into  in  1789.  The  erection  of  the  new 
mill  and  village,  called  Douglastown,  was  at  at  once  proceeded 
with,  and  the  buildings  so  far  completed  next  year  as  to 
admit  of  the  machinery  being  put  in,  and  the  spinning 
begun.  This  is  shown  by  a  petition  from  the  firm  to  the  Board 
of  Trustees,  dated  17th  Nov.  1790,  in  which  it  is  said  the 
machine,  &c.,  was  already  erected.  In  an  enumeration  of  the 
inhabitants,  made  up  by  the  Minister  in  1791  for  the  statistical 
account  of  the  parish,  an  artist,  employed  conducting  a  Flax  yarn 
mill,  is  included.  This  new  mill  was  of  five  stories  in  height,  and 
a  large  structure  for  the  infancy  of  the  trade  ;  and  the  village  was 
commodious,  and  each  house  had  a  large  garden  attached  to  it. 
James  Ivory,  teacher  in  the  Dundee  Academy,  a  celebrated  mathe- 
matician, who  was  afterwards  knighted,  was  a  partner  and  manager 
of  the  company,  and  Mr  Douglas,  the  proprietor  of  the  ground, 
was  also  connected  with  it.  For  a  time  the  work  was  carried 
on  successfully,  but  on  the  sudden  death  of  Paul,  the  Emperor 
of  Russia,  in  1801,  Flax  fell  greatly  in  price,  and  the  company 
suffered  so  heavily  that  they  broke  up  in  1803.  Mr  Douglas 
some  time  after  paid  the  debts  of  the  concern  in  full,  and  in  1804 
bought  the  work  at  a  public  sale,  and  carried  it  on  himself  until 
1808,  when  he  assumed  some  partners,  each  paying  £800  for  his 
share.  This  party  carried  on  the  mill  for  seven  years,  when,  in 
consequence  of  losses  by  bad  trade  and  bad  debts,  they  stopped. 
Mr  Douglas  again  paid  the  debts  in  full,  and  carried  on  the  work 
on  his  own  account  until  1817,  when  he  sold  the  machinery  to 
the  late  James  Watt,  of  Dundee,  with  the  remainder  of  the 
original  lease.  The  lease  of  the  spinning-mill  and  village,  and 


5 1 :', 

machinery  in  tin-  mill,  was  advertised  in  the  Dundee  Adver- 
tiser in  is  17  t«>  be  .sold  I iy  public  roiip,  up  £3000.  Not 
selling  lit  this  price,  it  wa>  afterward*  ad\  ei  t ised  to  be  Sold  on 
Kith  Au-ii^t,  i  >;  1 7,  at  £2000 ;  and,  as  an  inducement  to  a  pur- 
chaser, it  was  said  that  at  the  termination  ot  the  leate, d  Whit- 
sunday. l^:;i,  the  proprietor  must  either  take  tin-  houses,  W;. 
wheel,  and  machinery  of  the  tir>t  motion  at  a  valuation,  at  a  price 
not  to  exceed  .l'l« '<'<>,  or  allow  the  tenant  other  lit'teeii  years  of 
the  prop, Tty.  The  water-power  bcim:  irregular,  a  small  steam- 
enupine  of  seven  IIOIM-  p..\\er  wa<  added  about  1830.  In  1834 
the  mill  contained  11  frames  ,,f  :\i)  >pindle8  each,  or  420  spindles 
in  all.  and  threw  oil'  -j.'i-l  spindles  of  yarn  per  day,  or  1404  a  week. 
It  then  gave  employment,  to  10  Flax-dressers,  12  preparers,  16 
spinneix,  7  reelers,  "J  turners,  1  en^ineman,  and  a  clerk  who 
superintended  the  whole.  The  yarn  was  generally  manufactured 
into  cloth,  and  exported  to  foreign  markets  by  the  proprietor. 
The  mill  was  K-ldom  profitable  to  any  of  those  who  span 
it,  and  shortly  after  1834  the  engine  and  machinery  were 
removed,  and  it  ceased  to  be  a  spinning  mill.  It  now  stands 
gaunt  and  desolate,  a  monument  of  the  mutability  of  the  Linen 
trade.  It  has  long  since  passed  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Douglas 
family,  and  is  now  absorbed  in  the  estates  of  the  Earl  of  Strath- 
more.  The  villagers,  along  with  the  other  inhabitants  of  the 
parish,  are  mostly  employed  in  weaving  sheetings  and  Osnaburgs 
for  the  manufacturers  of  Forfar.  In  1835  the  average  wages  for 
wravinu-  a  piece  of  Osnaburg,  150  yards  long,  was  8s;  he&si 
\'2  \  yards  long,  8s  ;  bleached  sheetings,  110  yards,  14s  ;  brown 
sheeting,  104  yank  1  Is.  At  the  spinning  mill  the  males  received 
15s  a  week,  and  the  females  4s  C>d,  which  at  the  period  was 
considered  good  wages.  The  labouring  population  of  the  parish, 
when  not  employed  at  out-door  work,  are  now  chiefly  engaged 
as  formerly,  in  weaving  Linen,  the  wages  being  regulated  by  the 
price  paid  in  Forfar.  Farther  details  regarding  Douglas- 
town  Mill  will  be  found  in  the  "  Popular  Lecture;"  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Board  of  Trustees  ;  and  in  the  account  of  the 
parish  of  H» Tvie.  The  snbjeet  is  so  fully  referred  to,  because  at 
this  distant  date  anything  relating  to  the  pioneers  of  Flax- 
spinning  by  machinery  must  be  interesting  to  all,  but  especially 
so  to  those  engaged  in  the  trade. 

K    K 


514  MODERN  LINEN. 

KINROSS. — The  principal  manufacture  was  silesias,  from  27 
to  30  inches  in  width,  some  coarse  tweels,  harns  and  straikens. 
The  quantity  manufactured,  as  taken  from  the  stamp-master's 
book  in  Kinross  was,  from  1st  November  1780  to  1st  November 
1790,  1,184,341J  yards,  being  118,434  yards  yearly,  which  at 
9d  per  yard  at  an  average  is  £4,441  5s  6d  per  annum.  About 
five-sixths  of  the  whole  was  manufactured  in  the  parish,  and  the 
rest  in  the  neighbourhood.  Besides  this  a  great  deal  was  made 
for  shirts,  bed  and  table  Linen,  &c.,  for  private  use.  The  yarn 
was  spun  by  the  people  in  their  own  houses,  mostly  from  Flax 
raised  in  the  parish,  and  the  number  of  looms  in  the  parish 
was  then  about  200.  A  patriotic  experiment  made  by  the  land- 
owners of  Kinross  during  a  season  of  distress  has  already  been 
mentioned. 

KIRKDEN. — For  a  crop  of  lint  about  £5  an  acre  was  paid, 
but  it  sometimes  rose  as  high  as  £6  3s.  Those  who  let  the 
land,  ploughed  and  harrowed  it,  and  carried  the  Flax  to  and 
from  the  watering.  There  was  hardly  a  house  in  the  parish 
where  one  or  more  women  were  not  employed  in  spinning  yarn 
for  the  Osnaburg  weavers,  and  of  the  many  millions  of  yards  of 
that  cloth  annually  made  in  the  country,  this  parish  had  its 
proportion.  The  women  all  span  with  both  hands,  and  a  good 
spinner  could  earn  from  3s  to  3s  6d  a  week,  and  girls  of  13  or 
14  years  of  age  2s,  and  many  of  them  2s  6d  ;  and  they  reckoned 
that  their  board  cost  about  Is  6d  a  week.  The  weavers  were 
scattered  over  all  the  parish,  and  most  of  them  grew  a  little  Flax 
and  paid  the  current  price  for  spinning  it.  Much  of  the  Flax 
used  was  at  one  period  grown  at  home,  but  before  1785  a  great 
quantity  was  also  brought  from  abroad.  The  manufacturers  of  the 
district  used  to  go  to  Forfar  or  Arbroath  for  the  stamping  and 
sale  of  their  webs,  but  about  1790  a  fortnightly  market  for  their 
purchase  was  begun  in  the  neighbouring  town  of  Letham. 
The  spinning-mill  at  Gighty  Burn  in  the  parish  of  Kirkden 
was  erected  in  1796,  but  the  work  was  discontinued  about  20 
years  ago.  Hatton  mill  was  erected  in  1807,  and  in  1838  con- 
tained 15  frames  of  30  spindles  each  for  Flax  and  tow,  and  span 
about  1300  spindles  of  from  3  to  5  ft.  yarn  weekly.  Subse- 
quently other  two  mills  were  erected,  and  in  that  year  the  three 
smaller  works  span  about  1200  spindles  of  Flax  yarn,  neither  of 


SCOT- 'I I   LIN  510 

them  having  tow  machinery.      Three  of  th-  in  Lr"t  small  steam 
engines  to  keep  up  tin-  po\\n-  \\hen  uater  Tail.  ,1    in  summer,  tin- 
in  In-ill^  then  very  small. 

KIKKWAI.I.  \\ -i>  >  i  (  )I.I»A.  —  Tin-  mamifieinre  ol'  Linen  yarn 
was  introduced  in  1717  At  tir-t  it  was  very  unpopular.  l»ut  it 
i  triumphed  OUT  \:ikr.ir  prejudices,  aii'l  became  diil'tiaed 
pretty  -ciiri  ally  over  tin-  Mauds.  In  \v.n>  « •!'  e\t  ivme  dearth  and 
scarcity,  it  preserved  tin-  lives  «,f  many  poor  |>eople,  who  otli.-r- 
wix,.  \vi.nl«I  have  (lii'd  \'»v  want,  and  enabled  others  to  live  more 
(•'•mlurtaUy.  I'r.'in  1770  t«>  1  ?s.">  tin-  Iraih-  ll<»uri>lnMl,  an«l  a 

M)()  spin. Hi -s  wriv  annually  c\p«Th-'l.  tin-  «puility  of  wliidi.  in 
the  opinion  of  the  best  jiulm  -.  w;w  as  good  us  any  in  So.tlaml. 
Alter  that  prrio<l  it  l>egan  to  ilrrline.  as  the  yarn  lost  the  diar- 
OCter  it  ha  1  -aiiu-<l  in  the  market,  in  eon-e.puMire  of  the  nun; 
tion  tor  spinning,  nii«l  conse.juent  eaivl,-vncss  of  the  spinners  in 
spinning  ami  reeling  the  yarn.  Some  lint  continued  fora  time  to 
he  spun  and  sold  in  Kdinhurgli,  (Jlasgow,  or  wherever  the  price 
of  yarn  was  highest;  but  when  the  price  was  low,  as  had  been 
the  case  for  some  years  prior  to  1790,  the  yarn  was  manufactured 
into  Linen  cloth,  chiefly  for  the  English  market.  In  that 
year,  beodtt  the  yarn  sold  for  the  south,  and  the  quantity 
bartered  with  the  merchants  who  went  over  from  Morayshire, 
about  30,000  yards  of  coarse  Linen,  intruded  for  sale,  was 
stamped  at  Ivirkwall,  in  addition  to  what  was  used  for  private 
families. 

LAUL,  ». — In  17DO  almost  every  weaver,  and  many  others  in  the 
parish, had  their  hleaehin^-green  where  they  pp-pa led  Linen. from 
the  value  of  9d  up  to  4s  the  yard.  Linen  and  cheeks  pen  the  _ 
articles  of  manufacture.  Those  who  could  afford  t>  pm-hase 
yarn  did  so.  and  sold  the  cloth  in  Dysart,  Kirkcaldy.  Cnpar, 
and  Ihmdee;  while  others,  with  less  stock,  were  employed  mak- 
ing similar  goods  by  the  manufacturers  of  these  towns.  The 
i  proportion  of  the  Flax  was  imported,  and  much  of  it  spun 
in  the  parish.  A  woman  commonly  span  2  hanks  a  day,  for 
which  she  was  paid  Is  to  N  :M  a  spindle. 

I.I.M  IK. — About  17GO  the  women   universally  span  with  one 

hand,  a   he-p  beinij  then   a  sufficient  day's  work  for  a  woman, 

and  mistresses  required  no  more  from  the  maid--  when 

they  sat  all  day  at  the  wheel  ;   after  thev  had  spun  their  hesp,  the 

K  k  2 


510  MODERN  LINEN. 

rest  of  the  day  was  their  own,  and  might  be  employed  in  their 
own  work,  or  otherwise,  as  they  thought  proper,  if  in  a  rational 
way.  Before  1770  a  wheel  for  spinning  with  both  hands  was 
unknown  m  the  parish,  but  by  1790  almost  none  else  were  to 
be  seen  in  it.  The  price  of  spinning  a  spindle  had  been  lOd, 
but  in  the  latter  year  it  was  Is;  and  women  could  then  earn 
2s  6d  a  week,  while  the  men  made  from  7s  to  10s  at  the  loom. 
The  weavers  were  the  most  numerous  set  of  handicrafts- 
men in  the  parish,  and  the  fabric  woven  was  generally 
plain  Linen.  The  women  were  chiefly  employed  in  spinning 
Flax  and  Tow,  both  to  supply  the  weavers  and  for  sale.  The 
changes  which  have  come  over  Leslie  since  that  period  are 
wonderful.  In  1836  there  were  six  spinning-mills  in  the  parish, 
about  260  weavers,  and  three  bleachfields.  The  greatest  works 
at  present  are  those  of  John  Fergus  &  Co.,  Prinlaws,  which  em- 
brace three  spinning-mills,  viz..  Prinlaws,  East  Prinlaws, and  Mill- 
deans,  also  power-loom  weaving  and  bleaching,  all  on  an  extensive 
scale,  and  employing  numerous  hands.  These  works  have  now 
been  carried  on  for  many  years,  and  they  are  still  in  active 
operation,  the  power  looms  being  employed  by  the  large  Lon- 
don firm  of  D.  Dewar,  Son,  &  Sons.  Leslie  lint  mill,  belonging 
to  Alexander  Gilchrist,  contains  900  spindles  for  light  tow  yarn, 
and  a  small  mill  belonging  to  James  Haggart,  are  both  actively 
employed  in  the  parish. 

LETHENDY. — The  green  crops  in  this  parish  in  1792  con- 
sisted of  nearly  equal  proportions  of  potatoes,  turnips,  pease,  and 
lint,  and  the  rotation  of  the  latter  was  after  oats.  The  annual 
produce  was  about  250  stones  (Amsterdam)  of  lint.  The  parish 
was  divided  into  small  farms,  of  from  six  to  ten  acres  ;  and  the 
rent  of  the  best  land  did  not  exceed  20s  an  acre,  the  greater 
part  being  below  15s.  There  were  then  2  flaxdressers  and  13 
weavers  in  the  parish. 

LE UGH ARS.—  There  were  90  looms  in  the  parish  in  1794, 
34  of  which  were  in  the  village.  The  weavers  were  employed  in 
what  is  called  "  household  work"  of  various  kinds,  and  in  brown 
Linen  and  single  and  double  sail-eloth,  which  they  made  for  the 
Dundee  merchants.  Several  of  the  manufacturers  had  shortly 
before  begun  to  buy  yarn,  weave  it,  and  sell  the  cloth  to  the  mer- 
chants in  Oupar  and  Dundee.  That  description  of  business  was 


ST.  >T<  '!' 

then  on  the  increase',  and  sndi  was  thought  SO  extraordi- 

nary, as  to  he  worthy  of  heini;  ier..rd«d  in  the  Statistical  Account 
of  the  parish.  One  man  in  the  parish  had  gained  a  name  and 
fame  for  working  damasks  and  other  table  Linen.  Handloom 
weaving  has  continued  to  be  the  chief  occupation  of  tin-  inha- 
bitants, the  doth  beini:  :  lill  made  principally  for  inaniii 
in  Cupar,  Dundee,  <fec. 

LITTLE  DUNKKLD. — In  this  parish  Flax  was  an  artirl- 
great  imjwrtance  to  the  inhabitants  in  the  last  two  decades 
of  last  century,  potatoes  and  lint  having  been  called  tin- 
two  feet  which  supported  them.  It  was  generally  sown  n 
barley,  but  sometimes  after  potatoes;  and  in  the  latter  case, 
when  the  land  was  somewhat  m»i-»t,  the  ground  did  not  get  a 
seed  furrow,  as  this  was  found  to  be  detrimental  to  the  lint,  and  it 
was  sown  in  the  state  in  which  the  ground  was  left  at  the  diiruin;: 
of  the  potatoes,  a  little  lime  being  sometimes  mixed  with  the 
in  hoeinu  them.  In  this  way,  the  richest  crop  of  Flax  was 
obtained.  Sandy  ground  produced  the  poorest  crop,  but  thequality 
was  finest.  A  peck  of  seed,  Liulithgow  barley  measure,  produced 
from  3  to  4  stones  of  22  Ibs.  avoirdupois.  1426  pecks,  producing 
4296  stones,  was  the  average  yearly  crop.  The  Flax  was  aU 
spun  by  the  women  of  the  parish,  and  afforded  them  constant 
employment  for  six  months  in  the  year.  A  little  of  the  yarn 
was  weuved  for  domestic  purposes ;  but  the  bidk  of  it  was  sold 
to  hawkers  and  others  for  the  great  manufactories,  and  to 
weavers  who  sold  webs  when  made.  A  spindle  from  the  pound 
of  heckled  Flax  was  the  usual  size  of  the  yarn  spun  for  sa'e. 
The  one  fly-wheel  was  once  chiefly  used,  but  the  two-handed 
one  had  then  become  pretty  general.  The  thread  produced 
by  it  was  coarser ;  but  as  the  Flax  was  not  so  well  heckled,  it 
gave  more  pounds  from  the  stone,  and  it  wan  more  profitable, 
Some  young  women,  without  much  previous  teaching,  were  able  to 
spin  a  thread  as  fine  as  3£  spindles  from  the  pound  avoirdupois. 
In  1790  there  were  5  lint  mills  in  the  pari.-h,  with  large  sheds 
attached,  roofed  with  slate,  for  stowing  nn>cntcbed  Flax  ;  the 
B«  >urd  of  Trustees  having  given  much  encouragement  to  these 
erections.  They  also  furnished  one  of  the  weavers  with  a 
diaper  loom.  There  were  at  that  period  23  flaxdrcssers  in  the 
parish,  and  IfiO  weavers. 


518  MODERN  LINEN 

LOCHMABEN. — Nearly  a  century  ago  a  considerable  manufac- 
ture of  coarse  Linen  was  carried  on  in  the  town  and  country 
around.  About  60,000  yards  were  made  yearly,  which  were 
all  sold  in  England,  mostly  unbleached,  at  from  6d  to  Is  or 
Is  Id  a  yard.  There  were  then  two  lint  mills  in  the  parish  ; 
but  they  were  unable  to  do  all  the  work  they  could  have  got, 
and  part  had  to  be  scutched  elsewhere. 

LOGERAIT. — In  this  parish,  about  200  acres  of  Flax  was 
grown.  The  staple  article  of  manufacture  and  export  was  Linen 
yarn,  which  was  spun  by  the  women  in  winter,  during  which 
period  they  sat  closely  at  their  wheels.  In  1783  famine  pre- 
vailed in  the  parish,  but  the  Linen  yarn  happened  luckily  to 
bring  a  very  high  price  that  year,  which  was  a  great  assistance 
to  the  people.  In  1787  corn  was  as  dear  and  yarn  one-third 
cheaper ;  the  poor  in  consequence  suffered  more  even  than  in 
the  former  period. 

LOGIE-PERT. — Logie  Bleachfield,  on  the  North  Esk,  was 
started  about  1760,  and  went  on  gradually  extending,  until,  in 
1790,  about  70,000  spindles  of  thread  were  bleached  annually 
almost  the  whole  produce  being  disposed  of  in  the  London 
market.  This  field  has  now  been  discontinued,  Aberdein,  Gor- 
don &  Co.,  the  proprietors,  having  erected  a  new  work  at 
Sunny  side,  in  the  parish  of  Montrose,  a  little  lower  down  the 
Esk.  There  they  have  a  steam-power  of  itwelve  horses,  employ 
50  hands,  aud  bleach  fully  800  tons  of v  yarn  yearly.  Logie 
spinning-mill  was  erected  before  1805,  and  much  enlarged 
about  thirty  years  thereafter,  employing,  in  1835,  about  130 
hands.  It  was  long  carried  on  by  the  same  firm,  but  they  left 
it  and  the  bleachfield  together,  and  it  was  silent  for  some  time. 
It  is  now  possessed  by  James  Eamsay  &  Co.,  and  busily  at 
work  again.  The  water-power  is  equal  to  30  horses,  and  the 
mill  contains  1400  spindles,  and  employs  70  hands.  Craigo 
mill  and  bleachfield  adjoins  Logie.  The  field  was  begun  shortly 
after  Logie,  and  for  a  time  also  bleached  thread ;  but  before 
1790  it  was  chiefly  employed  on  cloth.  Now  yarn  is  bleached 
largely,  the  machinery  being  driven  by  a  water-wheel  of  20 
horse-power,  and  the  work  affording  employment  to  110  hands. 
At  both  fields  the  yarn  bleached  is  chiefly  the  property  of  the 
respective  firms,  and  spun  nt  their  own  mills.  Craigo  spinning- 


•n  li   I.1NKN.  519 

mill,  adjoining  tin1  field,  haw  a  \\  team-power   nf  ;>1 

horiM,  *0*UftIIJI  lsntl   ^pindlcs,   and   employs  about    1  ,"><)  hands. 
Both  mill  and  field  belong  to  Richards  &  (Jo.  of  Montroje,  who 

pay  about  jv.noo  a  year  of  wages  to  tin-  workers.  In  17.") 
there  wa>  a  mill  in  tin-  parish  for  cleaning  yarn  for  -h.vting  and 
ducks,  with  yarn-beaters,  and  Flax-breaking  or  scutching 
machinery,  which  put  through  about  1  ."><><)  stones,  all  fur  1. 
consumption.  Then  about  46  acres  of  Flax  wa^  -r..\vn  in  the 
parish  yearly,  and  tin?  wonu  n  t'oiuid  excellent  cmploynuMit  in 
spinning  it.  Factory  yarn  was  also  given  out  by  .shopkeepers, 
li>r  spinning  which  Inuu  Is  to  Is  "Jd  a  spindl.-  was  p.ii.l. 

LONGFOKI;AN. — Ahont  the  year  17'Jl.  and  lor  .-.mr  \vars  Le- 
the inhahitimts  had  l>een  remarkably  successful  in  raising 
'  Mpfl  ..!'  lint,  and  their  practice  was  then  said  to  be  well 
worthy  of  imitation.  The  system  adopted  was  to  water  the  lint 
grounds  in  rainy  weather  with  dimi;  water,  that,  fruin  the  c<>w- 
hoiis<-  beinic  prelerrecl.  So  advantageous  was  ibis  op  -ration,  th.it 
the  then  pn>prietor  had  a  cart  made  specially  t'.»r  the  purpose  of 
conveying  the  liijuid  manure  to  the  field,  and  it  is  minutely 
described  in  the  Statistical  Account  of  the  parish.  Linens  have 
l<>n--  U vn,  and  still  are  w caved  in  handloums  to  a  moderate 
extent  iii  the  parish. 

MAINS. — Last  century  the  farmers  were  averse  to  sow  Flax, 
as  they  did  not  think  the  ground  proper  for  it,  and  only  about 
L}< )  acres  were  grown  yearly.  In  1  7»«< ',  there  was  only  one  bleach- 
lield,  employing  1<>  per>Mii<.  and  mie  mill  for  washing  and  c! 

varn  ;  but  in  1790  there  were  no  tewer  than  nine  bleachtiel«l<, 
employing  about  101)  }KTSons,  three  oi'  which  were  carried 
upon  an  extensive  scale,  and  seventeen  mills  tor  washing  and 
cleaning  yarn.  he>ides  live  mills  for  beating  thread  and  cloth. 
In  the  latter  year  a  mill  for  spinning  flax  was  erected  at  Trot- 
tick,  upon  a  capital  of  £4000,  which,  it  was  supposed,  would 
give  bread  !<•  a  great  number  of  people,  both  young  and  old. 
and  bring  eoii^id'-rable  emoluments  to  the  proprietors.  When 
the  Statistical  Kepmt  oft  he  parish  was  written  in  1791,  one  frame 
was  working,  by  which  a  spc<  I  the  yarn  was  produ 

It  is  stated  that  the  spindles  ran  with  ama/.ing  (|uickuess,  and 
made  very  good  yarn  ;  only,  as  it  was  drawn  out  dry,  it  appeared 
p-u-h.  It  v.  !u  that  this  mi-lit  !  d  it' 


520  MODERN  LINEN. 

a  method  of  wetting  the  flax  while  spinning  could  have  been 
invented,  as  it  would  make  the  cloth  smoother,  and  give  it  a 
finer  appearance.  The  mills  were  all  on  the  Dighty  river,  which, 
it  was  then  supposed,  drove  more  machinery  for  its  size  than 
any  other  in  Britain.  The  women  in  the  parish  found  profitable 
employment  in  spinning  Linen  yarn,  which  they  did  by  the  two- 
handed  wheel,  and  earned  easily  eightpence  a  day.  A  large 
quantity  of  coarse  cloth,  called  soldiers'  sarking,  and  Osnaburgs* 
was  bleached  at  the  fields,  the  most  of  which  was  exported- 
Some  of  it  was  weaved  in  the  parish,  but  the  greater  part  was 
sent  out  from  Dundee  to  be  bleached,  and  returned  to  the  mer- 
chants. The  report  adds — "  In  short,  a  person  has  only  to  come 
to  this  water  to  see  the  happy  eftects  of  industry  and  manufac- 
tures, and  to  what  a  height  they  may  be  carried.  While  the 
manufacturer  enriches  himself,  he  does  a  real  benefit  to  society, 
by  employing  those  hands  who  must  have  either  become  burdens 
upon  the  public  by  asking  charity,  or  nuisances  by  worse  prac- 
tices." For  nearly  twenty  years,  the  spinning-mill  at  Trottick 
was  carried  on  with  varied  success,  sometimes  realising  hand- 
some profits,  at  others,  making  heavy  losses.  During  that 
period  it  frequently  changed  owners,  until,  in  December  1808, 
it  finally  became  diverted  from  its  original  purpose,  and  was 
turned  into  a  yarn-washing  mill  in  connection  with  Claverhouse 
Bleachfield.  In  1833  there  were  four  bleachfields  in  the  united 
parishes  of  Mains  and  Strathmartin,  two  of  which  were  of  great 
extent ;  and  four  Flaxspinning  mills,  all  of  which  had  steam- 
engines  in  addition  to  the  water-power.  There  were  also  five 
yarn-washing  mills,  where  yarn  was  milled  or  prepared  for  the 
loom,  and  the  weft  softened  by  beating.  There  are  now 
three  bleachfields,  viz.,  Claverhouse,  Turnbull  &  Co. ;  Dundee, 
Cargill  &  Co. ;  and  Balmuir,  A.  J.  Murdoch  &  Co.  The  first 
two  carry  on  a  very  extensive  business,  and  the  other,  which 
has  been  recently  erected,  bids  fair  to  do  a  large  trade  also. 
Several  plash-mills  are  still  in  operation ;  but  the  Flax  mills 
have  disappeared  or  changed  their  occupancy,  the  last  one  having 
been  burned  down  in  1861. 

MARKINCH. — A  bleachfield  was  early  established  in  the 
parish,  and  it  was  being  carried  on  successfully  about  1793. 
The  manufacture  of  brown  Linen  had  been  introduced  prior  to 


SCOT'.!  I    I.1SKN.  -VJ1 

that  period,  and  a  hrge  quantity  of  goods  were  for  some  time 
manufactured,    but    I  had    d<  dined,   and    tin-   gn 

number  of  the  people  were  then  employed  by  inanutM.'imvrs  on 
tln>  coast  iu  making  rli.vks  and  ticks.  From  tin-  iloiiri>hing 
state  of  these  manufactures,  and  the  high  wages  paid  to  the 
weavers,  the  quantity  made  had  then  increased  greatly.  In 
1794  llaii>_rh  spinning  mill  was  erected,  but  after  a  varied 
fortune  it  was  dismantled  lately.  Operations  are  now  in  pr-.- 
gress  to  resume  operations,  and  it  will  soon  be  started  again. 
Balgonie  Works,  belonging  to  J.  G.  Stuart  &  Co.,  are  drive  n 
by  water  and  steam  power,  equal  to  150  horses,  and  contain 
2976  spindles  and  32  power-looms;  and  Shythrnm  Mill,  h«  1 
ing  to  N.  &  N.  Lockhart.  contains  820  spindles,  chiefly  on 
Hemp  twines.  These  works,  and  several  extensive  bleachfi- 
give  regular  employment  to  a  large  number  of  hands,  and  greatly 
it  the  parish. 

MEIGLK.— -  In  1788  therewere  stamped  at  the  Stamp  Office  here 
147,024  yards  of  Linen  ;  in  1789,  150,174  yards;  and  in  1790, 
186,998  yards.  The  Linen  manufactured  in  this  parish  was  of 
superior  quality,  and  chiefly  used  for  buckram,  hat  lining,  &c. 
It  was  the  principal  trade  of  the  parish,  and  in  1791  there  were 
91  weavers,  who  produced  every  week  about  4000  yards  ot  Linen, 
the  profit  arising  from  which  was  £25.  The  soil  of  the  parish 
yielded  excellent  crops  of  Flax. 

MELROSE.  —In  the  year  1668  the  weavers  in  the  town  were  in- 
corporated under  what  was  called  a  seal  of  cause  from  John, 
Earl  of  Haddington,  then  lord  of  the  lordship,  and  bailie  prin- 
cipal of  the  regality  of  Melrose.  This  town  had  lung  been 
famed  for  Linens,  named  "  Melrose  land  Linens,"  fur  which 
commissions  had  been  received  from  London  and  i'oi.  iurn  coun- 
tries, but  after  about  1770  the  business  began  to  decline.  The 
quantity  stamped,  as  shown  by  the  stampmaster's yearly  abstract, 
from  1st  November  1754  to  1st  November  1755,  was  33,282} 
yards,  valued  at  £2,575  10s  lljd.  In  the  succeeding  ten  years 
the  quantity  and  value  continued  much  the  same.  From  No- 
vember 1764  to  1765  there  were  stamped  32,300$  yards,  value 
£2,495  14s  9Jd  ;  and  from  Nov.  1773  to  1774,  20,789}  yards, 
value,  £2,051  16s  7Jd.  In  the  following  ten  years  the  quantity 
decreased,  on  the  average,  to  17,792  yards,  value  £1,845  12s  4d. 


522  MODERN  LINEN. 

This  decline  was  in  a  great  measure  owing  to  the  rise  of  the 
woollen  manufacture  in  the  district,  and  the  encouragement 
which  the  Board  of  Trustees  had  given  to  it  in  the  shape  of  pre- 
miums and  otherwise.  It  was  suggested  by  the  manufacturers, 
that  the  Trustees  should  give  premiums  and  extras  on  well  made 
pieces  of  Linen,  as  had  been  done  in  Scotland  about  40  years 
previously,  and  that  spinning  mistresses  should  be  appointed  in 
different  towns  in  the  parish  to  teach  the  young  girls  to  spin, 
and  offering  prizes  to  the  best  spinners.  There  was  then  a 
bleachfield  in  the  parish,  the  property  in  which  was  divided  into 
£5  shares,  but  the  trade  had  also  been  in  a  decaying  state.  The 
Linen  trade,  it  appears,  gradually  gave  way  before  the  advance  of 
the  woollen  manufacture,  until  it  finally  became  extinct  in  the 
district.  In  1780  the  price  paid  for  spinning  was,  4  hanks  of  yarn 
from  1  pound  of  lint,  Is  2d ;  5  hanks,  Is  4d  ;  6  hanks,  Is  8d  ; 
7  hanks,  2s.  In  1790,  it  had  risen  to  Is  7d,  Is  8d,  2s  Id,  and 
2s  4d  for  these  sizes  respectively. 

MENMUIR. — The  soil  in  several  places  was  particularly  favour- 
able for  raising  Flax.  It  was  sown  about  the  beginning,  but 
sometimes  through  the  whole  of  April.  In  1792,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Board  of  Trustees,  a  mill  for  dressing  lint  was 
erected  on  the  water  of  Cruik.  Shortly  before  that  year  four 
or  five  persons  obtained  premiums  from  the  Trustees  for  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  Flax  grown  by  them.  The  women 
span  a  great  deal  of  lint  into  coarse  yarn  for  the  duck  or  sail-cloth 
factory.  They  span  with  both  hands,  a  practice  supposed  in  the 
district  to  be  then  little  known  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  which 
enabled  them  to  earn  3s  a  week.  There  were  three  persons  in  the 
parish  who  took  in  the  undressed  Flax,  and  one  of  them  kept 
two  hecklers  to  prepare  the  lint  for  spinning,  which,  on  being 
returned  in  yarn,  was  carried  to  Montrose,  as  the  few  manufac- 
turers in  the  parish  were  principally  employed  in  making  Linen 
of  a  finer  quality  for  home  consumption. 

METHVEN. — The  principal  manufacture  of  the  parish  was  broad 
and  narrow  brown  Linens,  broad  and  narrow  hams,  and  a  few 
broad  white  Linens.  By  the  books  of  the  stampmaster  the 
number  of  yards  stamped  in  1787  were  44,996  yards.  The 
manufacture  after  that  increased  rapidly,  and  in  1792  there  were 
140,448  yards  stamped  for  sale,  which  at  an  average  price  of 


sr..-n  II  UNEN. 


I'd    a  yard   is   £5,266    IM'H.      Of  these  ncaily    tin-   \\h- 
wea\ed    in   tli<-    pari>h.        The  l'<  •!!•  .wiiiir   year  the  trade  WM  bad, 

and  many  «.r  the  weavers  wen-  (»l)liged  to  turn  to  other  employ- 
iiM-nts       Thriv  wen-  then  1  1   II  ax-dressers  and  159  weavers  in 

tlu-   parish.  Flax  was   a   common    crop,  and    the   spinning  gave 
employment  to  many  of  the  women. 

McMiiKiii.  —  In  the  parish  there  were,  in  1790,  about  38 
weaver-,  who  made  household  cloth  when  n.jiiind,  and  at  uth.-r 
times  <  )snabnrirs%  l.nt  the  (jirmtity  of  Linen  woven  cmild  not  be 
then  ascertained.  There  \\en-  M  Flax  dressers,  7  Flux  miller-. 
and  li  oil  millers  in  tin-  parish.  In  the  oil  mill  the  oil  from 
about  sm  bolls  of  linseed  was  extracted  annually.  A  small  part 
used  in  tlie  neighbourhood,  was  sold  at  Is  3d  the  Scotch 
pint,  and  th>  ut  to  London.  Part  of  the  oil  dust  was 

sold  for  the  purpose  of  fostering  the  milk  of  the  cows  in  >pi 
and   the  balance  made  up  into  eakes.  and  sent  to   Yorkshire  to 
•i  cattle.     A  spinning  mill  was  lung  in  operation  at  Milton  of 
Moniiicth.  hut   it  has  not  heen  occupied  for  y.  ars  and  tlie  ruiu- 
huildiujr  will  soon  be  numbered  among  the  things  of  the 
pa-t.     Pannmre  bleachfield  has  heen  carried  on  for  many  yean 
with  urcat  success  by  Daniel  Drimmie  &  Co.,  and  it  is  now  one 
of  the  laigest  for  yarn   in   the  country. 

MoNKhiK.  —  hi  the  parish  lint  throve  well,  and  was  maim 
lured  by  the  small  fanners  into  Linen,  (most  of  them  being  aN  •• 
weavers),  and  Perth  furnished  a  uuod  market  for  the  cloth.  Some  of 
the  principal  tanners  then  sowed  a  considerable-  .jiiantity  of  lint. 
and  exposed  it  to  sale  upon  the  Held  IK-  fore  it  was  fully  ripe,  gene- 
rally IM  •ninij  from  £12  to  £14  an  acre  for  it.     In  17(JO  one 
mer  iM  a>  much  as  .£11)  an  acre.       At  that  time  all  the  women 
in  the  parish  span  Linen  yarn,  and  it  was  mostly  weaved  by  the 
old  men. 

EASTMoNKi,ANi>.-ln  this  parish  about  1  00  acres  of  Flax  were 
raised  for  Bate,  fur  which  the  ground  was  let  at  from  £5  to  £6 
an  acre.  It  was  generally  sown  the  second  year  after  the  land 
was  broken  up  irom  pasture,  and  after  a  crop  of  oats  or  pease. 
There  were  then  'J-7  weavers  in  Airdrie  and  other  parts  of  the 
parish,  who  were  chictly  employed  by  the  Glasgow  manufacturers 
in  weaving  Linen. 

\Vi-;sT    .M»NKi..\xn.  —  A    considerable    ijuaiitity    uf    Klax    was 


524  MODERN  LINEN. 

raised,  and  it  was  generally  sown  on  ground  which  had  been 
well  manured  with  dung  or  lime  for  the  previous  crop  ;  such 
land  being  let  at  from  £4  to  £7  an  acre.  Riga  seed  was  pre- 
ferred, and  it  was  sown  in  x\pril  and  ready  for  pulling  about  1st 
August.  Nine  women  could  pull  an  acre  a  day,  and  were  paid 
lOd  each*  The  produce  was  16  stones  an  acre,  which  sold  at 
12s  to  13s  a  stone,  and  the  scutching  cost  2s  6d  a  stone,  there 
being  two  mills  for  this  purpose  in  the  parish.  From  1780  to 
1790  the  raising  of  Flax  had  greatly  increased,  one  farmer 
growing  30  acres,  and  he  had  got  several  premiums  from 
the  Trustees.  There  were  no  less  than  400  Linen  weavers  in 
the  parish,  who  all  wrought  to  Glasgow  manufacturers,  and  their 
wages  produced  a  circulation  of  about  £14,400  annually.  There 
were  then  two  bleachfields,  being  the  first  in  the  country  who 
bleached  after  the  Dutch  method,  and  for  their  diligence  and 
ingenuity  they  obtained  a  considerable  premium  from  Government. 

MONZIE. — The  principal  trade  in  the  parish  for  the  last  two  or 
three  decades  of  last  century  was  the  weaving  of  Linen  tweels 
and  scrims  for  sale,  of  which  they  made  a  large  quantity  and 
are  said  to  have  bleached  it  excellently  themselves.  The  tweels 
were  of  various  degrees  of  fineness,  worth  from  Is  to  4s  a  yard, 
and  some  families  with  only  two  looms  weaved  about  1000  yards 
per  annum.  The  scrims  were  a  very  narrow  Linen  cloth,  of  differ- 
ent qualities,  and  generally  sold  unbleached.  They  were  all  ex- 
ported, and  supposed  to  have  been  used  for  trousers.  If  so  the 
country  in  which  they  were  worn  must  have  been  very  warm, 
but  in  any  climate  a  scrim,  if  like  the  class  of  goods  so  called  in 
the  present  day,  could  not  form  a  very  seemly  pair  of  trousers. 
The  women  span  a  good  deal  of  yarn,  which  they  made  into  cloth 
for  sale,  and  thus  by  their  industry  they  raised  great  part  of  the 
rent. 

MOULIN. — The  principal  branch  of  manufacture  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  the  spinning  of 
Linen  yarn,  which  was  the  staple  commodity  of  the  country. 
The  Flax  was  grown  in  the  parish,  and  in  1790  there  were 
seven  lint  mills,  which  enabled  the  people  to  get  all  their  Flax 
dressed  before  the~proper  time  for  spinning  it.  The  price  of  a 
stone  of  lint  was  at  an  average  13s  4d,  and  this  when  dressed 
or  heckled  yielded  about  11  Ibs.  of  lint,  the  tow,  backings,  <fec., 


equal  in  value  t«.  tin-  price  «.f  dressing.  From  these-  1  1 
Ibs.  of  lint  11  spindle>  ul'  \  ;n  were  spun,  which  sold  at  the 
average  price  ,,f-js -M  tin-  -pindle  3d  The  profit  was 

thei'  Id,  or  Is  Hd  tlu-  spindle,  and  a^  it  -jvnendly  took 

three  days  to  spin  a  spindle,  the  daily  wages  was  4Jd  A  good 
spinner,  employed  M.ldy  in  spinning,  might  have  earned  3s  a 
week,  luit  the  average  spin  was  10  cuts  a  day,  and  the  si/.e  of  the 
yarn  was  generally  a  .spindle,  or  -Is  cuts  from  a  pound  of  lint. 
Tin-  spinning  of  lint  was  done  in  winter,  woollen  vain  having 
he. -n  spun  in  Mimmer,  and  the  spinning  with  both  hands  had 
then  been  int roduced,  and  was  coming  int.»  p:  A  fair, 

held  at  Moulin  in  the  end  of  Fehrnary,  had  been  the  priii- 
market  for  the  sale  of  Linen  yarn,  and  thither  the  weavers  and 
yarn  dealers  from  dill'nvnt  parts  of  Scotland  used  to  resort,  and 
buy  up,  for  ready  money,  the  yarn  which  had  hern  spun  during 
the  winter.  For  some  years  prior  to  1791,  the  quantity  sold  in 
the  fair  had  fallen  off  greatly,  as  shopkeepers  and  yarn-dealers 
had  bought  nj)  the  yarn  in  the  course  of  the  winter,  and  sent  it 
to  their  employers  in  manufacturing  towns.  In  1741  Linen 
yarn  sold  at  Is  the  spindle,  and  in  1756  the  Linen  used  for  shirts 
by  the  peasants  cost  4d  a  yard.  In  1791  a  man's  shirt  cost 
:  |d,  a  woman's  shift  2s  9?td,  and  children's  shirt-  -Js  5 Ad,  all 
of  Linen.  Linen  yarn  sold  then  for  2s  6d  to  2s  7d  the  spindle, 
which  was  considered  a  ^ood  price.  The  spinning  season  was 
from  November  to  March,  or  about  21  weeks,  and  it  was  calcu- 
lated that  in  the  parish  there  were  272  spinners,  who  span  one 
spindle  each  JKM*  week,  and  414  who  span  two  spindles,  thus 
producing  for  sale  23,100  spindles,  which  at  2s  4d  brought  a 
return  in  cash  of  £2683  6s  8d.  This  quantity  of  yarn  consumed 
about  2200  stones  of  lint  as  it  was  taken  from  the  mills,  the 
remainder  of  the  produce  of  the  parish  having  been  used  for 
household  purposes,  or  sold  to  other  districts  less  fertile  in  pro- 
ducing Flax.  In  1790  there  were  75  acres  of  Flax  grown, 
producing  3''  per  acre,  making  2700  stones,  which  at 

1  :>s  M  il  t'-M  pa  me,  and  in  all  £1800.  That  year  there  were 
4  tlaxdressers  and  28  weavers  in  the  parish. 

NKWIU  iu.n,  FIFE. — Prior  to  the  year  1780  the  trade  and 
manufactures  of  Newburgh  were  of  comparatively  limited  ex- 
tent, and  Cunningham  called  it  "  a  poor  country  village."  In 


526  MODERN  LINEN. 

the  statistical  account  of  the  parish  in  1792,  the  place  was  of  so 
small  importance  that  it  was  said  "  no  trader  has  yet  appeared 
in  New  burgh  whose  extensive  transactions  in  commerce  would 
entitle  him  to  the  name  and  character  of  a  merchant,  though, 
perhaps,  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  many  will  be  found 
here  of  that  respectable  description."  The  writer  of  that  para- 
graph must  have  been  able  to  dive  into  futurity,  or  rather  he 
had  been  sagacious  and  far  seeing,  as  his  predictions  have  been 
fully  verified.  For  many  years  subsequent  to  that  date  the  in- 
dividuals employed  in  the  trade  for  the  most  part  wove  their  own 
yarn,  and  disposed  of  their  webs  to  merchants  in  Dundee,  Perth, 
Cupar,  Auchtermuchty,  Glasgow,  &c.  Afterwards  the  manu- 
facturers began  to  operate  more  extensively,  employing  a  number 
of  weavers,  and  selling  the  cloth  direct  to  the  English  buyers. 
In  1833  there  were  342  people  employed  in  winding  ;  564 
looms  were  at  work  in  town  ;  the  pieces  manufactured  23,600, 
containing  about  826,000  spindles  of  yarn  ;  and  the  cost  of  the 
cloth,  including  weaving,  bleaching,  &c.,  was  £128,325.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  Linens  made  in  Newburgh,  the  manufac- 
turers employed  many  weavers  in  the  towns  and  villages  for  many 
miles  around.  The  cloth  made  consisted  of  dowlas  and  sheetings 
— the  latter  from  one  to  three  yards  wide,  and  in  quality  from 
fourteen  hundred  Linen  downwards.  The  pieces  were  made 
about  140  yards  long,  and  a  yard  wide  sheeting  was  worth  from 
£5  10s  to  £6  a  piece,  while  the  three  yard  wide  was  sold  at  3s  6d 
a  yard.  In  1835  there  were  thirteen  manufacturers  in  New- 
burgh.  Since  that  period  the  trade  of  the  town  has  not  increased 
much,  and  the  number  of  manufacturers  are  fewer  than  they 
then  were,  but  some  of  them  do  a  very  large  and  important  trade- 
The  class  of  goods  now  chiefly  made  in  the  town  and  district  are 
sheetings  for  household  purposes,  and  for  such  the  place  has  a 
high  and  well-merited  reputation,  as  the  Linen  made  is  really 
of  a  superior  description,  and  very  suitable  for  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  intended.  According  to  the  Fifeshire  Directory, 
published  in  1862,  there  were  upwards  of  550  looms  in  the  dis- 
trict, which  varies  little  from  the  number  in  1833,  and  the 
manufacturers  now,  as  then,  employ  many  hands  in  the  neigh- 
bouring towns  and  villages,  In  the  neighbourhood  is  Clunie 
Bleachfield,  a  prosperous  concern,  belonging  to  John  Hendry. 


i    \.  ."•_'    , 

I:TII   YELL  A         :        ;  AH.— In    North  Yell  ;in.l   1-Vtlar  the 

Linen    manufacture   had  been   tried  about   17'.'<>.  1'iit  it   did    not 

In  -cause  the  fair  sex  were  so  accustomed  to  roam 

about    the  rocks    that    th.-y   could    not    apply    themsclv.-    with 

dili-jvmv  to  the  manufacturing  husiness,  and  because  the  , 

slant  sit  tin--  was  .siid  t«>  have  I  rough t  Oil  hysterical  d: 
Another  reason  was  that  they  could  purchase  Lilian  ch.-apn- 
than  they  could  afford  to  make  it.  The  Shetland  wmii.-n  mu>t 
then  have  been  very  delicate  and  m-rvMiis  tail'  OttGt,  I'Ul  p<  rhaps 
the  true  cause  of  the  failure  of  the  Linen  trad.-  >sas  because  the 
fair  ivd  pleasure  to  labour,  and  roii-idiTed  it  beneath 

their  dignity  to  spin  or  weave;  or  because  other  employments 
more  congenial  to  their  taste. 

••mil. — AmoiiL;  the  advantages  which  the  parish  of  Orphir.  in 

(  M-kney,  was  said  to  possess  in  the  end  of  last  century  were  "  lire, 

water,  and  tine  women.'     It  appears  from  the  statistical  report  of 

the  pari>h,  that  jheM  tin"  women  were  employed  spinning  Linen 

yarn,   and   that    the  country  dealers   allowed  so  poor  a  price  for 

the  commodity  that  the  most  expert  spinner  coidd  hardly  earn 

twopence  a  day,  which  would  not  furnish  fine  dresses  for  the  fine 

women.     The  Linen  manufacture,  on  a  small  scale,  had  shortly 

iv  that    period  been  introduced  into  the  parish,  and  it  fcaj 

said  that  since  then  rhuematism  had  become  more  frequent,  it 

was  supposed  inconsequence  of  the  siil»titution  of  the  Linen  shirt 

for  the  woollen  waistcoat  formerly  worn  by  the  common  people. 

PAISLEY. — The  manufactures  of  Paisley,  from  the  Union  to 

about  1760,  consisted  at  first  of  coarse  checked  Linen  cl«.th  and 

P>i-ni£ils,  afterwards  of  cheeked    Linen   handkerchiefs,   some  of 

them  fine  and  beaut  i  fully  variegated  in  c.»lonrin--.  accordiii 

the  taste  of  the  manufacturers.      These   wei  eded   by 

plain   lawns  and  Linen  gau/e,   for   which  the  town  was  once 

celebrated.     The  manufacture  of  white  sewin-  thread,  known  as 

'•e  thread,  todi>tin^ui>h  it  from  thedill'eivnt  kinds  of  coloured 

and  white  thread  then  made  in  Aberdeen  and  Dundee,  was  begun 

about  1750.      It   was  introduced   into  the  neighbourhood  from 

Holland  in   17'J.">,  and  carried  on  for  a  long  time    in  the  family 

of  the  lady  who  first  learned  the  secret,  and  began  the  trade. 

As  in  Glasgow,  the  cotton  manufacture  tinally  supplanted  that 

of  Linen  in  PaMey. 


528  MODERN  LINEN. 

PERTH. — The  Linen  trade  of  this  city  was  begun  at  a  distant 
period,  but  the  time  of  its  introduction  is  not  accurately  known. 
German  merchants,  or  Flemings  as  they  were  called,  very  early 
frequented  the  port  of  Perth,  and  some  of  them  who  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  Linen  manufacture  settled  there,  and  were 
received  as  burgesses.  The  trade  had  its  day  of  prosperity  and 
also  of  adversity,  as  in  other  places  ;  but,  on  the  whole,  for  a 
long  period,  it  went  on  gradually  extending,  until  it  became  the 
staple  manufacture  of  the  place. 

The  Literary  and  Antiquarian  Society  of  Perth  nominated 
some  of  their  number,  well  acquainted  with  trade,  to  give  in  a 
report  upon  it.  The  Committee  took  much  trouble  in  collecting 
the  materials,  and  on  10th  June,  17D4,  gave  in  a  report,  from 
which  the  following  particulars,  bearing  on  the  Linen  trade,  are 
taken : — 

"  The  staple  manufacture  of  Perth  was  Linen,  and  of  late  a 
considerable  quantity  of  cotton.  There  are  upwards  of  1500 
looms  employed  in  the  town  and  suburbs  on  Linen  and  cotton, 
which  manufacture  goods  annually  to  the  value  of  about 
£100,000  sterling,  Besides  this  there  is  at  least  £120,000 
sterling  more  of  Linen  purchased  in  the  Perth  market  by  the 
dealers,  all  of  which  is  woven  in  the  surrounding  country, 
making  a  total  value  of  about  £220,000  annually. 

"  The  Linen  goods  comprise  brown  and  bleached  fine- 
threaded  Linens,  called  Silesias,  chiefly  printed  for  handkerchiefs, 
with  Britannias,  Kentings,  &c.,  for  export,  the  estimated  value 
of  which  is  above  £120,000 ;  (Perth  had  been  long  famed  for 
the  manufacture  of  these  articles)  stout  Holland  sheetings  of 
various  widths,  with  J  and  £  Holland  shirting,  and  a  few  long 
lawns,  above  £12,000 ;  four-fourths  brown  and  bleached  country 
Linen,  chiefly  used  for  hat  linings,  buckrams,  &c.  ;  brown 
Hollands,  hessians,  pack- sheetings,  and  other  coarse  fabrics 
made  in  the  neighbourhood,  including  soldier's  shirtings,  with  a 
few  coarse  sheetings  and  Osnaburgs,  purchased,  £20,000  ;  five- 
fourths  wide  umbrella  Linen,  Linen  for  window  blinds,  &c., 
above  £8000— making  a  total  of  Linen  goods  of  above  £160,000, 
which  the  Committee  are  confident  is  under-rated. 

"  There  are  three    printing  works  in  the  neighbourhood, 
viz.,    Ruthven,    Tulloch,   and   Cromwell-park,   which   is  now 


dnin  m  t"  nt  least   th  of  £80,000  annually,  and 

tin-   trade   is  mi    tin-   increase.      Tin-   pr-'dm-.-  of  these  works   is 
shipped  at    IVrth.  chi.-lly  i  .  •  t.      Th«-  printers 

i  full  command  <»f  tip'  article  of  Silesia  Linen 
for  handkerchief  printin.ir.  the  staple  manufacture  of  the  town 
and  iH>iurhl'<.iirlio..,l.  They  likewise  supply  ])art  of  the  country 
demand  both  in  Kn^'land  ainl  Scotland. 

44  There  arc  four  hleachlirlds  in  tin-  vicinity  of  Perth,  which 
hlcach  cloth  f«»r  the  country  amund.  and  for  the  manul 
in  the  principal  towns  of  Scotland,  and  tliey  even  get  cl«»th 
fro:ii  Kn-land.  At  Luncarty  al  .out  000,000  yard-  «.f  I. 
bleached  annually,  two-thirds  ..f  which  are  low-priced  Linens, 
with  diaper  and  tahlc  Linens  from  Dunfermlinc,  I'Minhurgh, 
IVrth,  Ae.,  and  the  «»tlier  tliinl  consists  of  fine  Linens  and 
At  Tul  loch  ahout  300,000  yards,  chiefly  low-pric.  1 
Lin.  n>  f,,r  the  puhlic.  At  Huntingtower  fully  600,000  yards 
iiirds  of  which  are  low-priced  goods,  and  the  other  third 
diapers  and  tine  ^oods.  And  at  Stormont  ahout  450,000  yards, 
two-thirds  Silesiaa,  Britannias,  shirtings,  <fec.,  and  the  other 
third  diapers  and  fine  goods.  At  Luncarty  and  Huntingtower 
tin  -re  are  sometimes  in  the  throng  season  above  60  Scots  acres 
of  greens  at  each  work  covered  with  Linens. 

"  The  imports  from  foreign  countries  comprises  Flax  and  Flax 
i,  estimated  at  above  £'9000  annually.     The  following  is  the 
avenge  import  at  ion  of  these  articles  for  the  five  years  from  10th 
October,  1783,  to  l()th  October,  1788  :— 

From  Holland,  .        48  tons  Flax  )    ,-  ,  ,   71  r~    . 

„     other  port.,  .        23        „         }  Tota1'  7l  Tonll< 

Linseed,  1177  hhds. 

And  for  the  five  years  from  10th  October,  1788,  to  10th  Octo- 
ber, 17(J.V- 

From  Holland,        .        .        63  tong  Flax  )    Trt.  .   -Q  T 
„      other  j>ort8.  .        .        10  f 

Linked,  1671  hluU. 


the  peri.Ml  ref.-i-.vd  to,  great  changes  have  overtaken  the 
trade  of  Perth  and  vicinity.  Flax-spinning  was  for  some  time 
.prosecuted  actively,  hut  for  a  nuniher  (,f  yean  it  has  been  di*- 
continik-d.  The  weaving  of  cotton  bbrioi  l»y  hand  in  tin 

and  neighbourhood  ha-  mtcd  IJucns  hut  of  late  \  • 

i.  L 


530  MODERN  LINEN. 

a  large  power-loom  work,  containing  230  looms,  has  been  actively 
employed  in  the  city  ;  and  another,  containing  100  looms,  at  Crom- 
well-park. They  both  belong  to  J.  Shield  &  Co.,  and  produce  all 
kinds  of  damask  and  diaper  table-cloths,  towels,  &c.,  crash,  pad- 
ings,  drills,  dowlas,  &c.,  consuming  about  500,000  spindles  of  yarn 
annually,  and  paying  between  £8000  and  £9000  in  wages.  The 
power  employed  is  steam  in  Perth,  and  water  at  Cromwell-park. 
There  is  another  small  power-loom  work,  with  33  looms,  on 
hessians,  Osnaburgs,  and  dowlas,  at  Milnhaugh,  which  pays 
nearly  £700  in  wages  yearly. 

Some  of  the  old  bleaching  establishments  in  the  vicinity  of  Perth 
continue  to  be  carried  on  extensively.  Tulloch,  belonging  to  John 
Sandeman,  still  does  a  good  deal  of  work  ;  and  Luncarty,  belong- 
ing to  Marshall,  Sandeman,  &  Co.,  is  a  very  large  and  prosper- 
ous concern.  Stormontfield  has  been  silent  since  1861  ;  but 
Pitcairnfield,  belonging  to  David  Lumsden,  has  a  water-power  of 
50  horses,  and  employs  between  50  and  60  hands  on  cloth  bleach- 
ing, who  are  paid  about  £1500  in  wages  yearly.  Mr  Lumsden 
has  a  yarn  bleachfield,  Denburn,  in  Kirkcaldy,  where  about  half 
this  amount  is  paid  in  wages.  Huntingtower,  belonging  to  W. 
S.  Turnbull,  is  perhaps  the  most  important  bleachfield  in  the 
neighbourhood.  It  has  been  entirely  re-built  and  renewed  within 
the  last  ten  years,  when  all  the  latest  improvements  were  adopted. 
The  machinery  consists  of  six  boilers,  thirty-eight  sets  of  beetles, 
and  twelve  pairs  of  wash  stocks,  with  two  calenders,  and  all 
other  apparatus  necessary  for  these  machines.  The  machinery 
is  driven  by  a  water-power  of  from  90  to  100  horses,  about 
150  people  are  employed,  and  the  wages  paid  is  about 
£5000  yearly.  Mr  Turnbull  has  recently  re-built  the  cottages 
for  his  servants,  with  every  attention  to  comfort  internally, 
and  to  architectural  appearance  without.  These  bleachfields 
are  all  for  Linen,  but  Caird  &  Co.  have  a  thriving  field  for 
bleaching  yarn  at  Cromwell-park. 

PETERHEAD. — The  manufacture  of  thread  was  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  the  end  of  last  century.  In  1794  there 
were  52  twist  mills  in  the  town,  giving  constant  employment  to 
334  people  in  doubling,  twisting,  and  making  up  the  thread. 
About  800  women  were  employed  spinning  the  yarn  for  the 
thread,  fully  104,000  spindles  of  which  were  used  annually. 


A  cnii^id.-rahl*-  quantity  of  the  yarns  were  bought  in  Banff, 
Iluntly,  K«  ith,  <fec.,  nn«l  much  of  it  was  spun  from  Dutch  Flax. 
Tin  irivatrr  part  of  the  thread  was  bleached,  and  it  was  almost 
wholly  sent  to  lli«-  London  mark.-!,  wh.-rc  tin-  article  was  in 
request,  and  n-ali/.-d  about  £20,000  sterling  a  year.  The  npin- 
made  about  2s  6d  a  week,  the  women  employed  in  doubling, 
&c.,  2s  6d  to  4s,  and  the  men  in  hecklinir,  twisting,  <fec.,  5s  to 
8s.  Th<>  manufa< -ture  was  at  that  period  in  a  prosperous  condi- 
tion, and  some  of  the  manufacturers  contemplated  increasing 
tlu-ir  machin- TV.  It  was  introduced  into  the  town  in  1764  by 
two  youn.Lr  ladies,  who  began  the  manufacture  of  white  thread 
on  a  small  sc.de.  When  it  was  commenced  no  yarn  could  be 
found  in  the  town  liner  than  four  hanks  in  the  pound,  hut  tin- 
young  women  were  soon  trained  to  spin  it  as  fine  as  eight  and 
ten  hanks  or  hesps  in  the  pound,  and  the  two  young  ladies  were 
so  attentive  to  their  business,  that  their  thread  became  .as  much 
esteemed  as  any  in  the  kingdom.  They  extended  their  bleach- 
field  from  time  to  time,  and  ic°t  a  ready  sale  for  all  the  threads 
th'-y  could  manufacture.  After  being  about  a  quarter  of  a 
century  in  the  trade,  they  retired  from  business  and  left  it  to 
others,  and,  as  above  related,  it  continued  to  prosper  for  many 
years;  but  the  trade  has  been  long  extinct  in  the  town. 

RATIIKN. — Tin-spinning  of  Flax  was  introduced  into  this  parish 
by  a  cotton  manufacturer  in  1750,  and  during  the  remainder  of 
the  century  it  wa^  carried  on  to  a  great  extent.  The  Flax  was 
chiefly  Dutch,  and  it  was  sent  dressed  from  Aberdeen,  Banlf, 
Iluntly,  Keith,  Arc.,  to  agents,  who  gave  it  out  to  the  women  to 
spin,  and  took  back  the  yarn,  returning  it  to  the  parties  to  whom 
it  belonged.  The  average  price  paid  for  spinning  was  about  a 
shilling  a  pound.  In  1793  about  38,900  Ibs.  were  spun,  the 
wages  on  which  was  £1945.  The  parish  had  long  been 
famed  for  producing  fine  Flax,  but  more  so  before  than 
after  the  introduction  of  marl.  The  farmers  were,  however, 
rotricti-d  from  raisin^  wheat  or  Flax  in  considerable  quanti 
because  they  had  Urn  found,  or  were  supposed,  to  exhaust  the 
soil*  The  cultivation  of  Flax  has  often  been  prohibited  on 
this  account,  hut  the  parties  rrho  restricted  tho  growth  of  wheat 
beyond  a  fair  rotation  on  such  a  ground  could  not  have  been 
much  acquainted  with  practical  agriculture.  This  doctrine 
j.  r.2 


532  MODERN  LINEN. 

would  not  meet  with  rnuch  approval  in  the  present  more  en- 
lightened age. 

ST  BOSWELLS. — St  Boswells'  Fair  is  held  in  the  parish  annually, 
in  July.  Long  prior  to  1 790  Linen  was  sold  in  it  to  a  considera- 
ble extent,  great  numbers  of  the  neighbouring  country  people 
being  employed  during  the  winter  in  spinning  the  yarn  and 
weaving  the  cloth.  The  prices  ranged,  according  to  quality, 
from  lOd  and  1  s  to  3s,  4s,  and  even  4s  6d  a  yard.  Many  persons 
provided  themselves  with  Linen  at  this  fair,  thinking  that 
they  purchased  it  cheaper  there  than  they  could  either  make 
it  themselves  or  buy  it  elsewhere.  The  fair  is  still  continued 
yearly ;  but  the  change  in  the  manufacturing  trade  of  the 
country  within  the  past  seventy  years  has  entirely  stopped  the 
sale  of  Linen,  and  this  article  is  now  unknown  among  the  goods 
taken  to  it  for  sale. 

SALTON  — In  the  beginning  of  last  century,  the  lady  of  Fletcher 
of  Salton,  animated  with  a  sincere  desire  to  increase  the  manufac- 
tures of  her  country,  travelled  in  Holland,  with  two  expert 
mechanics,  in  the  habit  of  servants.  Her  rank  procured  her 
access,  with  her  supposed  domestics,  to  the  manufactories  ;  and, 
by  frequent  visits,  the  secrets  of  operation  were  discovered,  and 
models  of  the  various  works  were  formed  by  the  disguised  artists. 
The  parish  in  this  way  became  acquainted  with  two  discoveries, 
viz.,  the  making  of  pot  barley,  and  the  weaving  of  Hollands ;  and 
for  several  years  it  supplied  the  whole  of  Scotland  with  these 
important  articles,  to  the  great  emolument  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  the  year  1750  the  first  bleachfield  belonging  to  the  British 
Linen  Company  was  formed  in  this  parish,  under  the  patronage 
of  Lord  Milton.  During  his  lordship's  life  it  was  conducted 
with  much  spirit,  and,  by  procuring  the  most  expert  workmen 
from  Ireland,  it  became  so  flourishing  as  to  give  employment  to 
100  persons.  The  bleachfield  did  not  exist  long,  it  having  been 
converted  into  pleasure-ground,  and  the  manufacture  of  Hollands 
was  taken  up  by  other  places.  Although  this  trade  has  been 
for  a  long  time  lost  to  Salton,  these  goods  are  yet  common 
productions  in  the  Linen  districts  of  the  three  kingdoms. 

SCOONIE. — Although  little  Flax  was  produced,  there  were 
about  140  looms  in  the  parish  in  1792,  mostly  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  brown  Linen,  many  of  which  were  in  the  village 


I 

<>{'  I.even.  There  was  tlion  a  bleach  field  n«-ar  the  village,  tin- 
I)usinc88  of  which  was  increasing,  us  tin-  prejudices  which  had 
c\i>tcd  against  public  bleaching  \*«T»-  tli«-ii  w.-jiriu.ir  nil'.  Tin- 
Li  nen  sold  in  the  brown  state  brought  from  8d  to  lOd  a  yard. 
What  was  bleached  fetched  from  lOd  to  20d,  and  some  of  a  lin«- 
texture  from  2s  up  to  4s  a  yard.  A  fair  was  h.-l.l  in  tin-  spring 
for  linseed,  and  one  every  month,  from  May  to  October,  for  white 
Linen.  In  1836  there  were  five  spinning-mills  in  tin  parish, 
employing  250  hands,  and  about  17<>  were  employ,-,!  in  \N 
but  there  is  now  only  one  firm,  Boswell  &  Co.,  engaged  in  Flax- 
spinning,  and  weaving  has  also  decreased  greatly. 

STUACATHRO. — The  soil  was  generally  adapted  f>r  growl 
Flax,  which  was  raised  to  a  considerable  extent,  usually  the 
second  crop  after  lea.  Eight  pecks  of  seed  were  sown  on  the 
acre,  the  return  being  about  32  stones  of  dressed  lint.  An  acre 
of  lint,  suld  un  its  feet,  brought  from  £10  to  £14.  The  Flax 
which  the  farmer  raised  was  spun  in  his  own  family,  and 
brought,  when  sold,  about  £1  2s  the  stone.  When  given  out 
t«i  >pin  is  Id  a  spindle  was  paid  for  the  spinning. 

SIUAXKAEU. — About  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  manu- 
facture of  Galloway  plaiding,  a  coarse  fabric  made  for  the 
Virginia  market,  used  to  be  the  staple  of  Stranraer.  By  1770 
it  had  been  supplanted  by  the  manufacture  of  coarse  Linen,  for 
which  1-  lax  was  raised  in  greater  quantities  than  formerly.  The 
Linen  was  brought  to  market  both  green  and  bleached,  and 
bought  chictly  by  the  merchants  from  Glasgow  and  Kilmarnock. 
The  following  was  the  quantity  stamped,  as  shown  by  thestamp- 
mastcr's  books  for  the  years  named,  viz.  :  —  In  1788,  2s 
yards  — value,  £1268  14s  lOd ;  in  1789,  28,662  yards  — 
$1276  14s  ;  and  in  1790,  26,991  yards— £1181  8s  &L 

BTBATHDQK. — About  1770  the  women  were  chictly  employed 
in  knitting  stockings  ;  but  some  years  afterwards  that  work  gave 
place  to  the  spinning  of  Flax.  There  was  little  lint  rai<ed  in 
the  parish,  but  the  AVrdeen  manufacturers,  through  the  country 
shopkeepers  supplied  Flax,  and  took  bock  the  yarn.  The 
employment  was  considered  exhaustive,  in  consequence  of  the 
quantity  of  saliva  required  ;  but,  notwithstanding,  it  was  prose- 
cuted diligently.  Two-handed  \vln-.-ls  were  used  about  17i»2, 
and  the  common  stent  of  the  women  was  from  20  to  24  cuts  a 


534  MODERN  LINEN. 

day,  although  some  of  the  best  spinners,  and  in  Strathdon  they 
were  generally  capital  hands,  could  on  a  stretch  spin  double 
that  quantity.  The  wages  for  a  spindle  was  Is,  and  the  spinning 
brought  a  good  deal  of  money  into  the  parish. 

STRATHMIGLO. — This  parish  has  long  been  noted  for  diapers, 
domestic  dowlas,  and  other  Linens,  in  the  manufacture  of  which, 
about  twenty  years  ago,  500  weavers  were  employed.  A  bleach - 
field  belonging  to  George  Walker  has  long  existed  in  the 
parish  ;  and  now  a  power-loom  work  has  been  established  by 
Alexander  Troup,  with  an  engine  of  16  horse-power,  and  con- 
taming  nearly  100  looms,  the  wages  paid  annually  being  close 
upon  £2000. 

STRICHEN. — The  culture  of  Flax  was  reckoned  an  important 
object  in  the  parish  of  Strichen  near  the  end  of  last  century.  It 
had  been  very  much  promoted  by  the  encouragement  of  the  Board 
of  Trustees  for  Manufactures,  in  giving  a  premium  for  erecting  a 
lint  mill  and  distributing  linseed  gratis ;  but  more  effectually  by 
the  appointment  of  yarn  markets  in  the  beginning  of  March 
and  middle  of  May,  at  which  the  principal  manufacturers  and 
dealers  attended,  and  bought  for  ready  money,  and  at  the  full 
market  value,  the  yarn  which  the  country  people  brought  for 
sale  The  Trustees  gave  premiums  of  £10  per  annum,  for  five 
years,  to  the  person  who  bought  the  greatest  quantity  of  yarn  in 
these  markets,  made  from  Flax  the  growth  of  the  country.  This 
occasioned  a  competition  amongst  the  buyers,  to  the  advantage 
of  the  sellers.  Upwards  of  4000  spindles  had  for  some  years 
been  sold  by  the  country  people  at  these  markets,  and  they  were 
of  great  benefit  to  the  parishioners,  and  gave  promise  of  becom- 
ing more  valuable  when  better  known. 

THURSO. — About  1790  the  weavers  in  the  parish  were  princi- 
pally employed  in  the  manufacture  of  Linen  cloth.  The  spin- 
ning of  Flax  for  the  south  country  manufacturers  employed 
many  hands,  but  it  was  not  considered  to  be  of  much  real  benefit 
to  the  country.  It  appears  from  the  Custom  House  books,  that 
for  the  three  years  preceding  January  17^7,  the  average  quantity 
of  dressed  Flax  brought  to  Thurso  was  84,583  Ibs.  per  annum. 
This  quantity  would  produce  53,114  spindles  of  yarn.  The 
spinner  got  Is,  and  the  agent  2d  per  spindle,  which  gave  £2655 
to  the  spinners,  and  £443  to  the  agents  or  factors=£3098 


r>35 

yearly.  *'  How  interior  this,"  it  is  remark* -d  in  the  Statistical 
Account  of  the  parish,  "  to  tin-  pn»lit  \\hich  would  have  accrued 
to  the  country,  it'  this  quantity  of  Flax  had  IM-I-H  manufactured 
into  sewing  thread,  or  into  cloth." 

TURBIFF. — In  1767,  a  manufacture  <»f  thread  and  Linen  was 
begun  in  the  town,  and  a  bleachfield  for  the  Linen  was  erected 
in  the  neighbourhood  ;  but  the  manufacture  turning  out  unpro- 
litahle,  it  was  discontinued,  after  having  been  carried  on  for 
about  ten  years.  Subsequently  the  thread  manufacture  and 
Meachiield  were  again  established  on  a  small  scale;  and  another 
thread  work  was  begun  in  the  neighbourhood  about  1793.  That 
year  from  400  to  500  pieces  of  cloth,  and  about  666  yards  of 
Linen,  were  bleached  at  the  field  ;  and  6696  yards  of  ham  or 
brown  Linen  were  stamped  in  the  parish  for  sale,  about  two- 
thirds  of  which  was  made  out  of  the  parish,  and  only  brought 
there  to  be  stamped.  Some  Flax  was  then  grown  and  spun  in 
the  parish,  in  addition  to  which,  foreign  lint  was  given  out  to  be 
spun  by  the  manufacturers,  this  being  one  of  the  principal 
articles  which  brought  money  into  the  place.  The  wages  paid 
in  the  parish  in  the  years  noted  were  as  follows : — 

1744.  1774.  1794. 

A  ploughman,  per  annum,         .£188  £4  10    0  £7  10    0 

A  woman—  fann-servaut,           .        0  18    0  1  10    0  2  15    0 

A  man,  for  harvest,        .            .0114  190  1150 

A  woman  for  do.,           .            .089  0170  130 

WEEM. — A  considerable  quantity  of  Flax  was  annually  grown 
in  the  parish,  in  the  latter  half  of  last  century,  the  usual 
quantity  of  seed  sown  being  about  fifteen  hogsheads. 
yield  was  from  three  to  four  stones  of  scutched  Flax  for  the 
peck  sown.  The  Flax  was  dressed  in  water-mills  erected  in 
different  parts  of  the  parish,  and  the  owner  of  the  lint  paid  Is 
4d  the  stone  for  scutching.  The  whole  of  the  Flax  was  spun 
into  yarn  of  4,  5,  or  6  hanks  in  the  pound,  and  it  was  all  sold  in 
that  state  to  merchants  from  Perth  and  Glasgow,  excepting  the 
little  required  for  home  use. 

WEMYSS. — Almost  every  substantial  family  used  to  make  a 
few  pieces  of  good  Linen  annualU.  from  yam  of  their  own 
spinning,  which  was  wrought  by  weaver.-  in  the  juri-h.  bleached 
by  themselves,  and  sold  in  the  public  markets  held  ior  the  pur- 


536  MODERN  LINEN. 

pose  in  this  and  the  neighbouring  parishes.  In  this  way  the 
weavers  had  been  employed  from  time  immemorial,  till  about 
1750.  At  that  time  some  parties  in  Easter  Wemyss  became 
regular  manufacturers  of  Linen ;  and  since  then  this  business 
has  extended  and  improved.  Much  of  the  Linen  was  made 
from  Scotch  Flax,  spun  in  the  parish,  and  the  quality  was 
superior  to  the  bulk  of  what  was  made  in  the  country.  The 
premiums  given  by  the  Trustees  of  the  Linen  Board  for  Linen 
and  sheeting  were  adjudged  to  the  parish  for  five  years  suc- 
cessively, viz.,  to  one  party  for  1785  and  6,  and  to  another 
for  1787,  8,  and  9.  After  that  period  the  number  of  looms  in- 
creased, the  weaving  of  checks  and  ticks  for  manufacturers  in 
this  and  the  neighbouring  parishes  began  ;  and  in  1794  there 
were  about  120  looms  so  employed.  Since  then  hand-loom 
weaving  has  greatly  decreased  in  the  parish,  and  by  and  bye  it 
will  probably  be  extinct.  East  Weinyss  has  continued  up  to 
the  present  time  to  manufacture  various  sorts  of  Linens  exten- 
sively. Twenty-five  years  ago  considerably  more  than  a  million 
yards  of  dowlas,  duck,  and  sheeting  were  made  annually ;  but 
now  this  quantity  is  very  much  within  the  mark.  Druggets, 
composed  of  Linen  warp  and  woollen  weft  are  now  made  in 
moderate  quantities,  and  the  trade  is  extending.  One  firm  here, 
G.  &  J.  Johnston,  employ  about  200  hand-looms,  which  are 
scattered  throughout  a  wide  district ;  in  addition  to  these  they 
have  recently  erected  a  handsome  power-loom  work,  driven  by 
steam-engine  of  25  horse-power,  which  already  contains  above 
100  looms,  being  about  half  the  quantity  it  is  intended  to 
hold.  The  firm  make  sheetings,  dowlas,  hucks,  diapers,  drills, 
ticks,  &c.,  employ  fully  300  hands,  and  pay  £4000  to  £5000 
annually  in  wages.  The  great  establishment  in  this  parish  is 
Kirkland  Works,  on  the  Leven.  They  were  begun  in  1788  by 
some  gentlemen  belonging  to  London  and  Dundee,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  spinning  cotton  ;  but  very  shortly  afterwards  were  adapted 
for  Flax-spinning,  jwhich  has  ever  since  been  carried  on.  Great 
attention  was  from  the  first  paid  to  the  spinning,  and  even  in 
the  last  century  the  yarn  was  considered  of  good  quality.  Soon 
after  Flax-spinning  was  fairly  established,  the  manufacture  of 
sail-cloth  and  other  fabrics  was  commenced  ;  and  a  large  quan- 
tity of  the  yarn  spun  is  still  manufactured  on  the  premises. 


HOB    1.1  N: 

Ju  17'.' 4  a'. ..ut  300  people  were  employed  at  the  works,  and  the 
Company  then  imported  Flax  direct  in.ni  Russia.  On  Thursday, 

•J.")th  January.  IslU,  Kirkland  Works,  which  shortly  befim  had 
him  improved  and  enlarge  1.  was.  for  the  tir>t  linn-,  lighted  with 
gas.  The  apparatus  for  li^htini;  the  Works  was  constructed  by 
llolton  and  Wait  ;  and  tliis  was  th>-  lir>t  intn»duction  of  gas 
into  any  spinning-mill  in  Scotland.  In  1838,  392  hands  were 
employed  in  Flaxdre>sin^  and  spinning,  48  in  bleaching,  an  1 
LM1  at  hand-loo;n  weaving,  l»eini<  T.Sl  in  all.  About  280,000 
spindles  of  yarn  were  spun,  of  which  t  wo-thirdswasweavedintocan- 
vas,  sheeting,  sacking,£c.,  and  the  remainder  sold;  and  the  wages 
pa  id  yearly  was  then  about  £17,000.  The  works  no wbelonu  t«»  11. 
&  T.  Peter,  are  driven  halt  by  water  and  half  by  steam,  the 
aggregate  power  being  150  horses.  They  employ  about  500  hands, 
who  receive  about  .1' 10,000  a  year  in  wages,  and  the  quantity  of 
material,  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute  annually  consumed  is  about 
1500  tons.  For  many  years  after  its  erection,  Kirkland  was 
one  of  the  leading  establishments  in  the  country,  both  in  extent 
and  importance,  and  the  work  has  continued  to  keep  pace  with 
the  improvements  of  the  age.  The  raw  material  is  heckled 
spun,  bleached,  weaved,  now  partly  by  power-looms,  and  the 
Linen,  packed  in  bales,  sent  off  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  The 
establishment  has  been  long  celebrated  as  a  model  work,  com- 
plete in  all  its  parts. 

WICK. —  Flax  throve  well  in  the  parish  near  the  end  of  last 
century,  and  most  fanners  grew  as  much  as  served  their  «>wn 
use,  but  it  had  never  been  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to  pro- 
cure premiums  from  the  Trustees.  Watering  it  was  found  to 
be  a  very  precarious  and  troublesome  process,  re^uirin^  constant 
and  regular  attention,  and  taking  up  much  valuable  ti in  .  The 
experiment  of  boiling  the  Flax  instead  of  wuirrin^  it  had  been 
tried  in  the  parish,  and  seemed  to  answer.  The  Linen  manu- 
facture in  Wick  has  long  ceased,  and  catching  and  curing 
herring  are  now  the  chief  occupations  of  the  inhabitants. 


538  MODERN  LINEN. 


DISTRICT    TRADE. 


ABERDEEN. 

The  principal  manufacture,  prior  to  1745,  was  knitted  stock- 
ings, which  were  mostly  exported  to  Holland,  and  thence 
dispersed  throughout  Germany.  After  that  period  the  Linen 
manufacture  was  introduced,  and  brought  to  considerable  per- 
fection. The  spinning  of  Linen  yarn  for  manufactures  arose 
from  a  small  beginning.  Some  patriotic  gentlemen,  a  few  years 
after  the  battle  of  Culloden,  being  desirous  to  spread  this  useful 
art  more  extensively  in  the  northern  districts,  applied  to  the 
Board  of  Trustees  in  Edinburgh,  who  sent  a  woman  qualified  to 
instruct  others  in  the  art  of  spinning,  and  she  took  with  her  all 
the  implements  necessary  for  her  purpose.  She  was  very  suc- 
cessful in  her  exertions,  and  from  that  period  the  production  of 
Linen  yarn  went  on  increasing.  In  1795  about  100,000  spindles 
were  made,  mostly  by  the  wives  and  daughters  of  mechanics  and 
labourers,  for  the  spinning  of  which  they  were  paid  £5000 
sterling.  About  the  same  period,  much  Linen  yarn  was  taken 
to  Aberdeen  from  the  country  around,  and  sold  there.  Yery 
little  Linen  cloth  was,  for  a  considerable  time,  made  in  Aberdeen, 
the  bulk  of  the  yarn  spun,  especially  the  coarser  sorts,  being 
exported  to  Perth,  Dunfermline,  Glasgow,  and  other  towns  in 
the  south.  At  this  period  the  Irish,  it  was  said,  "  engrossed  the 
greater  part  of  the  Linen  trade  both  in  the  English  and  in 
foreign  markets  not  on  account  of  the  superiority  of  their  goods, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  encouragement  given  by  their  Parlia- 
ment to  the  Linen  manufacture,  which  enabled  them  to  under- 
sell the  Aberdeen  manufacturers,  even  in  Scotland/' 

About  1790,  a  Company  was  formed  in  Aberdeen  for  the 
manufacture  of  brown  sheetings  and  Osnaburgs,  and  in  1795 
the  firm  began  to  make  sail-cloth  also.  For  some  time  the 
sail-cloth  was  almost  all  used  by  the  sailmakers  of  Aberdeen, 
who  approved  of  the  quality,  and  thought  it  equal  to  any  made 
in  the  south.  The  sheetings  and  other  goods  were  shipped 


scorn  i  i.  is  EX.  539 

to  London,  \\hcmv  tl icy  wore  chiefly  sent  to  tin-  \V<-4  Indies 
anil  America,  liy  linn-milting  attention  to  the  manufac- 
turing, these  goods  were  equal  to  tlx»r  made  in  other  parts  of 
Scotland,  and  the  works  were  long  prosperous.  The  Flax  then 
used  in  the  Linen  manufactured  for  home  use  was  chiefly  im- 
ported from  Holland  and  from  England;  hut  for  Osnaburgs, 
brown  sheetings,  and  other  goods,  Baltic  Flax  was  chiefly  used. 

The  manufacture  of  Linen  thread,  particularly  white  and 
colmnvd.  was  early  begun  in  Aberdeen,  and  carried  to 
perfection  that  for  a  long  period  it  was  almost  unrivalled.  At 
one  time,  towards  the  end  of  last  century,  Aberdeen  made  more 
thread  than  any  other  town  in  Scotland.  It  was  all  for  the 
iish  market,  the  greater  part  of  it  going  direct  to  Lon- 
don, whence  it  was  shipped  abroad.  A  considerable1  ijuantity  of 
finer  thread,  called  ounce  or  nuns  thread,  from  its  having 
formerly  been  made  by  nuns  in  France  and  Flanders,  was  at 
same  period  made  in  Aberdeen.  About  1795  this  thread  manu- 
facture employed  nearly  100  boys,  who  earned  from  Is  8d 
to  2s  6d  a  week,  600  men  earning  from  5s  to  12s,  and  fully 
2000  women,  who  had  constant  employment  in  spinning  yarn, 
doubling  and  twisting  the  thread,  £c.,  and  earned,  when  employed 
in  the  manufactories,  from  5s  to  6s  a  week  ;  but  when  employed 
at  home,  rather  less,  as  their  time  was  partially  occupied  with 
household  duties.  In  addition  to  those  mentioned,  who  dwelt 
in  the  city  and  suburbs,  fully  10,000  women  were  occasionally 
employed  in  the  country  around,  spinning  the  Linen  yarn  for 
the  thread. 

In  Sir  John  Sinclair's  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland,  from 
wliich  part  of  the  above  is  taken,  the  following  paragraph 
occurs — "  At  a  period  when  the  aids  wanted  by  Government  are 
so  considerable,  the  Legislature  ought  to  do  everything  to 
encourage  and  strengthen  the  manufactures  of  the  country.  In 
1782,  Parliament  granted  a  drawback  of  the  duty  on  soap  used  in 
bl. -aching  and  cleaning  Linen  and  other  goods.  But  a  farther 
drawback  U  yet  necessary  with  respect  to  ashes  used  in  bleaching, 
which  drawback,  although  very  trifling  to  Government,  would 
be  of  consequence  to  manufacturers  in  many  respects.  The 
member  of  Parliament  who  will  give  himself  the  trouble  to 
examine  into  the  utility  of  this  drawback,  and  step  forward  to 


540  MODERN  LINEN. 

procure  it,  will  deserve  better  of  his  country  than  the  man  who, 
by  a  continual  opposition  to  Government,  endeavours  to  raise  a 
name  to  himself  by  pretending  to  be  the  people's  friend.  The 
people's  best  friend  is  the  man  who  contrives  to  secure  their 
property,  and  increase  their  trade  by  unfettering  their  manu- 
factures." 

In  an  account  of  the  exports  from  Aberdeen  in  1712,  it  is  stated 
that  7  trusses  worsted  stockings  were  sent  to  Norway,  104  trusses 
woollen  cloth  and  worsted  stockings  to  Holland,  12  trusses 
worsted  stockings  to  Portugal,  31  parcels  worsted  stockings  to 
Spain,  and  2  boxes  stockings  to  Germany  ;  but  no  Linens  were 
then  exported,  at  least  none  are  enumerated.  The  quantity  of 
tow  exported  from  Aberdeen  to  foreign  countries  in  1790  was 
955  cwt. ;  in  1791,  1,127  cwt. ;  anl  in  1794,  2,593J  cwt. 

Flax-spinning  by  machinery  was  begun  before  the  end  of  last 
century  on  the  Don,  not  far  from.  Old  Aberdeen,  and  until  a  recent 
date,  some  very  large  establishments  were  carried  on  there  and 
in  Aberdeen.  For  a  long  period  these  works  were  in  a  highly 
flourishing  condition,  and  the  partners  ranked  among  the  elite 
of  the  city.  Death  and  other  casualties  changed  the  seeming 
prosperity  into  positive  adversity,  and  for  years  the  music  of  the 
spindle  in  some  of  these  mills  has  ceased,  and  the  merry  laugh 
of  the  factory  girl  is  heard  no  more.  The  cessation  of  these 
works  was  a  sad  blow  to  Aberdeen,  from  which  it  has  hardly 
yet  recovered.  In  1851  there  were  three  large  establishments 
in  Aberdeen,  and  neighbourhood,  viz. : — - 

Milne,  Craden,  &  Co.,  Spring  Gardens,  and  Gordon's 

Mills  on  the  Don,. 80  horse-power. 

Lees,  Masson,  &€o.,  Gramlholm,        ....  150          do. 

Richards  &  Co.,  Broadfor.1, 230          do. 

Total, ,    460  horse-power. 

There  is  now  only  one  work  engaged  in  the  Linen  trade  in 
Aberdeen,  but  it  is  of  gigantic  proportions.  It  is  driven  by 
steam  engines  working  up  to  785  horses,  contains  16,814 
spindles  for  Flax  and  tow  spinning  and  428  power-looms, 
and  it  employs  2,175  hands.  In  connection  with  the  mill 
is  a  bleachfield,  also  a  calender  and  other  adjuncts.  Indeed, 
the  Flax  is  imported,  spun,  weaved,  bleached,  calendered 
and  packed  within  the  establishment  by  Kichards  &  Co.,  the 


SCOT. -II    I  Draft  .'11 

proprietors.       The  sime  !irm  have  ext  in  Men!: 

and  neighbourhood,  all  of  which  formerly  belonged  to  Maberly 

A  (  '.»..  but  were  acquired  by  the  pieM-nt  linn  aft«-r  the  bankruptcy 

nf  their   predecessors   ;ilni||t     ISl'.H. 

The  cMUsi-s  which  have  produced  such  sad  changes  in  Alien; 
an-  not  tliilicult   to  discover.      By  int.  :dy  per- 

severance great  works  were  reared  up,  hut  tlieir  huilders  forgot 
to  raise  up  sons  or  other  successors  in  imlustri"iis  habiN  to 
conduct  tin -in  when  they  were  no  more.  Tin*  new  generation, 
without  tlie  ae:i\e.  careful  h:il»its  of  their  :  -sors,  be( 

men  ot'tlie  w«. rid.  and  forgot  their  mills,  thereby  spending  money 
,id  of  making  it.  Their  1  nisi  ness  neglected,  became  unprofit- 
able; their  fortunes  were  soon  dissipated  ;  and,  as  a  natural  conse- 
quence, misfortunes  came  and  overwhelmed  them.  Tin; 
was  in  Ahenleen.  and  thus  it  will  be  everywhere,  unless  the 
families  of  tin-  ii  I  he  trained  in  habits  of  industry. 

ARBROATII. 

r.efore  173(5  Arhroath  had  little  or  no  commerce,  and  no 
manufactures.  Any  pieces  of  cloth  then  made  were  carried 
to  Montrose  for  sale,  and  Flax  was  purchased  from  the  mer- 
chants of  Montrose  and  Dundee.  In  1738  or  17^'A  a  \\va\er 
in  or  near  Arhroath  having  got  a  small  quantity  of  Flax, 
unlit  for  the  kind  of  cloth  then  usually  brought  to  market, 
made  it  into  a  web,  and  oil'ered  it  to  his  merchant  as  a 
piece  on  which  he  would  be  willing  to  lose  something.  The 
gentleman,  who  had  been  in  Germany,  immediately  remarked 
the  similarity  between  the  piece  of  cloth  and  the  fabric  of  Osna- 
burgs, and  urged  the  weaver  to  undertake  the  manufacture  of 
other  pieces  of  the  same  kind,  which  lie  reluctantly  agreed  to  do. 
The  experiment  Micceeded  to  a  wish,  and  many  hands  were  soon 
employed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Arbroath.  In  this  accidental 
manner  was  the  manufacture  of  Osnaburgs  first  introduced  into 
Scotland,  and  for  many  years  they  gave  employment  to  a  vast 
number  of  people  in  this  and  the  neighbouring  counties,  and  they 
are  still  made  to  a  very  large  extent.  Soon  after  this  a  company 
was  formed  by  several  gentlemen  of  property,  who  jointly  under- 
took to  establish  a  manufactory  of  Osnaburgs  and  other  brown 
Linens,  and  to  import  their  own  Flax.  They  laid  out  consider- 


542  MODERN  LINEN. 

able  sums  of  money  on  different  kinds  of  machinery,  which 
were  executed  on  a  very  complete  and  extensive  scale.  Success 
attended  their  spirited  exertions,  and,  partly  through  their 
instrumentality,  Arbroath  fabrics  attained  great  superiority,  and 
for  very  many  years  commanded  a  sale  in  preference  to  any 
others  of  a  similar  kind  made  elsewhere.  The  gentleman  alluded 
to,  and  who  took  the  management  of  the  company,  was  John 
Wallace,  merchant,  and  sometime  provost  of  the  town  ;  and  for 
many  years  afterwards  all  the  Osnaburgs  manufactured  in  the 
neighbourhood  centred  in  his  shop.  Before  the  end  of  the  century 
the  manufacture  of  this  cloth  had  been  extended  to  almost  every 
town,  village,  and  parish  in  the  county,  and  far  beyond  it,  and 
a  very  large  amount  of  money  was  brought  into  the  county  by 
that  branch  of  business. 

In  an  account  of  Arbroath,  written  by  the  Town  Clerk  in  1742, 
he  says,  "  The  weavers  are  as  numerous  as  all  the  other  trades  put 
together,  and  the  greatest  manufacture  is  coarse  Linen,  which  18 
commonly  sold  green,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  sent  to  Lon- 
don. Of  late  the  most  considerable  merchants  have  set  up  a  manu- 
facture of  white  and  check  Linens,  which  they  are  in  good  hopes 
to  bring  to  perfection."  Pennant  in  his  Tour  in  1776  says,  "  Os- 
naburgs were  made  in  Arbroath  before  any  encouragement  was 
given  by  Government,  or  the  Linen  Company  erected  at  Edin- 
burgh. The  merchant  who  first  introduced  the  manufacture  is 
still  alive,  and  has  the  happiness  of  seeing  it  overspread  the 
country." 

From  these  early  attempts  are  to  be  dated  the  rise  and  pro- 
gress of  the  trade  and  manufactures  of  Arbroath,  which,  with 
occasional  seasons  of  prosperity  and  adversity,  have,  on  the  whole, 
made  wonderful  advances  up  to  the  present  time.  Sail-cloth,  Osna- 
burgs, and  other  brown  Linens  were  long  the  chief  articles  of 
manufacture.  In  the  year  from  November  1791  to  November 
1792,  as  appears  from  the  books  of  the  stamp-master,  there  were 
stamped  of  the  latter  two  articles  1,055,303  yards,  of  the  value 
of  £39,660  6s  lOJd.  At  that  period  nearly  500  looms  were  em- 
ployed upon  sail-cloth,  the  quantity  produced  being  about  of  an 
equal  value  to  the  other  Linens.  The  greater  part  of  the  Linen 
and  sail-cloth  manufactured  was  then  shipped  to  London,  the 
remainder  being  sent  to  Dundee  and  Glasgow.  The  principal 


SCOT.  II   I.  IN  EN.  S  I- 

articles  nf  importation  were  Flax  an<l  Hemp  IVmn  Russia, 
Ac. 

About  that  period  ••thf  maUDftetoeofi  particular  kind  of  cloth 
f..r  cnachmakers  and  upli«iUt«-ivrs  was  begun  in  Arbroath.  The 
parties  wli.»  established  tin-  man ufae! are  opened  a  simp  in  Lon- 
don for  the  sale  of  it.  and  in  1793  they  had  18  looms  worl 
in  Arbmath.  One  of  the  kinds  was  remarkable  for  its  thinness, 
and  more  deserved  the  name  of  gauze  than  Linen.  A  weaver 
was  able  lo  weave  about  40  yards  of  it  a  day,  and  the  selling 
price  was  4d  per  yard."  The  introduction  of  the  manufacture  of 
scrims  into  Arhroath  seems  to  have  created  some  surprise,  hut 
it  was  not  Ion  '  the  people  became  familiarized  with  the 

fahric.  when  it  ceased  to  be  an  object  of  wonder.  Owing  to  the 
flourishing  state  of  the  manufactures  of  the  town,  the  increase  of 
the  |>opulation  had  been  rapid  for  the  ten  or  twelve  years  prior 
to  IT'.':'',  and  it  kept  pace  with  the  extension  of  trade  That  year 
the  Harbour  dues,  exclusive  of  the  Guildry  dues,  brought  at 
public  sale  £392  ;  whereas  forty  years  before  they  did  not  bring 
more  than  £70,  Guildry  dues  included. 

In  1793  three  elders  went  round  the  parish  of  St  Vig- 
part  of  the  town  of  Arbroath  being  in  this  parish,  and  took 
up  the  statistics  of  the  population.  Out  of  a  population 
of  1,3G9  there  were  then  engaged  in  the  Linen  trade,  12 
Flax-dressers,  2  dyers,  and  2'2^  w«  avers.  There  was  in  the 
parish  a  washing  mill;  a  mill  for  beating  dry  yarn,  with  eight 
stamps  ;  and  a  bleachfield  where  about  1000  spindles  of  yarn  ami 
5,500  yards  of  Linen  were  bleached  annually. 

In  1740  a  thread  manufactory  was  established  in  Arbn  >ath.  and 
carried  on  for  many  years  successfully,  and  thousands  of  people 
gained  a  livelihood  by  it.  Owing  to  the  high  price  of  Flax,  the 
great  rise  in  the  cost  of  spinning,  the  high  wages  allowed  to 
weavers  and  others  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  Osnaburgs 
and  other  Linens,  and  the  want  of  a  proportionate  rise  in  the 
price  of  thread  in  the  London  market,  where  the  bulk  of  it  was 
sold,  the  manufacture,  after  an  existence  of  nearly  fifty  years, 
began  to  decline.  In  IT.'-,  from  the  causes  enumerated,  the 
thread  trade  in  Arbroath  was  facetiously  said  to  be  "thread  bare." 

In  1 793.  a  small  mill  for  spinning  Flax  was  erected  on  the  Bro- 
thock  at  Letham.  It  was  at  first  driven  by  water-power,  but  a 


544  MODERN  LINEN. 

small  steam  engine  was  ultimately  added  to  increase  the  power. 
It  was  an  experimental  attempt,  and  underwent  constant  altera- 
tions, but  never  prospered.  Many  years  ago  the  work  was  aban- 
doned, and  the  buildings  allowed  to  go  to  ruins.  In  1807  or 
1808  some  machinery  for  Flax-spinning  was  put  into  Inch  mill, 
which  was  driven  by  a  steam-engine  of  16  horse-power,  but 
the  major  part  of  the  building  was  then  used  as  a  flour  mill.  About 
1815  the  whole  building  was  converted  into  a  Flax  and  tow  mill, 
add  in  1842  the  work  had  been  greatly  extended,  and  included 
bleaching,  &c.  The  building  is  still  occupied  as  a  spinning  mill, 
but  owing  to  the  vicissitudes  of  trade  it  has  had  its  seasons  of 
rest,  and  after  having  stood  for  some  time  it  was  in  1863,  with 
all  the  machinery,  sold  by  auction  for  £5,300.  It  has  since 
again  changed  hands,  and  now  its  machinery  is  once  more  in 
active  operation. 

The  trade  of  Arbroath  continued  to  increase  rapidly.  From 
1820  to  1825  was  a  season  of  great  prosperity  in  the  Linen 
manufacture.  The  effect  of  this  halcyon  era  was  the  erec- 
tion of  many  spinning  and  other  works  of  an  extent  greatly 
beyond  the  means  of  the  proprietors,  and  very  much  beyond  the 
legitimate  requirements  of  the  trade.  There  was  then  a  ple- 
thora of  banks  in  the  town,  and  in  their  competition  for  business 
unwarrantable  facilities  were  afforded  to  men  without  capital,  and 
many  of  them  without  experience  or  judgment.  The  natural 
consequences  followed,  when,  in  the  beginning  of  1826  (a  year 
memorable  in  the  annals  of  trade  for  the  dire  calamity  which 
then  burst  upon  the  commercial  world),  the  manufactures  of  the 
place  were  all  but  unsaleable,  money  became  scarce,  credit 
failed,  and  almost  the  whole  manufacturing  community,  adven- 
turer and  honourable  merchant  alike,  were  engulphed  in  one 
common  ruin.  This  melancholy  season  was  long  remembered 
with  feelings  of  sorrow,  and  it  is  not  yet  entirely  forgotton  by 
many  in  the  trade. 

At  that  period  almost  every  mill  and  factory  were  silent,  univer- 
sal distress  prevailed  throughout  the  town,  and  it  was  some  time 
before  Arbroath  became  its  former  self  again.  A  day  of  pros- 
perity did,  however,  dawn,  and  trade  once  more  resumed  its 
wonted  course.  By  July,  1827,  the  weavers  which  had  been 
thrown  out  of  employment  by  the  stagnation  of  1825  and 


SCc 

6  were  again  at   full  wbfk,  and  wages  had  risen  grcailv. 

The  price  paid  for  \v.;i\ -ing  dowlas  was  then  12s,  and  in  sum,-  in- 
stances i:>s  PIT  pice.-,  Init  not  many  months  before  it  had  been  as 
ln\v  as  (Js  per  piece.      The  experience  of  1826  had  the 
elfret  uf  ke.-pinu;  production  within  the  deniand.  and  when  I 
years  afterwards  misfortunes  overtook  Dundee  and  other  places 
the  in.  rchants  and  manufacturers  of  Arhroath  were  enabled  to 
withstand  the  shock,  and  bear  up  agaiiiHt  a  season  of  bad  n 

In  1831,  the  quantity  of  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Codilla  import  id 
into  Arhroath  was  2,09G  tons.  In  1832  there  were  in  tin* 
pari>h  of  Arhroath  4  spinning  mills,  employ;  hands: 

and  within  same  bounds  1,173  weavers,  316  of  whom  were  upon 
sail-cloth.  The  wages  then  paid  was,  for  boys  and  girls  in  mills, 
3s  3d  to  3s  6d  per  week,  women,  4s  6d  to  5s  3d,  men,  10s  6d 
to  15s.  Weavers  earned  on  the  average  about  6s  a  week,  and 
winders,  of  whom  there  were  then  372,  about  3s.  There  i 
at  that  time  *J.">  warpers  at  12s,  31  starchers  at  10s  Gd,  and  25 
lappers  and  overseers  at  15s  a  week. 

Even  after  the  severe  lesson  of  1825,  Arbroath  has  not  been 
exempt  from  periods  of  depression,  caused  by  overtrading. 
After  one  of  these  periodical  convulsions  the  following  para- 
graph, taken  from  the  Dundee  Advertiser,  of  14th  June 
1833,  is  significant— "  It  gives  us  pleasure  to  notice,  that  Mr 
Goodall,  agent  for  the  British  Linen  Company's  Bank  in  this 
place,  has  received  instructions  from  the  Directors  in  Edin- 
burgh to  renew  the  discounting  of  bills,  &c.,  which  for  some 
time  past,  in  consequence  of  the  gloomy  appearance  of  bu^i- 
ness  with  our  merchants,  had  been  suspended."  At  that 
period,  according  to  statistics  got  up  in  connection  with  the 
thi'ii  proposed  Dundee  and  Arbroath  Railway,  there  were  about 
360  spinning  frames  in  Arbroath  and  neighbourhood,  aver- 
aging 37  spindles  each,  which  were  calculated  to  produce  19 
spindles  yarn  each,  or  6,840  spindles  per  day.  Of  this  yarn 
one-half  was  Flax,  averaging  3J  lb.,  and  the  other  half  tow. 
averaging  6  lb.  per  spindle,  consuming  nearly  27.~>  cwt.  a  day, 
or  in  310  working  days,  about  4,260  tons  a  year. 

In  1832,  there  were  12  spinning-mills  in  the  parish  of  St 
Vigeans,   and  by  184 -J    they  had  increased   to  15,  driven  by 
20  steam-engines  of  2f>i>  horse-power,  giving  employment  to  \ 
.  M  m 


546  MODERN  LINEN. 

men  and  boys  in  heckling,  &c.,  and,  inside  the  mill,  250  males 
and  715  females,  being  a  total  of  1 ,240,  besides  those  indirectly 
engaged  in  the  trade.  The  quantity  of  Flax  spun  in  these  mills 
was  close  upon  5,500  tons,  of  the  value  of  about  £200,000, 
which  after  being  spun,  was  estimated  at  £264,000.  At  that 
period  about  1,500  tons  may  have  been  spun  in  the  parish  of 
Arbroath,  making,  for  the  whole  town,  7000  tons  per  annum. 
The  wages  then  paid  in  the  preparing  departments  was  from  3s 
to  6s,  and  spinners  and  reelers  earned  from  5s  to  6s  6d  a  week. 
The  price  paid  for  weaving  a  piece  of  Linen,  which  in  1825  had 
been  17s  6d,  was  in  1842  reduced  to  9s  6d.  Sheetings,  &c.,  were 
mostly  weaved  in  the  houses  of  the  operatives,  but  sail-cloth  was 
woven  in  large  weaving  shops.  There  were  then  employed  in 
Arbroath  732  Linen  weavers,  of  whom  a  third  were  women,  and 
450  canvas  weavers,  of  whom  about  a  fifth  were  women,  besides 
starchers,  warpers  and  foremen,  and  also  a  large  number  of  women 
engaged  in  winding  the  warp  and  weft  yarns.  At  that  period 
there  were  two  bleachfields  in  the  town,  but  for  some  time  past 
only  one  of  them,  belonging  to  Webster  &  Co.,  has  been  in 
operation.  There  are,  however,  three  extensive  and  well  con- 
ducted fields  in  the  neighbourhood,  viz.,  Kellyfield,  Charles 
Dowall ;  Panbridefield,  John  F.  Dickson ;  and  Waulk  Mill,  on 
the  Brothock,  which  are  mostly  employed  by  the  manufacturers 
of  Arbroath. 

The  average  yearly  quantity  of  Linen  stamped  in  Arbroath 
during  the  years  1805,  1806,  and  1807,  were  1,287,233  yards— 
the  average  fees  paid  the  stamp-master  being  £134  Is  9d.  In 
the  years  1816,  1817,  and  1818,  the  average  yearly  quantity 
stamped  had  increased  to  2,055,208  yards,  and  the  stamp-master's 
fees  to  £214  Is  8d.  This  does  not  show  the  extent  of  the  trade 
of  Arbroath  in  these  periods,  because  sail-cloth,  which  was  then 
made  to  a  moderate  extent,  was  not  stamped  at  all. 

The  following  prices-current  show  the  leading  fabrics  manu- 
factured in  Arbroath  in  the  years  specified,  and  the  current 
quotations  of  the  day  for  same.  It  was  not  until  some  years 
after  sail-cloth  began  to  be  entered  in  the  prices-current  that  it 
was  made  extensively,  but  the  manufacture,  when  once  fairly 
established,  made  good  progress,  and  of  late  years  it  has  been 
the  great  staple  of  the  town.  The  sterling  merits  of  Arbroath 


1. 1  NOT. 

canvas  is  now  widely  known,  and  tin  cl«.th  is  much  appreciated 
l»y  tlu-  sailmakers  ami  shipowners  who  like  to  supply  their  ships 
with  superior  sails.  The  manufacturers  of  this  important  article 
know  well  the  advantage  to  be  derived  from  keeping  up  the 
character  M  their  goods,  both  in  material  and  workmanship,  and 
no  doubt  they  will  endeavour  to  maintain  their  well-merited  re- 
putation. 

ARBROATH  PRICKS  CURRENT. 


Sl»t  Oct.  1801. 

22d  Oct.  1802. 

1     vx—  St  Petersburg  12-head  and  Riga 
Thu'Honhauscii,  .     .     .     Tons. 

£70 

£72 

8.    D.      8.    D. 

9.    D.       8.      P. 

Y.vux—  51b.  Flax,  Mill  spun,  .        Spa. 

1       5    2 

50       51 

5  ,,      ,,    Hand-spun,      .     .     . 

5455 

5052 

,,                       ,,                      .... 

3  10      3  11 

38      t   JB 

7  „    Tow,       „           .... 

4000 

4043 

LINEN. 

o.-t. 
1801. 

October, 

isu-J. 

December, 
1806. 

December, 
1806. 

Jane 

1608. 

Oct. 

1810. 

October, 
1819. 

4/4  Tow  Yds. 
9/8   do    

10 
11 

10}  £     11 
11}§     12 
10$       10T4j 

12A     12f 
13|       13f£ 
12T*j       0 

13^"  13J 
14*        0 

21 

17 

14 
15 
IB 

81      9 
9}      0 
8        8J 

3/4  Flax   

4/4    do. 

ra 

10*      0 

9/8    do.  30  por. 
9/8    do.  32  „  ... 
<  ,.  i  IIKUI  Dowlas 

13 
15 

12H     13 
14^     14f 

16A      0 
13  *      ISP 

16J        0 
19          0 
14|       15 

17 
1'J 
14 

11         0 
12         0 

9*       !'* 

Klax  Osnaburg 

si 

8  «        8* 

Jan,  1830. 

NOT.  1881. 

July,  1839. 

Tow  Dowlas  25J  in        Yds. 

4*       0 

5}      0 

a 

Flax     do. 

6T*a     0 

5}      0 

5        0 

Tow      do.        27 

'i     0 

$rV    0 

4}      0 

Flax     do.        ,, 

6        0 

SA  o 

5A    0 

Tow  Sheetg.    36 

6}      0 

6i      0 

6        0 

1  lax     do.        38 

?}      0 

81       0 

71      0 

Bro\\n  Canvas,  No    1 
hod  do.         ,,     1 

8        8J 
10&  11 

8f      91 
1U  12j 

8J      0 

11     1U 

Dandy      do.         ,,1 

14   o 

12^ 

U       0 

Twisted  or  best  boilod 

Canvas,  ,, 

13      0 

14      0 

13J     0 

In  1851  there  were  i •i-litoen  firms  engaged  in  the  staple  trade 
in  Arbroath,  with  an  aggregate  of  530  horse-power,  and  ranging 
M  m2 


548  MODERN  LINEN. 

from  90  down  to  8  horse-power  employed  by  the  various  parties. 
Now  there  are  seventeen  firms  engaged  in  Flax-spinning  or 
power-loom  weaving,  employing  in  the  aggregate  39  steam- 
engines  (including  one  water-wheel),  of  792  horse-power.  The 
works  contain  30,342  spindles,  and  836  power-looms,  and  give 
employment  to  4,620  people.  Some  of  the  firms  are  going 
on  with  extensions  on  a  moderate  scale,  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  their  increasing  trade.  The  quantity  of  canvas 
produced  annually  by  these  looms  is  about  420,000  pieces, 
in  addition  to  which  about  15,000  pieces  are  made  by  the 
hand-looms  which  are  still  in  use.  There  are  also  about 
8,000  pieces  of  Linen  of  other  descriptions,  such  as  hessians, 
sheetings,  &c.,  made  in  the  town  yearly.  Most  of  the  mills  have 
establishments  of  their  own  for  Flax-dressing,  but  in  addition  to 
these  there  are  about  80  men  employed  by  master  Flax-dressers. 
Altogether  there  may  be  fully  4,000  people  in  the  town  engaged 
in  the  Linen  manufacture,  and  during  the  last  year  the  trade 
was  in  a  highly  flourishing  condition,  giving  full  employment  to 
all  who  were  willing  to  work,  and  returning  a  fair  remuneration 
for  the  labour  and  capital  of  the  employers.  Some  of  the  firms 
in  Arbroath  have  long  held  an  honourable  position  in  the  trade, 
and  are  deservedly  respected.  As  in  all  prosperous  manufactur- 
ing towns,  younger  parties  are  rising  up.  who,  by  their  industry 
and  energy,  are  steadily  and  surely  commanding  success.  The 
future  of  Arbroath  is  therefore  very  hopeful. 


BLAIRGOWRIE. 

At  an  early  period  in  last  century  Flax  was  grown  in 
the  parish  to  a  moderate  extent,  and  it  was  long  continued 
to  be  cultivated.  -The  whole  of  the  quantity  raised  was  spun 
in  the  parish  during  the  winter  months,  and  the  rents  of  many 
of  the  smaller  farmers  were  mostly  paid  with  the  money  got 
for  the  yarn.  For  a  long  time  the  husbandry  was  of  the  rudest 
kind,  but  about  1780  an  improvement  took  place,  after  which 
more  land  was  cultivated,  and  better  crops  raised.  The  Flax 
was  generally  sown  about  the  end  of  April,  in  a  portion  of  the 
division  for  oats,  and  when  the  season  was  suitable,  a  fair  crop 
was  produced.  Besides  the  home-grown  Flax,  considerable 


SCOTCH  LINEN.  549 

i'liex  .-I1  I',,  reign  Flax  were  spun,  and  the  yarn  was  either 
woven  in  tin-  parish,  or  sent  to  Dun. I. •«•.  Tin-  women,  about 
17:«>.  iM-d  the  two-handed  wheel,  hut  iii  early  times  they  only 
"pan  with  one  hand.  Considerable  quantities  ,,f  leasehold  work 
were  made  in  the  town  an«l  parish,  and  ahoiit  50,000  yard< .  <.f 

rd-wides"  were  annually  weaved.        I'art  nf these  goods  \ 
l.leaehed  at  a  tield  in  the  parish  of  Rattray,  but  the  gr« 
portion  were  sold  in  Ulair-owi-ie  at  about  8£d  a  yard,  and  sent 
in  tli  :    or    unhleaehed    state    to    London.        In  addition  to 

tin-so,  some  of  what  was  called  "  Hessian  Stall'"  were  also  woven 
in  the  district  at  that  time. 

A  stamp-office  was  early  established  in  the  town;  and.! 
being  in  existence  for  some  time,  it  was  diseontimied  : 
nil   years,  but  was  again  opened  in  1785.      The  quantity  of 
eloth  stamped  for  the  tirst  eight  years  after  its  re-establishment 
was  as  follows  : — 

1785 17,197  Yards.  1789 165,364  Yards. 

50,380      „  1790 190,082      „ 

1787 128,559      „  1791 220,371      „ 

1788 130,602      „  1792 252,485      ,, 

This  table  comprises  the  Linen  woven  in  Blairgowrie,  what  was 
brought  from  the  neighbouring  parishes,  and  also  the  quantity 
bleached  at  Rattray,  and  it  shows  a  steady  increase  for  the>e 
years.  In  1790  there  were  100  weavers,  8  Flax-dressers,  and  7 
lint  millers  in  the  parish.  The  wages  of  a  maid-servant  v 
then  £3,  and  the  produce  of  two  lippies  of  linseed,  sown  in  her 
master's  ground,  or  an  equivalent  for  it  if  he  was  not  a  fanner. 

1'.  fore  1798  a  small  building  in  the   1  laughs  of  Ratti 
below  Blairgowrie,  which  had  previously  been  occupied  as  a  lint 
mill,  had  some  machinery  put  into  it  for  spinning  Flax.     This 
was  the  nucleus  of  the  now  large  establishment  called   Uriel  it 
Works.     The  Flax  is  taken  into  these  works  in  the  raw  s! 
and  the  Linens  sent  out  packed  in  bales;  the  whole  processes, 
heckling,  spinning,  bleaching,  weaving,  calendering,  and  paei. 
1>  inu  earned  on  therein.     These  works  have  been  greatly  en- 
larged of  late  years,  and  further  extensions  are  now  in  progress. 
Ericht  Works  belong  to  John  Adamson,  and  have  been  a  pros- 
perous eoiieern  sinee  he  ae.jiihvd  the  property,  now  a  good  many 


550  MODERN  LINEN. 

years  ago.  In  1798  another  Flax-spinning  mill,  on  a  more 
extensive  scale,  was  erected  farther  up  and  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  Ericht,  which,  in  contradistinction  to  its  lesser  and  lower 
predecessor,  was  called  the  "  Meikle  Mill."  It  was,  perhaps, 
large  for  its  day,  but  when  compared  with  some  of  the  extensive 
mills  recently  erected,  it  is  small  indeed.  It  now  also  belongs 
to  Mr  Adamson,  but  for  sometime  past  has  ceased  to  be  occupied 
as  a  spinning  mill,  On  the  Lornty,  a  picturesque  tributary  to 
the  Ericht,  a  spinning  mill  was  erected  by  the  late  David  Grim- 
mond,  in  1814.  It  is  now  in  the  occupation  of  his  son,  David, 
and  has  produced  its  quota  of  yarns  weekly  for  fifty  years  without 
yet  showing  many  signs  of  decay.  Since  the  erection  of 
"  Meikle  Mill,"  the  banks  of  the  beautiful  and  romantic  Ericht 
have  been  studded  with  spinning  mills,  and  the  rush  of  its 
waters  affords  employment  to  a  large  population.  In  1851 
there  were  twelve  mills  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Blairgowrie, 
having  an  aggregate  water-power  of  257  horses.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  eleven  works  in  operation,  with  319  horse-power, 
whereof  water  289,  and  steam  30.  The  works  contain  13,200 
spindles,  and  250  power-looms,  and  employ  about  1,600  hands. 
A  new  mill,  now  in  course  of  erection  at  Keithbank,  will  shortly 
add  to  the  power,  and  bring  the  spindles  up  to  more  than  1,400. 

At  page  71,  it  is  stated  that  the  late  James  Grimond,  of  Oak- 
bank  Mill,  Blairgowrie,  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  Jute  spin- 
ning. Since  that  portion  of  the  work  was  in  print  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  he  was  the  first  spinner  Mr  Watt  got  to  make 
trial  of  the  fibre  ;  that  he  cut  it  into  lengths,  heckled  it,  span 
the  line  into  3  3fe.  yarn  (16  lea),  the  quality  of  which  was  excel- 
lent. The  Jute  first  used  by  him  was  of  remarkable  fine  fibre, 
soft  and  silky,  with  spinning  properties  superior  to  the  bulk  of 
what  is  now  imported.  At  the  present  time  two  or  three  of  the 
mills  spin  Jute  to  the  extent  of  200  to  300  bales  a  week,  the 
others  being  all  upon  Flax  or  Tow. 

Throughout  many  parts  of  the  country  the  Flax-spinning 
mills  driven  by  water-power  have,  from  a  variety  of  causes, 
been  demolished  or  turned  to  other  purposes  ;  but  this  does  not 
apply  to  the  district  of  Blairgowrie.  Here  the  water-power  is 
sufficient  to  drive  moderate-sized  mills  steadily  and  profitably, 
but  it  is  not  so  large  as  to  admit  of  great  extensions,  and  many 


SO>T(  It  LINEN. 

of  the  mills  therefore  remain  as  they  wr  i; illy  erected. 

Hitherto  the  works  have  generally  prospered,  and  at  present 
tin  -y  have  a  vigorous  existence,  and  give  promise  of  a  successful 
i ut  ure.  The  proprietors  are  a  very  respectable  body  of  spinners, 
most  attentive  to  business,  and  well  worthy  of  the  wealth  which 
many  of  them  have  acquired.  The  beauty  of  the  scenery  and 
the  salubrity  of  the  climate  make  Blairgowrie  liked  by  the 
workers,  to  whose  comfort,  physically  and  morally,  great  ;> 
tion  is  paid  by  the  millowners.  They  labour  under  the  disad- 
vantage of  having  to  attend  the  markets  in  Dundee  once  or 
twice  a  week,  for  the  purchase  of  the  raw  material  and  the  sale 
of  its  produce  ;  but  this  is  a  disadvantage  shared  by  the  spinners 
and  manufacturers  residing  in  other  towns,  and  it  is  more  than 
counter-balanced  by  the  cheap  motive  power  supplied  by  the 
Ericht. 

Of  late  hand-loom  weaving  has  not  been  prosecuted  largely 
in  Blairgowrie,  and  it  is  not  likely  to  be  more  actively  carried 
on  hereafter,  as  power-looms  are  everywhere  supplanting  them. 


BRECHIN. 

Flax  has  long  been  cultivated  in  the  parish  of  Brechin, 
but  it  was  not  until  after  the  rebellion  of  1745  that  much  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  subject.  After  the  introduction  of  the 
manufacture  of  Osnaburgs  into  Arbroath,  the  discovery  of  the 
fabric  was  soon  heard  of  and  its  utility  appreciated  through- 
out the  country,  and  the  article  became  a  general  favourite. 
Among  other  places,  Brechin  went  early  into  the  trade,  and  for 
a  long  period  Osnaburgs  were  the  chief  fabric  made  there.  To 
provide  material  for  this  important  manufacture,  the  growth  of 
Flax  in  the  parish  was  encouraged,  but  the  total  quantity  raised 
was  never  very  large. 

From  variuiis  causes  the  quantity  of  Flax  grown  in  the  parish, 
as  in  other  districts  of  the  country,  gradually  dwindled  down, 
until  only  a  few  acres  were  raised  for  domestic  purposes.  Now 
the  plant  is  little  seen  here,  and  young  people  would  scarcely 
know  it,  though  they  saw  its  beautiful  Mowers  waving  in  the 
wind  before  them. 


552  MODERN  LINEN. 

Towards  the  end  of  last  century  the  merchants  of  Brechin 
were  then,  as  now,  much  engaged  in  the  Linen  trade,  and  large 
quantities  of  yarn  and  Linen  were  bought  and  sold  every  mar- 
ket day.  At  that  period  the  greater  number  of  the  women  were 
employed  in  spinning,  and  the  two-handed  wheel  was  commonly 
in  use,  although  a  short  time  previously  Flax  had  been  wholly 
spun  with  one  hand.  The  men  were  engaged  in  weaving,  and 
both  men  and  women  were  well  paid  for  their  labour.  There 
was  then  a  bleachfield  in  the  city,  which  gave  regular  and  healthy 
employment  to  a  number  of  people  of  both  sexes. 

Spinning  by  machinery  was  commenced  in  Brechin  about  the 
end  of  the  last,  or  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  the 
mill  first  built  was  then  considered  a  large  one.  The  building  is 
still  standing,  and  now  forms  part  of  the  premises  of  the  East 
Mill  Company,  being  occupied  by  them  as  warehouses.  The  spin- 
ning firm  issued  a  copper  coinage  of  their  own,  and  East  Mill  baw- 
bees are  still  in  existence,  having  a  view  of  the  mill  on  one  side  of 
the  coin.  The  original  mill  came  into  the  hands  of  the  present 
Company  in  1836,  after  which  they  erected  a  large  new  fire- 
proof mill.  Since  that  period  several  considerable  additions 
have  been  made  to  the  work,  and  in  1858  another  mill  was 
added  to  it.  In  1852  an  extensive  bleachfield  was  started 
by  the  Company,  and  the  following  are  details  of  the  works 
of  this  respectable  firm  at  the  present  time: — The  motive 
power  is  partly  steam  and  partly  water,  the  might  of  the  beauti- 
ful river  South  Esk  being  impressed  to  aid  in  turning  the  machi- 
nery. The  spinning  mill  is  of  eighty  horse -power,  contains 
4,300  spindles,  and  gives  employment  to  400  hands,  who  receive 
in  wages  about  £7,400  annually.  The  consumption  of  Flax  is 
about  1,300  tons  a  year,  the  produce  being  670,000  spindles  of 
from  1 J  to  5  Ib.  Flax  yarn,  and  from  3  to  8  Ib.  tow  yarn.  The 
bleachwork  requires  20  horse-power,  employs  100  hands,  who 
are  paid  £2,600  of  wages  annually,  and  the  quantity  of  yarn 
bleached  is  fully  1,900  tons.  The  establishment  is  complete  in 
all  its  parts,  and  in  a  prosperous  condition  ;  and  considerable 
attention  is  paid  to  the  comfort  of  the  hands  by  James  Ireland, 
who  energetically  manages  the  entire  work. 

There  is  another  bleachfield  in  the  town,  belonging  to  the 
Inch  Bleaching  Company,  who  carry  on  an  extensive  business, 


sco  iv  i  553 

employing  about  l<><>  persons,  aiul  finishing  itbout  1,000  tons 
<.f  y.-.rn  annually. 

The   Linen  stamped  in    Unvhin   in  1805,  1806,  and  1807 
aver  irds  yearly,  for  which  the  stamp-master's 

fees  averaged  £54 9s  11.1.  In  1816,  LSI?,  ami  IM.s  the  .pian- 
ti;y  and  the  fees  averaged  respectively  749,481  yanls,  and 

N    "id. 

A  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  there  were  thirty  persons  in  the 
town  and  parish  engaged  in  heckling  Flax,  200  in  spinning, 
chicily  in  the  large  spinning-mill,  which  had  heeii  erected  some 
time  before,  40  to  50  in  bleaching,  and  perhaps  1,200  to  1,500 
in  weaving.  Another  spinning  mill  was  at  one  time  erected  in 
Brechin,  but  it  was  converted  into  a  paper-mill  in  1852.  In 
1  there  was  not  a  st*  ine  in  the  town.  Now  then- 

are  five  connected  with  the  Linen  trade,  of  the  aggregate  of 

95  horse-power ;  and  very  shortly  the  number  will  be  increased. 
The  manufactures  of  Brechin  have  changed  considerably  since 

the  ontiiry  began.  Before  then  it  was  almost  wholly  Osna- 
Imrgs,  but  other  fabrics  had  been  early  introduced,  and  in  1811 
the  stock  of  a  manufacturer,  which  was  sold  by  auction,  consisted 
of  the  following  goods : — 

96  Tieces  27-inch  plain  Hemp  Bagging.  36  Pieces  Canvas. 

21      „  Twilled        Da  20      „       Hammock  Cloth. 

;«-in.-h    Do.     Flax  Tow  Sheeting.  6     „      Hemp  Cotton  Bagging. 

4      „       27-iiifh  Tow  Ovnaburg.  ]_'      ,,       White  Liuen. 

2     „      39-inch  Flax  and  Tow  Sheeting. 

100  Backs  and  bags,  with  yam  suitabl-  for  such  goods. 
Flax,  Hemp,  tow,  codilla,  &c.,  starching  bertha,  fire-carts,  &<x,  &a 

At  one  period  the  greater  part  of  the  Linen  made  in  Breohin 
was  given  out  to  be  woven  by  agents  acting  for  nianulaet' 

lent  in  other  towns,  but  in  the  latter  part  of  1835,  new 
fabrics  were  introduced,  and  since  then  the  trade  has  been 
el i icily  in  the  hands  of  native  manufacturers.  A  respect 
linn,  Lamb  and  Scott,  at  that  date  erected  a  manufactory  for 
these  new  fabrics — viz.,  canvas  and  hessians,  and  considerable 
employment  was  given  to  females  in  spinning  the  yarn.  A 
correspondent,  writing  to  the  Dundee  Advertiser  on  20th 
November.  lS3f>,  mentions  these  as  gratifying  circumstances, 
but  laments  that  the  expense  of  conveying  sueh  heavy  mate- 
rial to  and  tVnm  Pundee.  th.-  gre.it  central  market,  would 


554  MODERN   LINEN, 

be  against  the  stability  of  the  manufacture  of  such  goods 
in  Brechin.  Time  has  proved  that  the  lamentation  was  not 
without  sufficient  cause.  Although  these  fabrics  have  been 
long  discontinued,  the  firm  who  attempted  their  introduction 
are  still  in  existence,  and  carry  on  perhaps  the  largest  manufac- 
turing business  in  Brechin  at  the  present  day.  They  employ 
fully  600  hand-looms  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood,  and  have 
now  in  course  of  erection  a  power-loom  work  which  will  contain 
fully  300  looms. 

A  small  power-loom  factory,  of  eight  horse-power,  was  erected 
about  ten  years  ago,  and  contains  48  looms.  It  belongs  to  J.  and 
J.  Smart,  who  also  employ  fully  140  hand-loom  weavers.  D.  and 
K.  Duke  employ  about  400  hand-looms  in  Brechin  and  through- 
out the  district,  and  pay  about  £8,000  annually  in  wages.  This 
firm  are  also  erecting  a  power-loom  work,  which  will  contain 
308  looms.  There  are  other  manufacturers  in  Brechin  who 
carry  on  considerable  trade. 

The  principal  fabrics  now  made  in  Brechin  are  bleached 
sheetings,  dowlas,  and  similar  goods,  and  for  these  the  district 
has  acquired  an  extensive  and  justly  merited  celebrity. 


DUNFERMLINE. 

This  ancient  town  has  long  been  distinguished  for  the  manu- 
facture of  diaper  and  table  Linen.  In  the  infancy  of  the  trade 
it  was  the  custom  to  weave  diaper  only  during  the  summer,  and 
checks  in  winter,  but  why  such  a  custom  should  have  been 
established  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  The  practice  was  con- 
tinued until  about  1749,  when  the  manufacture  of  ticks  and 
checks  was  almost  relinquished,  and  for  many  years  diaper  was 
the  only  article  made.  This  trade  long  went  on  satisfactorily, 
showing  a  gradual  yearly  increase,  until  in  1788  the  looms  em- 
ployed numbered  about  900,  and  in  1792  they  had  increased  to 
1,200.  For  some  years  before  the  latter  date  the  value  of  the 
goods  made  annually  was  from  £50,000  to  £60,000,  and  it  was 
then  on  the  increase. 

In  the  chest  of  the  Incorporation  there  is  preserved  a  very 
curious  specimen  of  the  weaving  art.  It  is  a  man's  shirt,  wrought 
in  the  loom  near  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  by  a  weaver 


SCOTCH  LINEN. 

named  inglis.     Tin-  shirt  is  without  seam,  and  was  finished  by 
the  ingrniuns  urti-t  wit hoiit  assistance  from  the  n<vdl«-,  th«-  only 
-ary  part  which  ho  could  not  accomplish  being  a  button  for 
the  neck. 

In  17'.*-  !i  mill  tor  spinning  yarn  from  Flax,  Hemp,  and 
Tow,  was  erected  at  Brucefield,  near  Dnnlennline,  and  the  Flax- 
yarn  spun  in  it,  even  in  the  first  year  of  its  existence,  gave 
sati-taetion.  In  the  Stati-ti  ;nt  uf  Scotland  this  mill 

is  said  to  have  got  the  second  patent  for  spinning  yarn 
by  niacliinory,  but  it  was  not  the  second  erected  in  Scotland, 
several  others  having  had  precedence  of  it.  The  mill  span  for 
many  years,  but  it  has  long  been  numbered  among  the  things 
that  1 

Within  the  previous  half  century  astonishing  progress  had 
been  made  in  the  art  of  weaving  table  Linen.  In  the  early 
stages  of  the  trade  sometimes  three  persons  were  requisite  in 
weaving  a  web  of  diaper,  but  after  the  introduction  of  the  fly 
shuttle,  and  what  was  called  a  frame  for  raising  the  figure,  a 
single  weaver  could  work  a  web  2J  yards  wide  without  the  least 
assistance. 

Much  taste  and  skill  is  necessary  in  designing  the  patterns  of 
diapers,  but  by  thought  and  practice  some  of  the  tradesmen 
acquired  considerable  genius  in  this  art,  and  a  century  ago  ob- 
tained premiums  from  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  their  draughts. 
Table-cloths  could  then  be  furnished  of  almost  any  breadth, 
length,  and  quality,  and  coats  of  arms,  mottos,  or  other  devices 
were  wrought  in  them  it  wanted ;  but  compared  with  the  present 
state  ot  the  manufacture  the  cloth  was  coarse,  and  the  des: 
at  best  rude  and  without  taste,  and  much  inferior  to  foreign  speci- 
mens. They  consisted  chiefly  of  the  British  flag,  the  national 
Scottish  arms,  gentlemen's  coats  of  arms,  and  sometimes  flo\\ 
birds,  &c.,  all  very  unnatural  and  extravagant.  Afterwards 
more  ingenuity  and  taste  in  de>ign  and  execution  were  displayed, 
and  latterly  rich  and  varied  patterns  were  produ<  vd.  «-<p!al  it  n«»t 
superior  to  (ierman  goods,  which  had  long  been  the  favourite-  in 
Britain.  The  damask  loom,  with  its  Jacquard  machine,  is  now 
capable  of  producing  any  figure,  however  complicated,  and  there 
are  several  individuals  in  the  town  wholly  devoted  to  design  paint- 
ing, the  arti>tic  merit*  of  whose  pattern-  rving  of  hi-h 
praise. 


556 


MODERN   LINEN. 


For  a  long  period  Dunfermline  has  been  the  chief  seat  of  the 
table  Linen  manufacture  of  Scotland,  but  until  the  introduction 
of  the  Jacquard  machine  in  1824,  the  progress  made  was  com- 
paratively slow.  This  admirable  machine,  by  greatly  simplify- 
ing the  weaving  of  even  the  most  complex  design,  has  given  an 
immense  impetus  to  the  trade  of  the  town.  Through  its  use  the 
appearance  and  quality  of  the  goods  have  been  much  improved, 
and  the  saving  of  time  in  weaving  has  cheapened  the  cost  of  the 
fabric  produced,  the  while  adding  to  the  comfort  of  the  weaver. 
A  prettier  design  and  a  better  quality  of  table  Linen  at  a  re- 
duced cost  has  greatly  extended  consumption,  to  the  vast  benefit 
of  Dunfermline. 

The  following  figures  show  the  number  of  looms  employed, 
and  the  value  of  the  produce  in  the  years  specified  : — 


Date 

Looms  in 
the  Parish. 

Looms  out 
of  the 
Parish. 

Total 
Looms. 

Value  of  Goods 
Manufactured. 

Capital  Em- 
ployed in  the 
Trade. 

1749       .     About 

400 

400 

1788     .      . 





900 

1792 

820 

380 

1,200 



1813     .      . 

930 

70 

1,000 

£95,000 

1818 

1,500 

150 

1,650 

120,000 

1822     .       . 

1,800 

1831 

2,670 

450 

3,120 

... 

1836  July, 
1837  Aug., 

2,794 
2,983 

723 
717 

3,517 
3,700 

35i,700 
370,000 

£826,261 

The  total  number  of  people  employed  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  the  trade  in  July  1836  was  5,044.  The  weekly  wages 
of  weavers  averaged  10s  ;  warpers,  15s ;  winders,  4s ;  yarn  boilers 
and  bleachers  of  yarn,  chiefly  women,  7s  ;  bleachers  of  cloth,  8s 
6d ;  lappers,  9s  6d ;  pattern  cutters,  10s ;  dyers,  18s.  Of  the 
3,517  looms  then  employed,  770  were  on  single  diaper,  which 
do  not  require  Jacquard  machines  ;  1 ,880  on  single  damask,  and 
369  on  double  damask,  which  may  have  them ;  445  on  table 
covers,  13  on  worsted  warps,  15  on  Linen,  full  harness,  and  17 
on  bed  quilts,  all  of  which  have  them.  The  worsted  warps  and 
Linen  full  harness  looms  had  greatly  increased  by  1843.  The 
rate  of  wages  per  spindle  of  warp  had  fallen  on  one  fabric  from 
7s  8Jd  in  1807  to  2s  5d  in  1844,  and  on  another  from  6s  3d  (<> 
2s  3d,  but  the  weaver  had  much  less  compulsory  idle  time  at 


tin-  latter  date,  so  that   his  weekly  wages  were  not  so  much 
duced  as  the  difference  in  the  rates  indicate. 

Until  a  recent  period  tin- Li-  Dunfermlineaild  its 

vicinity  were  chiefly  woven  by  hand  in  tin-  1.  vere, 

almoM    every  master  of  a  house  being  owner  of  hi*  own   1- 
an<l  si  >i  in  times  of  two  or  three  more,  whirl  i  hi-  let  to  journey 
and  apprentices.     A  good  many  years  ago  the  factory  system 
was  commenced,  and  several  large  hand-loom  weaving  shops 
were  creeled  by  the  manufacturers,  win-re  it  was  thou-h!   tin- 
work  could  be  limn-  ,  ili.-ii-ntly  earned  MM  than  \\hen  di-tr'buted, 
as  of  old,  among  swarms  of  cottages.     The  recent  int  n  -duction  of 
power- loom  establishments  has  again  changed  the  mode  of  pro- 
duction, and   hand-looms,  whether  in  cottages  nr  in  large  shops, 
are  fast  disappearing,  and  will  in  the  course  of  time  become 
tinet.  excepting  I'm-  some  descriptions  of  goods  for  which  power- 
looms  may  not  be  adapted. 

At  present  there  are  four  power-loom  establishments  in 
operation  in  Dunfermline,  and  others  are  in  course  of  erection. 
Krskine  l.cvi  rid-v  and  Co.,  St  Leonards  Works,  employ  709 
power-looms,  which  are  driven  by  steam-engines  of  210  horse- 
power, with  220  hand-looms  in  the  factory,  and  more  than  this 
number  outside  :  the  number  of  hands  employed  by  this  respect- 
able linn  being  about  1,500,  and  the  wages  paid  annually  about 
£35,000.  This  is  the  most  extensive  establishment  in  the  town, 
but,  large  though  it  be,  it  is  proposed  still  fart  hi  i  IM  extend  it. 
Some  of  the  other  works,  both  hand-loom  and  power-loom,  are 
on  a  large  scale.  D.  Dewar,  Son,  and  Sons,  of  London,  a  firm 
of  established  reputation  (whose  concise  and  correct  monthly 
reports  on  the  Linen  trade  are  highly  valued),  are  piv-'iitly  erect- 
ing a  power-loom  work  in  the  town,  which  when  completed  will 
ive  concern.  It  is  intend  -0  looms, 

with  all  the  necessary  adjuncts  tbr  preparing  and  finishing  the 
supeiior  class  of  goods  required  in  their  trade.  The  manufac- 
tures of  Dunfermline  being  mainly  confined  to  one  class  of 
goods,  the  fluctuations  which  periodically  befall  every  trade  tell 
with  great  severity  upon  this  town,  because  when  depression 
comes  it  comes  to  all,  and  all  classes  suffer.  Power-looms  strike 
lor  themselves  new  branches  of  trade,  and  by  being  kept 
constantly  at  work  atlord  n-pilar  employment  to  the  hands  en- 


558  MODERN  LINEN. 

gaged ;  their  extension  will  therefore  be  of  great  advantage  to 
the  town  and  district. 

The  goods  manufactured  in  Dunfermline  consist  of  diapers  of 
various  kinds,  single  and  double  damasks,  white  on  brown  table 
Linen,  table-covers,  floor-covers  or  crumb-cloths,  cloutings,  sheet- 
ings, &c. ,  &c.  The  quality  of  the  goods  made  varies  with  the  mar- 
ket for  which  they  are  intended,  but  the  town  has  attained  great 
celebrity  for  the  beauty  and  excellence  of  its  table  Linens,  and 
the  chaste  and  lovely  specimens  shown  in  the  Great  Exhibition 
of  1862  added  to  its  former  fame  in  this  department.  No 
doubt  the  respectable  firms  who  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  ancient  town  will  continue  to  maintain  the  high  character 
their  productions  have  already  acquired,  and  keep  pace  with  their 
competitors,  both  home  and  foreign. 

Very  little  of  the  yarn  consumed  in  Dunfermline  is  spun 
in  the  district,  there  being  only  one  mill  in  the  place,  and  it  is 
not  on  a  large  scale.  The  coarser  sorts  are  got  from  Kirkcaldy, 
Dundee,  &c.,  and  the  finer  numbers,  of  which  much  of  the  manu- 
facture consists,  chiefly  from  Yorkshire  and  Ireland.  There  are 
four  bleachfields  in  the  neighbourhood,  where  part  of  the  yarn 
consumed  is  bleached,  but  much  of  the  cloth  is  sent  to  the  fields 
near  Perth  to  be  cleared  and  finished,  after  which  it  is  returned, 
and  made  up  for  a  market. 


FORFAR. 

The  first  Statistical  Account  of  the  parish,  written  about 
1792,  states  that  about  the  year  1745  or  1746  the  manufacture 
of  Osnaburgs  was  commenced  in  Forfar  by  the  brother  of  the 
merchant  who  first,  from  an  accidental  cause,  discovered  the 
fabric  and  began  the  trade  in  Arbroath.  It  says:— "From 
a  small  beginning,  this  branch  of  manufacture  speedily  became 
the  staple  manufacture  of  Forfar,  and  it  is  pleasing  to  add 
that  the  gentleman  who  first  introduced  it  into  the  town 
acquired  a  comfortable  independency  by  it,  and  was  long 
spared  to  enjoy  it  among  his  fellow  townsmen.  Before  that 
period  the  Flax  was  dressed  by  women,  and  there  was  no  cloth 
made  in  the  town,  excepting  a  few  yard-wide  scrims.  Then 
the  number  of  incorporated  weavers  did  not  exceed  forty,  and 


SCOTCH  i.isKH.  *      559 

there  were  not  more  than  sixty  looms  employed  in  the  town. 
In  consequence  of  the  Act  for  encouraging  weavers,  the  t 
increased  so  rapidly  that  before  17f><>  then  w.-re  upwards  of  140 
looms  in  ForiUr,  and  now  there  are  between  400  and  500. 
The  knowledge  of  this  art  is  easily  acquired,  and  the  call  for 
hands  is  so  great,  that  almost  every  young  man  betakes  him-. -If 
to  it.  He  i  a  part  of  the  profit  on  his  work  from 

the  vt TV  d.-iy  his  apprenticeship  begins,  and  in  a  year  or  two 
he  is  qualified  to  carry  on  the  business  for  himself,  and  able 
to  support  a  wife ;  and  so  he  marries  and  multiplies,  and  this 
rapidly  increases  the  population.  The  Osnaburg  trade  rapidly 
1,  and  gave  employment  to  vast  numbers  of  people  through- 
out the  country,  but  it  was  a  very  fluctuating  one,  and  when 
the  demand  slackened  at  any  time,  it  brought  many  of  the  young 
and  improvident  into  difficulties.  When  it  is  good — and  for 
some  time  before  this  year  it  has  been  more  stable  and  flourish- 
ing than  has  ever  been  known  before — the  profits  on  it,  together 
with  the  Government  bounty,  are  sufficient  to  support  the  sober 
and  industrious  weavers  against  the  influence  of  a  falling  market. 
Manufacturers  are  now  giving  15s  to  20s  for  working  the  piece 
of  ten  dozen  yards,  which  a  man  of  good  abilities  as  a  weaver 
can  accomplish  in  nearly  as  many  days ;  and  a  man  working 
his  own  web  had  been  known  to  produce  eighteen  such  pieces  by 
his  own  hand  in  nineteen  weeks.  This,  however,  is  allowed  by 
all  to  be  extraordinary,  although  it  shows  what  sobriety  and  dili- 
gence can  do."  After  this  period,  the  manufacturing  trade  went 
on  progressively,  with  occasional  checks  arising  from  various 
causes.  Sometimes  the  fluctuations  were  both  violent  and 
sudden,  and  the  following  details  of  the  wages  paid  at  different 
times  in  the  year  from  October.  1814,  to  October,  1815,  show 
this  clearly: — At  the  former  date,  the  weaving  of  a  24  por. 
2.~>  inch  Osnaburg,  146  yards  long,  as  measured  and  stamped  by 
the  Government  Inspector,  the  warp  of  3  lb.  Flax,  and  we 
with  7  sp.  of  6  lb.  Flax  yarn,  was  21s.  In  November  the  weav- 
ing rose  to  28s ;  in  December  it  fell  to  14s ;  and  by  October, 
1815,  it  had  fallen  as  low  as  6s  the  piece. 

I  hiring  the  years  1805, 1806,  and  1807,  the  quantity  of  Linen 
stamped  in  Forfar  averaged  1,765,704  yards  yearly,  the  stamp- 
master's  fees  for  which  were  £183  18s  6d.  In  the  three  years 


560  MODERN    LINEN. 

1816,  1817,  and  1818,  the  average  quantity  stamped  yearly  was 
2,611,776  yards,  and  the  average  yearly  fees  £272  Is  2d,  which 
shows  a  marked  increase  over  the  former  period. 

Twenty  years  ago,  about  3000  individuals  were  employed  in 
Forfar  and  neighbourhood  in  weaving  sheetings,  Osnaburgs, 
dowlas,  and  kindred  fabrics.  About  2000  pieces  were  then  made 
weekly,  of  the  value  of  from  £4,000  to  £5,000,  or  from  £200,000 
to  £250,000  annually.  After  that  date  the  trade  continued  to 
make  considerable  progress,  and  the  production  increased  yearly. 
Within  the  last  year  or  two,  important  changes  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  manufacturing  industry  of  the  town  by  the 
establishment  of  power-loom  factories.  Of  these  there  are  now  four 
distinct  works,  with  an  aggregate  of  77  horse-power,  containing 
at  present  482  looms,  and  giving  employment  to  fully  600  hands. 
Some  of  these  firms  are  adding  to  the  number  of  their  power- 
looms,  and  several  other  Forfar  manufacturers  contemplate 
erecting  power-loom  works,  as  they  find  it  impossible,  with 
hand-looms  only,  to  compete  successfully  with  their  more  enter- 
prising rivals.  At  present  there  are  about  4500  hand-looms  in 
and  around  Forfar,  chiefly  employed  by  the  Forfar  manufac- 
turers, and,  including  3,000  warp  and  weft  winders,  100  warpers, 
&c.,  the  number  employed  in  the  hand-loom  trade  in  the  town 
and  district  may  amount  to  about  7,600  people.  In  the  course 
of  a  few  more  years,  this  branch  will  probably  become  a  thing 
of  the  past,  as  the  fabrics  manufactured  are  admirably  adapted 
for  power-looms,  and  steam  seems  destined  to  supplant  manual 
labour  in  the  weaving  of  Linen.  Some  of  the  hand-loom  manu- 
facturers have  now  small  steam-engines  for  driving  warp  and 
weft  winding  machines,  finishing  the  cloth,  &c. 

There  is  one  large  public  calender  and  bleachfield  in  the 
town,  belonging  to  Charles  Norrie  and  Sons,  of  Dundee, 
in  which  there  is  also  yarn  winding  machinery,  where  the 
manufacturers  who  have  not  such  conveniences  of  their  own  can 
get  their  winding  done.  This  work  is  of  20  horses-power,  em- 
ploys nearly  100  hands,  pays  about  £2000  of  wages  annually* 
and  it  has  been  highly  conducive  to  the  prosperity  of  Forfar. 
Some  of  the  new  power-loom  works  have  yarn  cleaning  and 
bleaching  establishments  attached  to  them,  which  is  found  to 
be  a  convenience  to  the  proprietors. 


561 

In  round  numbers  the  wages  paid  annually  to  the  hand- 
\vi-.-i\.  T-,  winders,  &0.,  in  the  Fortar  diMrict,  amounts  to 
about  IX'HHH),  and  in  tin-  pow.-r-l.oin  works  to  about £20,000 — 
making  more  than  £100,000  in  all  The  class  of  goods  made  in 
Forfar  romp  .ibnrgs,  sin-clings,  spriggs,  towelling,  ( i«  i- 

man  dowlas,  and  similar   Linens,  mostly  brown   or   milled. 
of  them  bein^  bleached.     The  F.-rtar   manufacture^  have  long 
jiMly  celebrated  for  the  uniform  and  Merlin^  quality  of 
;  goods,  and  the  fame  which  they  liave  thus  acquired  is  w<  ; 

Merit  in  their  ease  has  received  its  proper  reward — many 
of  the  older  manufacturers  IK -ing  now  in  easy  circum-tan<v<,  and 
the  fruits  of  their  honest  industry. 


KlBKOALDY, 

This  town  was  long  noted  for  its  shipping  and  commerce, 
n.nd  it  is  known  that  a  considerable  number  of  its  vessels  \ 
taken  in  the  harbour  of  Dundee  when  that  town  was  stormed 
and  sacked  by  General  Monk.  The  inhabitants  of  Kirkcaldy,  as 
of  some  other  places,  had  in  these  troublous  times  deposited  many 
of  their  valuables  in  that  town,  as  a  place  of  security,  and  about 
H),  value  of  their  property,  was  then  carried  away  or 
royed,  a  particular  account  of  which  is  preserved  among  the 
records  of  the  burgh.  In  1644,  tradition  relates  that  100  ships 
belonged  to  the  port ;  and  between  that  year  and  the  Revolu- 
tion, 94  vessels  belonging  to  Kirkcaldy  (of  which  a  detailed 
and  authentic  account  is  preserved),  were  lost  at  sea  or  taken 
by  the  enemy.  Subsequently  the  town  had  its  full  share  of  the 
disasters  and  troubles  of  the  period,  and  its  customs  pay 
to  the  Crown  fell  to  less  than  half  of  what  they  had  formerly 
been. 

\Vhrn  the  commerce  of  Kirkealdy  declined,  the  inhabitants 

turned    their  attention   to  manufactures,   particularly  that   of 

Linen.     The  description  of  goods  first   made  were  bed-tick)?, 

ked  and  striped   Linen,   and    a   low-priced   kind   of   plain 

I  in«  11.     These  appear  to  have  been  imitations  of  the  goods 

made  in  Holland  and  Flanders,  and  they  were  known  as  striped 

Hollands.  Hutch  checks.  Dutch  ticks,  and  Flanders  checks  and 

ti<J;s.      It  is  not  exactly  kn..wn  when  the  manufacture  of  these 

NN 


562  MODERN  LINEN, 

articles  was  first  introduced,  but  they  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
beginning  of  last  century,  and  the  probability  is  that  the  manu- 
facture began  about  two  hundred  years  ago. 

For  a  long  time  manufactures  made  little  progress,  and,  in 
1733,  the  whole  amount  of  cloth  stamped  in  Kirkcaldy  was 
only  177,740  yards.  In  1743  it  had  risen  to  316,550  yards, 
the  computed  value  of  which  was  about  £11,000  ;  but  in  this 
was  included  the  cloth  made  in  the  parishes  of  Abbotshall, 
Dysart,  Leslie,  &c.,  which  were  all  stamped  in  Kirkcaldy.  The 
local  authorities  showed  a  laudable  desire  to  extend  the  trade, 
and,  in  1739,  appointed  an  annual  market  for  Linen  cloth,  &c., 
to  be  held  on  the  first  Wednesday  of  July,  and  to  be  custom- 
free  for  three  years.  In  the  same  year,  the  Council,  "  consider- 
ing how  much  it  will  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  town  and  country 
that  a  heckler  of  lint  be  established,  they,  therefore,  unanimously 
resolve  to  make  application  to  the  Trustees  that  a  heckler  be 
settled  here,  with  such  a  salary,  and  under  such  regulations,  as 
the  Trustees  judge  proper."  Bleachers  had  also  advantages  held 
out  to  them  to  induce  them  to  settle  in  the  district.  The 
Linens  made  at  this  time  consisted  of  common  checks,  which 
were  sold  to  the  Glasgow  merchants  for  exportation  ;  and 
handkerchiefs,  checks,  and  a  coarse  description  of  ticks  ;  all  for 
the  home  trade.  The  goods  were  conveyed  by  the  manufacturers 
on  horseback  to  the  various  towns  of  Scotland,  and  were  mostly 
sold  at  fairs. 

During  the  commotions  attending  the  rebellion  in  1745, 
the  trade  was  in  a  great  degree  suspended  ;  but  afterward 
it  was  prosecuted  with  diligence,  until  the  war  of  1755 
interrupted  the  communication  with  the  West  Indies  and 
America,  which  was  at  that  time  almost  the  only  market  for 
the  goods  of  this  district.  The  effect  of  this  was  that  the  value 
of  the  manufactures,  which  had  risen  to  £20,000,  fell  in  1773  to 
£15,000,  and  next  year  they  were  of  even  less  value.  The  trade 
became  so  bad,  that  some  manufacturers  thought  of  turning 
their  capital  into  another  channel.  Before  doing  this  an  attempt 
was  made  by  James  Fergus  to  produce  ticking  for  the  English 
home  trade,  and  thus  to  introduce  the  manufactures  of  the 
town  into  the  internal  consumption  of  that  country.  After 
he  had  discovered  the  tweel  and  provided  materials,  he  had 


I.  IN 

difficulty  in  finding  weavers  who  could  #i\v  tin'  doth  the  requi- 
site stillness  and  smoothness  ;  hut  a  weaver,  by  discovering  "  tho 
open  stroke,"  enabled  him  to  produce  the  iv.pmvd  fabric.  This 
opened  up  a  new  trade,  and  since  then  ticking  has  been 
one  of  the  staple  articles  in  the  manufactures  of  Kirkcaldy. 
Before  this  experiment  was  tried  tin.1  manufacture  of  checks 
and  ticks  had  iriveii  place,  in  many  parts  of  England,  to  finer 
and  more  profitable  articles.  There  was  thus  a  door  open  for 
Mr  1  <  run-,  and  the  attempt  proved  eminently  successful,  and 
for  many  years  the  trade  advanced  progressively,  without  almost 
a  single  interruption. 

In   1792  the  manufacturers  of  Kirkcaldy  employed  about 
810  looms,  of  which  '266  (being  triple  the  number  in  1788)  were 
iu  the  parish,  300  in  Abbotshall,  100  in  Dysart,  60  in  Largo, 
and  the  others  in  the  neighbouring  parishes.     In  the  whole 
district  about  2000  looms  were  employed,  the  produce  of  which 
for  the  year  ending  1st  Nov.  1793,  was  estimated  at  £110,000. 
The  a  vera^e  annual  amount  of  a  weaver's  work  was  from  10  to 
I '2  pieces  of  110  yards,  or  about  1,200  yards,  worth  at  Is  a-yard 
£(JO.     The  annual  produce  of  the  looms  employed  by  Kirkcaldy 
manufacturers  might  thus  be  nearly  1,000,000  yards,  worth 
about  £50,000.     Reckoning  22  spindles  as  the  average  quantity 
of  yarn  to  a  piece,  nearly  200,000  spindles  were  annually  woven 
into  cloth  at  that  time.     The  price  of  checks  was  from  6d  to  Is 
6d  per  yard ;  ticks,  7d  to  2s  6d  ;  plain  Linen  was  cheaper,  but 
very  little  of  it  was  then  made.      The  whole  Linen  made  in 
the  county  of  Fife  for  the  year  ending  1st  November  1793,  was 
5,013,089  yards.    The  average  quantity  of  Linen  stamped  yearly 
in   Kirkcaldy  during  1805,   1806,  and   1807   was  1,641,403 
yards,  for  which  the  stamp-master  drew  fees  amounting  to  £170 
19s  7d  a  year.     In  1816,  1817  and  1818,  the  average  quantity 
was  2,022,493  yards,  lees  £210  13s  6d.      The  average  yards 
stamped  in  Cupar-Fife,  and  fees  paid  on  same,  for  these  years, 
were  967,186  yards,  £100  14s  lid,  and  1,422,687  yards,  £148 
3s  lid  respectively. 

Towards  the  end  of  last  century  there  was  a  little  cotton  yarn 
used  in  some  of  the  fabrics,  but  the  greater  part  was  made  of 
Flax  yarn,  spun  by  the  hand.  At  that  time  there  were  five  cot- 

X  -N  2 


564  MODERN 

ton  manufactories  in  Kirkcaldy,  called  "  Spinning  Jennies,"  the 
heavy  parts  of  which  were  driven  by  a  horse-engine  ;  hut  the 
trade  was  shortly  after  discontinued.  About  1793  three  Flax 
mills  were  erected  in  Kinghorn,  after  the  Darlington  model,  but 
although  the  yarn  thrown  off  was  of  good  quality,  very  little  of 
it  was  produced.  Of  the  whole  Linen  yarn  manufactured,  about 
one-seventh  was  spun  from  Flax  grown  in  the  country,  and 
six-sevenths  from  Flax  imported,  chiefly  from  Riga,  at  the  ave- 
rage price  of  £45  a  ton.  After  the  Flax  was  heckled,  the 
manufacturer  sent  it  to  agents  in  different  districts,  who  gave 
it  out  to  be  spun  by  the  housewives  and  maidens  through- 
out the  country,  getting  a  small  commission  on  the  yarn 
returned  by  them.  In  this  way  the  total  expense  of  spinning, 
charges  included,  was  on  the  average  Is  3d  the  spindle.  Besides 
the  yarn  spun  on  manufacturers'  account,  parcels  were  regularly 
bought  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  also  in  Montrose,  Brechin, 
Coupar- Angus,  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  even  in  Ireland. 
Notwithstanding  these  supplies,  it  was  with  considerable  diffi- 
culty that  a  sufficient  command  of  yarn  suitable  for  the  manufac- 
tures of  Kirkcaldy  could  be  got  previous  to  the  introduction  of 
mill-spun  yarns,  and  parcels  continued  to  be  imported  up  to 
about  1832.  For  some  years  a  considerable  quantity  of  yarn 
had  been  imported  from  Bremen  and  Hamburg,  amounting  in 
one  year  to  441,400  flbs.,  which  at  3  ft>.  to  the  spindle  made 
147,133  spindles.  Of  this,  however,  only  a  small  quantity  was 
used  in  the  parish,  the  greater  part  being  sent  to  Perth,  Dun- 
fermline,  Falkland,  Auchtermuchty,  and  other  inland  towns  in 
which  coarse  Linen  was  manufactured. 

Of  the  yarn  used  in  making  ticks  and  checks,  about  three- 
fourths  was  bleached  and  the  remainder  dyed.  Most  of  the 
principal  manufacturers  bleached  and  dyed  their  yarn  them- 
selves, and  the  others  employed  public  bleachers  and  dyers.  The 
various  operations  of  heckling,  spinning,  dyeing,  bleaching, 
winding,  warping,  and  weaving,  was  computed  at  5J  hands  to 
every  loom,  which  would  give  a  total  of  4,455  hands  employed 
in  the  trade.  Deducting  the  price  of  materials  (Flax,  cot- 
ton, bleaching  and  dyeing  stufts,  &c  ),  which,  when  those  of  the 
best  quality  were  used  would  be  about  one-third  of  the  value  of 


.     :i    .  : 

theel,,th,  there  remained  about  jL'33,000  fur  labour  and  profit. 
Tliis  Mini   dhided  among  the  whole  productive  hands,  j- 
fully  l'7  to  each. 

In  addition  to  tin-  .pianlity  of  Linen  made  by  thr  manufacturers 
of  Kirkcaldy,  they   purchased  annually  a  coii-idei-ablc  quantity 
in   the  neighbouring'  district.       In    ITl'J   more  than   £3<> 
worth  of  doth  was  purchased.     Of  the  whole  cloth  so  made  and 
purchased,  about   three-fourths  was  sold   in    rlii-land,  a   small 
portion  ot  which  was  exported  to  tin1  West  Indies  and  Ara<  ; 
Of  the  remaining  fourth,  about  one-half  \\  as  sold  in  Glasgow  fur 
exportation,  and  the  other  half  consumed  in  the  country. 

In    171)3,   the  stagnation    in    trade   caused   hy    the    war    was 

vly  frit  in  Kirkcaldy,  and  caused  great  loss  and  suffering  to 
both  the  manufacturers  and  their  workers.  The  demand  fell  off 
greatly,  prices  ot  goods  dec  lint  H  I  rapidly,  and  heavy  lo»es  upon 

.>  and  otherwise  were  incurred.  On  some  fabrics  the  rate  uf 
weaving  fell  from  10  to  20,  and,  on  coarse  goods,  as  much 
as  40  per  cent.,  and  even  at  this  reduction  work  was  scarce  and 
diiJicult  to  be  had,  and  many  weavers  underwent  great  hard- 
ships. About  this  period  females  began  to  weave  Linen,  the 
whole  having  formerly  been  performed  by  men. 

Abbotshall,  which,  although  a  separate  parish,  really  forms 
part  of  the  town  of  Kirkcaldy.  had  then  about  300  looms,  tho 

••I  number  of  which  were  employed  by  three  manufacturers 
on  checks  and  bed-ticks.  Two  of  these  parties  had  bleachworks 
in  the  nriLchbourhood,  chiefly  employed  on  their  own  yarn. 
The  manufacture  of  sail-cloth  was  introduced  in  1811,  and  has 
been  carried  on  to  a  greater  or  le»  extent  ever  since. 

Early  in  1821  a  trial  was  made  in  Kirkcaldy  to  weave  Linen 
by  machinery,  and  the  experiment  even  then  promised  to  be 
beneQcial  to  the  trade.  The  building  was  intended  to  be  driven 
by  a  steam-en-ine,  to  contain  -40  looms,  and  in  October  of  that 
year  lM  looms  weie  at  work  in  it.  The  following  calculation 
of  the  estimated  produce  and  expense  of  the  work  when  the  pro- 
posed 40  looms  were  all  in  operation  was  made  at  the  time,  and 
is  intere-tin-  M  referring  to  perhaps  the  first  power-loom  factory 
ever  erecto  d  for  Lim-n  :  — 


566  MODERN  LINEN. 

PRODUCE  or  40  LOOMS,  DBIVEN  BY  A  STEAM-ENGINE  OF  Six  HORSE-POWER. 
60  Pieces  of  White  Dowlas  per  week,  120  yards 

each,  at  18s  per  piece,         ....  £54 

EXPENSE. 

Interest  on  sunk  capital,  £2000,  at  10  per  cent.,  £400 

Coals,  &c.,  for  steam-engine,      .        .        .        .  500 

Wages  of  40  girls,  at  5s  3d  per  piece  of  Linen,  15  15    0 

Overseer, 200 

Dressing  the  warps, 200 

Winding  the  wefts, 5    0    0 

Oil  and  repairs,            .                        ...  2    5    0 


Profit,         £18 

This  statement  shows  that  the  weaving  of  a  piece  of  Linen 
which  cost  18s  by  hand  could  be  done  by  the  power-loom  at  12s 
— a  difference  which  it  was  then  considered  would  be  sufficient 
to  induce  others  to  enter  into  the  trade  on  an  extensive  scale. 

In  1838  about  1100  looms  were  employed  by  the  Kirkcaldy 
manufacturers,  of  which  about  two-fifths  were  in  the  town. 
The  net  weekly  wages  then  paid  the  weavers,  taken  from  the 
Reports  of  the  Hand-loom  Weavers'  Commission,  18th  August, 
1838,  averaged  7s  3d  for  ticks,  5s  lid  for  fine  sheeting,  3s  to 
6s  6d  for  dowlas,  and  9s  3d  for  sail-cloth.  The  value  of  the 
Linens  annually  made  in  the  town  at  that  period  was  not  less 
than  £200,000.  After  supplying  the  home  demand,  the  balance 
of  the  production  was  exported  to  America,  the  West  Indies, 
Australia,  &c.  The  expense  of  weaving  ticks  was  then  nearly 
one-third  of  their  cost ;  sheetings,  one-fourth ;  dowlas,  one-fifth  ; 
coarse  fabrics,  one-sixth ;  and  best  sailcloth,  one-eighth. 

In  1807,  a  steam-engine  of  six  horse-power  was  applied  to 
Flax-spinning  in  Kirkcaldy,  and  at  that  period  a  girl  attended  24 
spindles,  and  produced  seven  spindles  of  yarn  a  day.  The  price 
of  mill-spinning  was  at  first  from  Is  to  2s  a  spindle,  but  by  1840 
it  had  fallen  to  from  3d  to  5d.  In  1842  the  mills  in  the  town 
and  neighbourhood,  belonging  to  Kirkcaldy  spinners,  contained 
13,000  spindles,  which  produced  6000  spindles  a  day,  and  cost 
in  erecting  about  £90,000. 

The  late  James  Aytoun,  for  many  years  the  father  of  the 
spinning  trade,  and  who  died  at  a  good  old  age  on  8th  Feb- 
ruary, 1864,  erected  a  mill  for  spinning  tow  in  1822.  Tow 


8CoT<  H   I.INEN.  567 

spinning  had  previously  mode  emnparatively  little  pn^rcs-,  but 
he  introduced  important  improvements,  and  was  so  successful 
that  he  put  up  a  second  mill  in  1826,  and  a  third  some  time 
after.  In  the  end  of  ls:VJ,  or  beginning  of  1833,  Mr  Aytoun 
comiueneed  to  ^piu  ,lut«-,  and  In-  was  among  the  tirst  who  did  SO. 
{Since  then  it  has  h.-en  >pnn  regularly  in  his  works,  and  the\ 
the  only  OIH-S  in  Kirkealdy  where  it  has  ever  been  used  exten- 
sively. The  great  staple  spun  by  the  mills  here  is  Flax  and  tow, 
line  yarns  being  required  for  the  ticks  and  other  superior  Lin  <  ns 
made  in  the  parish.  There  are  now  nine  firms  engaged  in  spin- 
ning and  weaving  by  power  in  Kirkealdy.  Their  works  are  of 
338  horse-power,  contain  11, 9 14  spindles,  and  398  power-looms, 
and  employ  1,462  hands.  The  number  of  power-looms  will  shortly 
)>e  increased,  as  some  other  works  are  in  course  of  erection. 

For  many  years  past  the  Linen  manufacture  has,  with  some 
ups  and  downs,  kept  a  steady  course,  but  no  great  extension  lias 
taken  place,  and  the  statistics  of  the  trade  in  1864  do  not  show 
a  marked  increase  over  those  of  1842.  The  class  of  goods  now 
made  in  Kirkealdy  are  ticks  and  checks,  hucks,  towelling, 
dowlas,  sheeting,  sail-cloth,  floor-cloth  up  to  eight  yards  in 
width,  &c.  Much  of  the  cloth  manufactured  requires  bleached  or 
dyed  yarn,  and  there  are  several  dyeing  establishments  and  bleach- 
works  in  the  town  and  surrounding  district  for  supplying  the 
wants  of  the  trade.  Some  of  the  bleach-works  are  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale,  and,  besides  supplying  the  home  demand,  furnish 
large  quantities  of  finely  bleached  yarn  for  export.  The  firms 
engaged  in  the  staple  trade  in  Kirkealdy  carry  on  a  large  busi- 
ness, and  they  are  generally  much  and  deservedly  respected. 


KlllKIEMUIR. 

After  the  rebellion  of  1745,  the  brown  Linen  manufacture  was 
introduced  into  the  parish.  Before  that  period  Flax  had  been 
grown  for  home  use,  but  more  attention  was  afterwards  paid  to 
its  cultivation,  which  increased  the  quantity  and  improved  the 
quality  of  the  crop.  Where  plenty  of  manure  could  be  got,  the 
rotation  was  generally  six  years,  but  where  this  was  not  supplied 
an  eight  years'  rotation  was  considered  best.  Two  fairs  were  held 
in  the  town  yearly,  at  which  the  Flax  and  yarn  were  hold. 


5G8  MODERN    LINEN. 

David  Sands,  a  famous  household  weaver,  lived  in  the  town' 
ahout  1760.  He  was  an  ingenious  man,  and  invented  a  mode 
of  weaving  double  cloth  for  stay  or  corset-makers,  stitched  at  the 
proper  parts,  which  required  little  labour  to  prepare  them  for  use ; 
and  he  supplied  the  staymakers  of  Kirriemuir  and  other  towns 
with  his  cloth.  Later  in  life  he  succeeded  in  weaving  and  finish- 
ing in  the  loom  three  shirts  without  seam.  Not  only  did  he 
weave  the  cloth,  but  he  hemmed  and  stitched  them,  wrought 
button-holes,  put  on  buttons,  and  also  put  ruffles  on  the  breasts, 
all  in  the  loom.  These  wonderful  productions  of  the  loom  were 
exhibited  among  his  acquaintances,  and  then  sent,  one  to  the 
Board  of  Trustees  for  Manufactures,  another  to  the  Duke  of 
Athole,  and  a  third  to  the  King.  Whether  any  of  the  shirts 
are  still  in  existence  is  unknown,  but  their  ingenious  maker  died 
shortly  after  having  accomplished  this  extraordinary  work,  poor 
in  purse,  though  rich  in  local  fame. 

The  manufacture  of  Osnaburgs,  scrims,  birdies,  and  other 
coarse  Linens  has  long  been  carried  on  in  the  town  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  The  value  of  the  cloth  made  from  September, 
1791,  to  September,  1792,  was  £38,000  sterling.  This  is  more 
than  had  ever  been  manufactured  before  in  one  year,  and  was 
owing  to  the  then  flourishing  condition  of  the  trade,  which  had 
never  been  better  than  in  the  end  of  the  latter  year.  The 
number  of  weavers  in  the  parish  at  that  date  was  228,  and  a 
journeyman,  it  was  said,  could  with  ease  gain  Is  4d  a  day. 
The  common  wages  of  women  at  spinning  was  8d,  but  to 
such  perfection  in  the  art  had  they  arrived  that  many  women 
could,  if  they  chose  to  exert  themselves,  earn  from  Is  2d  to  Is 
3d  a  day.  It  is  reported  that  a  weaver,  on  a  wager,  had  woven 
a  web  of  Urdy,  91  yards  long,  in  18  hours  and  20  minutes,  the 
price  for  weaving  which  was  then  8s.  The  prosperous  state  of 
the  Linen  trade,  and  the  high  wages  paid  for  spinning  and  weav- 
ing at  that  period,  had  greatly  raised  the  price  of  all  kinds  of 
labour  in  the  town  and  parish. 

From  November,  1798,  to  November,  1799,  the  quantity  of 
Linen  stamped  in  the  town  was  1,814,874  yards,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  1,846,516  yards.  During  the  years  1805,  1806, 
and  1807,  the  quantity  stamped  averaged  2,226,200  yards  yearly f 
and  the  fees  paid  the  stainpm.-ister  averaged  £231  17s  lid.  The 


average  <iuantity  tor  the  three  years  1816,  1817.  and   1*1*. 

7,123  yards,  tl»-  a\frage  yearly  fees  for  same  being  £iM_> 
8s  2d.  The  «|iiantity  stamped  in  Kirrienmir  during  the  first  of 
tin-*-  periods  was  greater  than  in  any  other  town  in  Km  tar-hire, 
with  the  exemption  of  I  hmdee.  and  it  was  more  llian  lialt'  the 
quantity  stamped  even  there.  In  tin-  latt.-r  \,,nx  Kirri.-niuir 
stood  tliinl  in  rank  amon--  tin-  t.-wns  in  the  county.  I  Minder  ;md 
Korfar  alum-  exceeding  it  in  the  quantity  Mamped.  This  |fc 
tin-  importance  wliich  Kirriemnir  had  attained  as  a  mannfa<  tur- 
iiii;  emporium  in  the  early  part  of  this  century.  Tin-  manula<  •- 
(me  \vrnt  on  extending,  until  in  1S:W  it  was  supposed  that  not 
fewer  than  iMN)  individuals  wi-iv  cn^a^'d  in  tin-  trade,  and  that 
th<-  niimluT  of  webs  woven  annually  was  about  52,000,  G 

<;.7<ip,000  yards,  bi-ing  nearly  tour  times  the  quantity 
in   17'.»(.>,  and  about  three  times  as  much  as  the  average 
in  the  other  years  stat.  d 

The  Kirriemuir  manufacturers  now  give  employment  to 
fully  2000  weavers,  of  whom  about  1,500  are  in  the  town  and 
suburbs,  and  the  remainder  in  the  country  around.  The  num- 
ber of  warp  and  weft  winders,  warpers,  lappers,  and  others  em- 
1  1  "\  -cd  will  not  fall  very  far  short  of  2000,  so  that  the  total  num- 
ber employed  in  the  Linen  manufacture  in  the  district  approaches 
4000  people.  The  wages  paid  in  the  various  branches  of  the 
trade  amount  to  about  £40,000  per  annum.  Power-loom 
weaving  has  not  yet  been  introduced  into  Kirriemuir,  but  no 
doubt  a  very  few  years  will  see  works  of  this  kind  started  tlu  i<  . 
as  well  as  in  the  neighbouring  towns.  The  manufacturing 
trade  of  Ivirrieinuir  ha>  had  its  fluctuations  as  other  places  have. 
but,  notwithstanding  the  increase  has  been  on  the  whole  pro- 
gressive and  steady.  This  may,  perhaps,  be  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  manutae!  mvi  >  have  been  all  along  practical  tradesmen, 
well  <[ii,  dill  d  to  judge  of  the  work  when  executed,  and  they 
have-  generally  been  careful,  industrous  men.  Some  of  them 
lta\e  acquired  a  moderate  competency,  and  they  conduct  their 
bUflioete  in  a  quiet,  un..htrusive  manner,  very  much  to  their 
own  comfort  and  profit.  The  description  of  goods  now  made 
in  the  district  is  ehietly  Osnalmrgs,  hessians,  A. 


570  MODERN  LINEN. 

LOCHEE. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  united  parishes  of  Liff  and  Benvie 
adjoins  to,  and  forms  part  of  Dundee,  and  is  embraced  in  the 
account  of  the  town.  Lochee,  formerly  a  small  village  in  the 
country  part  of  the  parish,  is  now  an  important  manufacturing 
place,  and  although  municipally  connected  with  Dundee,  it  is 
yet  so  distinct  and  so  important,  as  to  demand  a  separate  notice. 
For  a  very  long  period  the  manufacture  of  Linen  had  been  carried 
on  in  the  parish  of  Liff,  but  the  trade  received  a  considerable 
impulse  between  the  years  1735  and  1740,  when  part  of  the 
parish,  suitable  for  manufactures,  was  feued  in  small  plots. 
Houses  were  speedily  put  up,  and  many  of  the  new  inhabitants 
were  weavers,  who  prosecuted  the  trade  diligently,  although  on 
a  very  small  scale.  The  population  rapidly  increased,  and,  with 
its  increase,  the  manufacture  extended  and  became  established. 
Every  hamlet  had  its  weavers,  but  the  chief  seat  of  the  trade  in 
the  parish  was  at  Lochee,  which  had  several  advantages  and 
attractions  for  manufacturers.  Ground  on  a  certain  tenure  was 
attainable  in  small  portions  ;  a  small  brook  furnished  the  neces- 
sary supply  of  water  for  boiling  and  bleaching  yarn  and  cloth  ; 
and  it  was  in  the  vicinity  of  Dundee,  where  a  ready  market 
could  be  found  for  its  manufactures.  In  1791  the  number 
of  looms  employed  in  the  Lochee  district  were  276,  and  the 
number  of  apprentices  and  servants  104.  Little  household 
Linen  was  then  made,  nor  were  many  Osnaburgs  manufactured. 
The  staple  trade  was  in  coarse  Linens,  named  after  their  width, 
as  yard -wide,  three-quarters- wide,  thin  Linens,  &c.,  the  price 
of  which  was  regulated  according  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  yarn  in  the  piece.  Very  little  of  the  yarn  manufactured  was 
spun  in  the  district,  although  many  women  busily  plied  the  wheel, 
the  weavers  being,  for  the  most  part,  supplied  in  Dundee.  Nearly 
half  the  cloth  was  bleached  before  being  sold,  and  the  manufac- 
turers had  adopted  the  method  of  dry  bleaching,  which  was  to 
boil  the  cloth  in  water  mixed  with  pot-ashes,  wash  out  the  lees, 
and  then  leave  it  on  the  ground  to  bleach  by  the  action  of  the 
sun  and  weather,  without,  as  formerly,  sprinkling  water  upon 
it.  By  this  means  much  labour  and  expense  was  saved,  and 
the  cloth  was  naid  to  have  been  equally  well  bleached. 


sccvi-  ii  i. IN  571 

The  following  is  a  pretty  accurate  statement  ot  tin-  cloth 
manufactured  in  17'J'J,  and  the  prices  a!  which  it  was  commonly 
sold  bythc  manufacturers  : — 

3,800  pieces  yard  wide  and  three-quarters  wide,  at  £2  10a,         £9,500 

660      „      yard  wide  

160      „       three-quarters  wide, 
60      „  do. 

300      „      Osnaburgs, 

4860  piocei  in  all  in  one  year,  of  the  value  of  £12,520 

Of  this  quantity,  2,830  pieces  were  bleached,  and  in  that  state 
fit  for  shirting  and  other  important  uses,  and  the  profit  upon 
them  was  more  than  upon  green  or  unbleached  cloth. 

There  was  no  stamp-office  in  the  village,  and  the  cloth 
had  to  be  taken  to  Inchture  (which  then  had  its  stamp-office 
and  its  weekly  corn-market!)  or  to  Dundee,  to  be  stamped,  and 
some  of  it  was  sold  in  these  places. 

The  want  of  a  stamp-office  in  the  village  was  much  felt  and 
complained  of,  and  certainly  it  is  curious  to  think  that  one 
should  have  been  established  at  Inchture,  where  few  Linens 
were  made,  and  none  in  Lochee  where  the  manufacture  was 
lari;e  and  important.  Subsequently  the  Dundee  stampers  paid 
IK- nodical  visits  to  Lochee  and  stamped  the  cloth,  whicb  saved 
the  manufacturers  much  unnecessary  trouble. 

Hoidcs  many  operative  manufacturers,  there  were  then  five 
merchant  manufacturers  in  Lochee,  who  bought  from  the 
weavers  much  of  the  cloth  weaved  in  the  neighbouring  country 
parishes.  The  one  who  bought  to  the  greatest  extent  sent 
all  his  cloth  to  London,  partly  for  consumption  throughout  Eng- 
land, and  partly  for  exportation.  The  others  disposed  of  their 
stock  in  Dundee,  Perth,  or  Coupar- Angus,  as  they  preferred 
a  smaller  profit  at  home  to  the  chance  of  a  greater  one  from 
London.  The  first  of  these  merchant  weavers,  as  mentioned 
in  the  Statistical  Account  of  the  parish,  was  a  family  of  the 
name  of  Cox.  who,  in  1793,  "still  continued  in  the  same  line. 
much  to  the  credit  and  advantage  of  themselves,  and  to  whose 
industry  and  example  the  district  is  principally  indebted  for 
its  present  flourishing  condition."  The  descendants  of  this 
family  still  continue  in  the  same  line,  much  to  the  credit  and 


572  MODERN  LINEN. 

advantage  of  themselves  and  the  community  ;  and  were  the 
writer  of  the  Statistical  Account  to  awake  and  see  the  gigan- 
tic and  magnificent  works  of  the  family,  he  would  change 
the  designation  from  merchant  weavers  to  that  of  merchant 
princes.  This  family  can  trace  their  uninterrupted  connection 
with  the  Linen  trade  farther  back  than  any  other  in  the  Dun- 
dee market.  The  following  short  sketch  of  their  history  is  given, 
because,  from  their  antiquity,  the  family  has  become  venerable 
in  the  trade,  and  the  name  a  household  word  in  their  own 
immediate  district. 

The  family  now  known  under  the  firm  of  Cox  Brothers  hus 
been  connected  with  the  Linen  trade  in  Lochee  and  its  vicinity 
for  about  150  years,  five  generations  in  direct  lineal  descent 
having  thus  followed  the  calling  of  their  fathers.  The  first  in 
the  series,  as  far  as  certainly  known,  conducted  business  for 
many  years  as  a  merchant  manufacturer,  or  green  cloth  mer- 
chant, by  buying  cloth  from  the  neighbouring  weavers,  and 
bleaching  it  at  his  premises,  called  Lochee-field.  This  per- 
son died  in  1741,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  David^,  who  pro- 
secuted and  extended  the  business  until  1793,  when  it  was  re- 
signed to  the  management  of  his  son  James,  the  third  in  the 
succession.  James  Cox  was  of  considerable  enterprise  and 
standing,  having  along  with  other  merchants  and  county  gentle- 
men become  one  of  the  original  shareholders  and  partners  of  the 
Dundee  Banking  Company,  when  the  association  assumed  that 
name  in  1777.  In  1816  the  fourth  generation  entered  upon 
possession  of  the  works,  which  at  that  time  had  become  greatly 
extended,  the  bleaching-greens  covering  not  less  than  25  acres. 
Three  years  afterwards,  in  the  month  of  August  1819,  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  bleaching  season,  when  the  warehouses  were 
filled  with  finished  cloth,  the  works  were  almost  entirely  con- 
sumed by  fire,  causing  enormous  loss  to  the  owner.  The  build- 
ings were  temporarily  repaired  to  run  out  the  lease,  but  at  its 
expiry  the  establishment  was  given  up,  and  the  works,  with 
many  groups  of  weavers'  cottages,  were  razed  to  the  ground,  and 
have  since  been  converted  into  a  portion  of  the  home  farm  of  the 
Earl  of  Camperdown.  The  proprietor  then  moved  to  the  most 
populous  part  of  the  village  of  Lochee,  and  turned  his  attention  to 
weaving  the  different  fabrics  for  which  the  district  was  famous. 


It  nmy  bo  worthy  ol  imti.v  that  "ii   his  pivmis.-s  the  lii>t    broad 
MI  fur  the   .Manehestrr  market  was  woven  in  181."».  and 
although  it  was  only  4. ~<  inchr>  wid«-  it  caused  great  excitement, 
and    many   rigfc  were  made    I-;  irn.undi: 

winder    and    curiosity    to    in-pe  t    the    Inom    and    its    work.* 
'Hi is  gentleman  was  V  1  in  1827  by  his  eldest  son,  who 

in    is  11.    Urnnu'   united   along  with    three  of  his  brothers  in 
tin-  copartnery  of  Cox  Brothers.      As  hand-loom  weaving  at 
this    time    be^an    gradually    to    be    superseded    and    displaced 
by  power-looms,  this  firm,  about  1845  commenced  to  establish 
weaving   by  steam   power,  and    in   the  course  of  a  few  years 
niter  they  ereeted  on  tlie  side  of  the  stream  formerly  u-ed  by 
their  family,  a   new   work  for  spinning  and  weaving  in  all  its 
rtmenta,    which    was   named   "  The  Camperdown    Lin  -n 
Works."     The  old  trade  of  bleaching,  both  in  yarn  and  cloth, 
is  still   retained,  and  the  dyeing  of  yarns  for  Jute  carpets,  of 
which  they  are  extensive  makers,  is  also  carried  on  within  the 
works.     They  are  perhaps  the  only  firm  in  the  district  who  take 
in  the  raw  material  and  send  out  the  cloth  in  bales  from  their 
own  premises,  the  whole  operations,  spinning,  bleaching,  dyeing, 
weaving,  calendering,  packing,  &c.,  &c  ,  being  performed  within 
the  uates  of  their  extensive  Works.     Their  principal  spinning- 
mill  is  entirely  fire-proof,  and  from  its  great  height  and  collossal 
proportions  is  a  commanding  object  in  the  district.     Then1  are 
val  engines  in  this  building,  but  the  giant  of  the  structure, 
although  nominally  of  100  horse-power,  actually  works  up  to 
about  the  power  of  500  horses,  and  that  too  with  a  smooth  i 
steadiness,    and    regularity   truly   astonishing.       Camperdown 
Linen  Works  arc  built  on  a  regular  plan,  and  though  inter- 
sected by  various  streets  within  the  gates,  the  several  parts  are 
so  connected  that  the  material  in  its  progress  goes  from  depart- 
ment to  department  in  a  systematic   manner,  without   wast- 
ing either  time  or  labour.      Three  years  ago  this  firm  con- 
structed a  branch  line  of  railway  from  their  works  to  join  the 
I'-ailinir  line  from  Dundee  to  Kn^land,  and   the  year  following 
they  established  a  telegraphic  communication  between  the  work. 
and  their  office  in  Dundee  and  elsewhere.     The  recent  progress 

*  The  direct  descendants  of  the  weaver,  son,  grandson,  and  great  grandson,  hn\e 
been  continuously  employed  by  this  family,  and  the  two  last  are  still  in  their  works. 


574  MODERN  LINEN. 

of  this  enterprising  firm  has  been  amazing,  and  the  dimen- 
sions of  their  present  establishment  is  so  vast  that  the  works 
cover  13  J  acres  or  thereby.  The  steam  engines  on  the  premises 
are  estimated  at  1,335  indicated  horse-power,  and  upwards 
of  3,200  persons  are  constantly  employed  in  the  different 
branches  of  their  manufactures. 

There  are  other  two  spinning  and  weaving  establishments  by 
power  in  the  village.  Pitalpine  Works,  belonging  to  James 
Donald,  are  driven  by  two  engines,  together  of  70  horse-power, 
and  contain  1,802  spindles  and  85  power-looms,  and  give  employ- 
ment to  300  hands.  West  Mills,  belonging  to  Edward  Parker,  are 
driven  by  two  engines,  together  of  40  horse-power.  They  contain 
1,124  spindles  and  12  power-looms,  and  employ  170  hands.  In 
addition  to  these  works  a  great  many  hand-looms  are  employed 
in  the  village  and  district  around  by  .these  firms,  and  by  other 
manufacturers  located  in  Lochee. 

The  village  is  now  a  most  important  place,  and  branching  out 
very  rapidly,  and  it  will  probably  soon  be  united  in  fact,  as  it  is 
already  politically,  with  Dundee. 

MONTROSE. 

In  the  beginning  of  last  century,  and  until  about  1744,  Mon- 
trose  was  distinguished  for  its  shipping.  It  was  also  famous 
for  an  annual  market  for  Linen  yarn,  which  was  brought  from 
all  parts  of  the  counties  of  Angus  and  Mearns,  and  even  from 
Aberdeenshire  and  more  distant  places,  and  sold  here.  The 
yarn  was  either  manufactured  into  Linen  or  thread  in  the  town, 
or  sent  to  other  places  for  sale,  and  some  of  it  found  its  way 
to  London,  Manchester,  and  other  places  in  England.  The 
first  manufacture  of  any  consequence  in  Montrose  was  sail-cloth. 
It  was  begun  by  a  company  in  1745,  and  carried  on  for  many 
years,  with  considerable  success.  Another  company,  on  a  larger 
scale,  soon  after  followed,  and  subsequently  a  number  of  smaller 
concerns  were  started,  some  of  them  during  the  war  which  termi- 
nated with  the  Peace  of  1783.  After  this  Peace  the  article  was  so 
much  overdone,  that  the  great  companies,  and  most  of  the  smaller 
ones,  gave  up  the  trade.  Two  companies  set  up  the  manu- 
facture of  thread,  and,  as  before  with  canvas,  their  example  was 
soon  followed  by  others  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  the  trade  was 


SCOTCH  LINEN.  575 

long  carried  on  extensively  and  profitably  by  some  of  these  con- 
cerns. The  canvas,  and  much  <-t'  tin-  thread  manufactured 
sold  in  London,  the  balance  of  the  latin-  being  chielly  sent  to 
Manchester,  and,  for  a  while,  all  found  a  ready  market.  Some 
In-own  sin  flings  and  Osnahurgs  were  also  made  by  manufacturers 
here,  and  a  considerable  trade  was  carried  <»n  in  the  commission 
lint-  in  Osnalmrgs  and  yarns  sent  to  Glasgow.  Pennant .  in  his 
Tour  in  1776,  says — "  Montrose  has  increased  one-third  since 
the  year  1745.  At  that  time  there  was  not  a  single  manufac- 
turer. At  present  the  manufactures  have  risen  to  a  great 
pitch  ;  for  example,  that  of  sail-cloth,  or  sail-duck,  as  it  is  here 
called,  is  very  considerable.  In  one.  house  82,5G6  pieces  have 
been  made  since  1755.  Each  piece  is  38  yards  long,  and 
numlKTcd  from  8  to  1.  No.  8  weighs  24  lb.,  and  every  piece, 
down  to  No.  1,  gains  3  lb.  in  the  piece.  The  thread  for  this 
cloth  is  spun  here,  not  by  the  common  wheel,  but  the  hands. 
Women  are  employed,  who  have  the  Flax  placed  round  their 
waist,  and  twist  a  thread  with  each  hand  as  they  recede  from 
a  wheel  turned  by  a  boy  at  the  end  of  a  great  room.  Coarse 
cloth  for  Linen  for  the  soldiery  is  also  made  here  ;  besides  this 
coarse  Linens,  which  are  sent  to  London  or  Manchester  to  be 
printed  ;  and  cottons  for  the  same  purpose  are  printed  at  Perth. 
Great  quantities  of  fine  Linen,  lawns,  and  cambric,  are  manu- 
factured in  this  town,  the  last  from  2s  6d  to  5s  a  yard.  Diapers 
and  Osnaburgs  make  up  the  sum  of  the  weavers'  employ,  which 
are  exported  to  London,  and  thence  to  the  West  Indies.  Much 
thread  is  brought  here  by  the  rural  spinners  to  be  cleaned  and 
made  into  parcels,  and  much  of  it  is  coloured  here.  The 
Meaching  is  very  considerable,  and  is  the  property  of  the  town. 
It  is  not  only  used  by  the  manufacturers,  but  by  private  fami- 
lies for  the  drying  of  their  Linen.  The  men  pride  themselves 
on  the  beauty  of  their  Linen,  both  weaving  and  household,  and 
with  great  reason,  as  it  is  the  effect  of  the  skill  and  industry  of 
their  spouses,  who  fully  emulate  the  character  of  the  good  wife 
HO  admirably  described  by  the  wisest  of  men." 

In  the  years  1805  to  1807  the  quantity  of  Linen  stamped 

raged  198,375  yards  yearly,  the  fees  which  the  stamp-master 

drew  for  same  being  £20  13s  3d.     For  the  three  years  from 

1816  to  1818   the  quantity  had  increased  to  an  average  of 

465,31'.'.)  yards  yearly,  and  the  fees  to  £68  9s  6d 


576  MODERN  LTXKN. 

In  1789  Montrose  had  53  ships,  of  3543  register  tons, 
In  May  1815,  the  Board  of  Trustees  for  Manufactures-  in  Scot- 
land agreed  to  give  £30  per  annum  for  three  years  towards  the 
support  of  a  lace-school  in  Montrose.  The  Board  also  presented 
the  Dowager  Lady  Eamsay  of  Balmain  with  a  very  handsome 
gold  medal,  as  a  mark  of  the  approbation  they  entertained  of 
her  meritorious  exertions  in  establishing  so  useful  a  manufacture 
in  Scotland.  After  the  introduction  of  Flax  spinning  by  machi- 
nery, Montrose  was  not  long  in  engaging  in  the  trade,  and,  in 
1805,  the  first  mill  was  built.  Others  followed,  but  success  did 
not  in  all  cases  attend  them.  On  llth  July  1817,  Ford's  Flax 
spinning -mi  11,  of  four  storeys  and  attics,  with  two  engines  of  12 
and  25,  together  37  horse-power,  was  advertised  for  sale.  It  con- 
tained 38  spinning  frames  for  Flax,  and  22  for  tow,  of  30  spindles 
each,  being  1800  spindles  in  all,  together  with  4  thread  or  twist- 
ing frames  of  30  spindles  each,  or  120  in  all,  making  a  total  of 
1,920  spindles.  In  1834  there  were  four  large  works  in  the 
town  moved  by  steam,  and  one  in  the  parish,  on  the  North  Esk, 
driven  by  water.  There  were  also  other  two  mills  on  the  same 
river,  in  the  neighbouring  parish  of  Logie,  both  driven  by  water, 
and  belonging  to  Montrose  firms.  The  steam-power  of  the  mills 
in  Montrose  was  equal  to  129  horses,  producing  annually  854,869 
spindles,  and  the  two  in  Logie  302,224  spindles.  Part  of  the 
yarn  was  manufactured  in  the  town  and  district,  and  part  sold 
to  manufacturers  in  other  towns,  or  shipped  to  foreign  countries. 
That  year  the  Linen  woven  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood  con- 
sisted of  4200  pieces  bleached  sheeting,  21,443  bleached  dowlas, 
2,225  brown  sheeting,  7,106  bleached  duck,  2,253  bleached  can- 
vas, 2,716  brown  canvas,  191  Navy  canvas,  1,690  hessian,  204 
tarpauling,  2,057  hop  bagging,  32  sacking,  2,635  Osnaburg,  and 
241  of  sundries  ;  making  in  all,  46,993  pieces.  The  importa- 
tion of  Flax  into  Montrose  same  year  was  2,496  tons,  and  44 
tons  of  hemp,  and  the  shipping  belonging  to  the  port  numbered 
108  vessels,  11,000  tons. 

Since  the  period  referred  to  the  trade  of  the  town  has  gone  on 
steadily,  and  the  fluctuations  and  vicissitudes  of  other  towns 
have  been  less  felt  here,  chiefly  owing  to  the  firms  engaged 
in  the  business  not  having  extended  their  establishments 
beyond  the  wants  of  the  trade,  nor  beyond  their  ability  to 
maintain  the  control  over  them,  and  to  buy  and  sell  when  and 


8('o  i    i;  M\-EN.  "'77 

\vhere  they  can  .1-.  it  to  most  advantage.  At  the  present  time 
Mere  are  four  firms  engaged  in  Flax-spinning  in  Montrose. 
The  motive  power  is  steam,  of  the  aggregate  of  305  horse-power ; 
an  1  tli.-  mills  contain  'J7, .~>on  spindles,  and  give  employment  to 
I  955  p'oj.le.  In  18.~>1  the  number  of  firms  engaged  in  the 
tni.lf  \va-  the  same,  and  the  power  differed  little  from  what  it 
now  is.  One  of  the  firms.  Kichards  and  Co.,  have  now  also  a 

ni  engine  of  26  horse-power,  .hiving  122  power-looms,  with 
nil  the  necessary  preparing  and  finishing  machinery  for  their 
production,  1MO  hands  Iwing  employed  in  this  depart- 
ment. The  quantity  of  Flax,  Tow,  <fec.,  now  consumed  annu- 
ally is  close  on  5,000  t«»ns,  and  the  wages  paid  to  those  engaged 
in  the  Linen  manufacture  in  the  town  amounts  to  about  £50,000 
y.-arly.  There  are  a  good  many  hand-loom  weavers  in  the 
t"\vn  and  district  amuiid.  and  the  fabrics  chiefly  woven  by 
them,  and  in  the  power-looms,  are  ducks,  sheetings,  dowlas, 

ians,  canvas,  and  floor-cloth,  the  quality  being  remarkably 
good,  and  the  bleach  and  finish  of  some  of  the  fabrics  of  a 
high  order.  James  Mudie  employs  about  130  to  140  hands 
in  making  floor-cloth  in  all  widths  up  to  8  yards,  and  broad 

tings.  He  contemplates  erecting  a  power-loom  factory  in 
Montrose  shortly.  The  yarn  spun  in  Montrose  has  long  had 
a  high  reputation,  both  for  superiority  of  material  and  excel- 
lence of  spin.  Messrs  Aberdein  spin  from  8  to  70  lea,  and 
Messrs  Paton  have  spun  as  high  as  30  lea  dry  tow,  and  90 
lea  dry  Flax.  Part  of  the  yarn  spun,  and  not  manufactured 
by  the  spinners,  is  sold  to  manufacturers  throughout  the  county, 
and  part  of  it  is  exported  to  Germany,  Spain,  and  other  coun- 
tries. The  linns  in  the  trade  are  of  long  standing  and  high 
respectability. 

The  "  District  Trade"  is  in  a  very  prosperous  condition. 
Spinners  and  manufacturers  are  getting  a  satisfactory  return 
for  their  capital  and  labour.  Operatives  have  steady  employ- 
ment and  good  wages.  Provisions  are  abundant  and  cheap. 
All  classes  are  sat i>ti«-d  and  happy  contentment  reigns.  Never 
at  any  previous  period  was  there  more  cause  for  gratitude  than 
now,  as  the  present  is  all  that  could  be  desired,  and  the  pros- 
pects for  the  future  are  very  hopeful. 

oo 


578  MODERN  LINEN. 


DUNDEE. 


DUNDEE,  the  centre  and  great  seat  of  the  Linen  manufacture 
in  Scotland,  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  rising  ground  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Tay.  It  is  a  town  of  great  antiquity,  and  has 
often  taken  a  prominent  part  in  national  affairs.  One  of  the 
earliest  notices  of  Dundee  occurs  in  Hollinshead's  History  of 
Scotland,  where  it  is  stated,  "  The  Roman  general  Agricola, 
during  the  reign  of  Domitian,  near  the  end  of  the  first  century, 
defeated  Karanach  or  Catanach,  King  of  the  Picts  in  Fife,  and 
chased  him  to  the  Tay.  He  got  a  boat,  and  escaped  to  the  other 
side,  and  abode  at  Dundee  or  Alectum,  whither  a  great  many  of 
the  Pictish  nobility,  who  had  escaped  from  the  Romans,  resorted 
to  him/' 

"  A  little  later,  10,000  Danes  and  Norwegians,  under  G-ildo, 
landed  in  the  Tay,  and  Garnard,  King  of  the  Picts,  who  suc- 
ceeded Karanach,  hearing  of  their  arrival,  left  Dundee  with  his 
nobles,  and  went  to  meet  him.  He  led  Gildo  to  Dundee,  and 
lodged  him  in  the  Castle.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  visited  by 
Gald,  the  Galgacus  of  the  Roman  historians,  King  of  the  Scots, 
who  remained  certain  days  in  Dundee.  The  two  kings,  accom- 
panied by  Gildo,  then  departed  to  the  Castle  of  Forfar,  where 
they  entered  into  a  league,  and  held  a  council  of  war  against 
the  Romans." 

The  town  of  Dundee  is  occasionally  mentioned  by  ancient  his- 
torians after  the  period  referred  to,  but  it  is  not  certain  that  these 
early  notices  are  historically  true.  It  is  not,  however,  the  history 
of  the  place  that  is  proposed  to  be  given  here,  but  only  such 
notices  regarding  its  early  trade  as  have  been  met  with.  That 
it  was  a  place  of  some  commercial  importance  at.  a  remote  period 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  In  the  charter  granted  to  the  town  on 
20th  January,  1358,  by  King  David  Bruce,  which  confirms  for- 


SCOT.  -ii  579 

nior    privileges    and  >•   foil-  '\vin-_c   passage 

occurs:  —  "  Wherein  there  is  great  trade  of  merchandise,  and 
w  hereunto  there  is  made  great  resort  and  repai  It 

may  thus  he  inferred  that  at  :iud  prior  to  this  date  a  considerable 
ami  profitable  trade  had  K  MM!  on  in  the  town,  and  th 

was  frequented  by  many  people,  no  doubt  both  from  the  neigh- 
country,  and  from  distant  places,  both  for  pleasure  and 


Hector  Bootins,  the  historian  and  Principal  of  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  who  wa»  a  native  of  Dundee,  and  flourished  in  the 
rei-n  of  James  V.,  about  1526,  says  of  the  Dundee  of  his  day. 
'  In  which  the  people  travel  very  painfully  about,  weaving  and 
making  of  cloth,"  which  shows  that  the  inhabitants  were  ti 
manufacturing  people,  and  very  probably  they  made  both  Linen 
and  woollen  goods. 

One  of  the  iirst  notices  of  Dundee  as  a  port  is  when  David, 
Karl  of  Huntingdon,  landed  in  the  harbour  on  his  return  from 
the  Holy  Land  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century.  In  1341 
Walter  Curry,  a  shipmaster  belonging  to  Dundee,  as  related  by 
Fordun,  was  a  leading  party  in  a  strategy  whereby  Douglas  of 
Liddesdale  got  possession  of  the  Castle  of  Edinburgh,  then  in 
the  possession  of  the  English.  The  celebrated  naval  commander 
Andrew  Wood,  in  1489,  defeated  the  English  Fleet  off  the  Bell 
Rock,  and  carried  the  prizes  into  Dundee. 

In  the  reign  of  James  III.,  about  1467,  as  quoted  by  Skene 
in  his  glossary  of  the  Regiam  Magestam,  an  Act  of  Parliament 
was  passed,  which  imposed  a  certain  duty  on  all  kinds  of  ships 
resorting  to  the  port  or  harbour  of  Dundee,  for  the  repair  and 
support  of  the  harbour  works,  the  pier  or  shore,  and  bulwarks. 
In  1  I'.H  a  disputed  case  about  a  ship  called  the  Mai-c.  of  Dundee, 
came  before  the  Lords  Auditors  of  Parliament.  In  l.V;tJ  the 
wealth  of  the  (own  must  have  been  great,  as  it  was  then  assessed 
.L'lo.-)  Us  :>>,!  .sterling,  brim;  nearly  half  as  much  as  Edinburgh, 
and  very  much  more  than  any  other  town  in  the  country.  In 
15&)  the  Magistrates  were  ordered  by  the  Regent  Murray  to 
send  three  vessels  to  join  the  fleet  appointed  to  pursue  Hothwell, 
and  these  vessels  formed  the  principal  part  of  the  fleet.  A  barque 
belonging  to  I  Mmdce.  carrying  £0odsfrom  Camphire,  was  wrecked 
near  Dunbar.  The  tradesmen  of  the  town,  farmers  in  the  neHi- 
o  o2 


580  MODERN  LTNEX. 

bourhood,  and  others,  cut  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  vessel,  took 
away  the  whole  cargo,  and  sold  it  to  the  country  people.  Among 
the  articles  carried  off  were  ten  pieces  of  Holland  cloth.  On 
27th  January,  1636,  the  Privy  Council  fined  the  wreckers  from 
fifty  merks  to  fifty  pounds  each.  In  1583  the  exportation  of 
sheep  skins  to  Flanders  was  prohibited,  Edinburgh,  Perth,  and 
Dundee  "  having  done  the  like.'' 

In  1645  Dundee  was  then  the  second  town  in  Scotland,  having  a 
population  of  1 1 ,160,  while  Edinburgh  had  34,440,  and  Glasgow 
and  Perth  6,600  each.  In  1651  the  town  was  taken  by  assault 
by  General  Monk,  at  a  vast  cost  of  blood  and  treasure  to  the 
inhabitants,  and  to  the  many  strangers  who  had  then  taken  shelter 
within  its  walls.  The  vessels  belonging  to  the  port  at  that  time 
amounted  to  one  hundred,  of  which  sixty  were  in  the  harbour, 
and  the  plunder  taken  in  the  town  was  shipped  in  them,  and 
sent  off  to  Leith  ;  but  the  vessels  were  lost  in  sight  of  the  town, 
and  none  of  them  passed  out  of  the  Tay.  After  this  calamity, 
the  population  decreased  greatly.  In  the  sack  of  the  town,  a 
store  of  cloth,  belonging  to  the  manufactory  which  had  been 
established  at  Newmills  in  Haddingtonshiie,  was  taken,  and  the 
works  were  shortly  after  closed. 

In  1654  the  town  of  Dundee,  as  reported  to  Cromwell  by 
Tucker,  "was  much  shaken  and  abated  of  her  former  grandeur, 
but  she  was  still,  though  not  glorious,  yet  not  contemptible" 

The  Magistrates  and  Council  applied  to  Parliament  for  assist- 
ance, in  consequence  of  the  damage  done  to  the  town  by  Monk  ; 
and  in  1669,  besides  some  other  relief  granted,  an  Act  was  passed 
authorizing  a  general  collection  to  be  made  throughout  the  king- 
dom for  the  purpose  of  repairing  the  harbour.  In  pursuance 
of  this  Act,  a  collection  was  made  in  all  the  churches  throughout 
the  country,  by  authority  of  the  General  Assembly. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  sack  of  Dundee  by  Monk  was  not  only 
a  terrible  calamity  to  the  inhabitants  themselves,  but  that  it  was 
viewed  as  a  national  misfortune.  Before  the  assault  the  town  was 
only  second  to  Edinburgh,  both  in  population  and  importance  ; 
but  afterwards  it  fell  to  the  fourth  rank  among  the  towns  in  the 
country,  both  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen  rising  above  it  In  1692 
the  Convention  of  Royal  Burghs,  in  making  up  each  £100  Scots 
of  their  annual  expenditure,  assessed  Edinburgh  £32  6s  8d  ; 


DfOB    I-  IN:  •    Sl 


<;ia--..w,  £15;    Aberdeen,  46;    Dottke,    N    13s  4d,  an  1  UM 

oilier  towns  in  lesser  sums.      In  10(J5  a  list  was  made  up  for  a 
monthly  cess  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and  Bdmborgfa 
gave  £323  Gs  8d  sterling  ;  Glasgow,  £150;  Aberdeen,  £60  1 
and  Duti.hr,  fit;  13s  4d. 

Although  no  precise  accounts  are  known  to  exist  regarding 
the  early  trade  of  Dund.  .[uite  certain  that  tin-  Limn 

manufacture  was  early  intruduced  into  the  town,  and  carried 
mi  to  an  extent  at  least  equal  to  the  wants  of  tin  district  ;  and 
I  nt  the  seventeenth  century,  some  of  it  was  made 
f<>r  exportation. 

In  Septeuil'  r.  L68&,  JftAefl  Bruich,  ^kipper,  of  Dundee,  was 
ig  in  his  scout  to  Norway,  with  a  small  parcel  of  goods, 
and  a  thousand  pounds  8cots  wherewith  to  buy  a  lar-ei  vessel. 
In  mid  sea  he  tell  in  with  a  French  privateer,  who  took  both 
cargo  and  cash,  and  was  to  sink  the  vessel  and  put  the  crew  in 
their  boat,  in  which  case  they  must  have  perished.  The  pri- 
vateer consented  to  let  Broicli  go  in  his  ship  on  obtaining  a  bond 
fox  GOO  guelders,  to  be  remitted  to  Dunkirk,  and  taking  the 
shippers  as  a  security  for  the  money.  On  th«  return  of  Broich 
his  case  excited  much  commiseration,  more  especially  as  he  had 
suffered  shipwreck  and  capture  four  times  before.  On  his  peti- 
tion the  Privy  Council  ordained  a  voluntary  contribution  to  be 
made  tor  his  relief  in  Edinburgh,  Leith,  Borrowstounuess,  Queens- 
terry,  and  in  the  counties  of  Fife  and  Forfar. 

In  lo-.i'.i  Hod  crick  M'Keuzie,  of  Prestonhall,  wanted  to  take 
some  vicinal  from  his  land  in  Forfarshire  to  Mid-Lothian,  but 
he  was  prevented  hy  the  M  nitrates  of  Dundee,  upon  pretence 
of  a  late  act  of  Privy  Council.  He  petitioned,  and  the  Council 
allowed  him  to  tr.m-p"rt  the  victual,  enjoining  that  "he  should 
not  be  troubled  or  robin  -d  within  the  said  town  of  Dundee,  or 
liberties  thereof,  as  they  shall  be  answerable." 

On  -j;U  December,  1700,  the  Magistrates  applied  to  Parlia- 
ment by  petition,  craving  an  imposition  for  building  and  re- 
pairing the  harbour,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  prayer  was 

•<  d. 

In  IToT,  the  Parliament,  in  consideration  "f  the  great  sutYer- 
ingfl  of  the  town  of  the  Dundee  in  the  time  of  the  troubles,  and 

at  the  revolution  and  of  "  the  universal  decay  of  trade,"  especially 


582  MODERN  LINEN. 

in  that  burgh,  granted  it  an  imposition  of  two  pennies  Scots  on 
every  pint  of  ale  or  beer  made  or  sold  in  the  town  for  twenty- 
four  years.  This  was  one  of  the  last  acts  of  the  Scottish  Parlia- 
ment. 

At  the  period  of  the  Union  (1727),  1,500,000  yards  of  Linens 
were  manufactured  in  Dundee  annually. 

The  manufacture  of  sewing  thread  was  at  one  time  an  import- 
ant branch  of  trade  in  Dundee.  Christian  Shaw,  daughter  of 
the  Laird  of  Barganan  (she  was  the  cause  of  five  women  being 
burned  for  witchcraft  in  Paisley,  in  1697),  was  the  first  who  in- 
troduced the  spinning  of  fine  Linen  thread  into  this  country  in  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century.  She  acquired  a  remarkable 
dexterity  in  spinning  fine  yarn,  and  conceived  the  idea  of  making 
it  into  thread.  She  bleached  the  material  and  did  all  the  pro- 
cesses herself  at  first.  Some  of  her  thread  was  taken  to  Bath, 
and  sold  to  the  lace  manufacturers  there  at  a  good  profit.  A 
friend  of  the  family  happening  to  be  in  Holland,  learned  the 
secrets  of  the  thread  manufacture,  which  was  carried  on  to  a 
great  extent  there,  particularly  the  art  of  sorting  and  number- 
ing the  threads,  and  packing  them  for  sale,  and  also  the  con- 
struction and  management  of  the  twisting  and  twining  machines. 
This  knowledge  he  communicated  to  his  friends  in  Barganan, 
which  greatly  assisted  them  in  the  manufacture.  The  young 
women  in  the  neighbourhood  were  taught  to  spin  fine  yarn, 
twining  mills  were  erected,  and  the  trade  extended  until  it  be- 
came a  leading  manufacture  in  the  district.  It  was  subsequently 
taken  up  in  Dundee,  and  for  a  long  period  it  gave  employment 
to  a  large  population  here  and  in  other  places  throughout  the 
country. 

Soon  after  the  Bank  of  Scotland  was  established  in  1696, 
branches  were  opened  in  Dundee,  Glasgow,  and  other  places, 
but  proving  unsuccessful  they  were  speedily  withdrawn.  In 
1731  when  the  country  was  making  advances  in  industry  and 
wealth,  a  new  attempt  was  made  to  establish  branches  in  Glas- 
gow, Dundee,  and  other  towns.  It  was  found,  however,  that 
the  effort  was  premature,  and  after  two  years'  trial  these  branches 
were  all  recalled. 

In  1720  the  mob  took  possession  of  two  vessels  loading  bear 
in  the  harbour,  in  order  to  prevent  the  exportation  of  the  grain, 


m  H  1.1  - 

and  also  gutted   the  house  of  the  inert-hunt ,  George  Demj> 
In  17-.'  .i  -imilar  affair  took  place  in  l)undee. 

Tin-  harbour  in  these  early  times  was  composed  ol  small  pi. TN 
formed  of  wood  jutting  out  from  the  .shore,  at  \\hieh  vessels  lay 
to  load  and  discharge,  with  breakwaters  of  stone  outside  to  keep 
the  water  smooth  within.  It  extended  irom  the  CaMlehill  .>n 
the  east,  westward  by  the  Butcher  Row  to  St  Nicholas  Craig. 

In  the  letter  from  Samuel  Homespun  in  the  Gentleman's 
Magazine  for  1742,  referred  to  in  page  374,  some  remarks  are 
made  which  throw  oui-idi  ruble  light  on  the  manufactures  of 
Dundee  at  that  JH.M  iod.  He  says  "  I  shall  now  compute  how 
much  an  acre  of  the  worst  Flax  will  produce  when  manufac- 
tured into  the  meanest  sort  of  Linen ;  a  case  that  though  it  can 
scarcely  happen  in  this  country,  yet  for  argument's  sake  I  shall 
admit. 

"  It  will  not  he  denied  that  of  all  Flax  the  Riga  and  Peters- 
burg is  the  coarsest ;  that  of  all  Linens  the  fabric  of  the  Dundee 
Linens  is  the  poorest  and  meanest ;  that  Riga  and  Petersburg 
Flax  is  of  a  sufficient  quality,  and  is  commonly  used  for  the 
fabric  of  the  Dundee  Linen  ;  and  lastly  that  30  stone  of  Flax  to 
an  acre  is  a  very  bad  crop.  This  30  stone  of  Flax  then,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  produce  of  an  acre,  will  yield  240  spindles  of 
yarn,  at  two  pounds  to  the  spindle,  and  this  240  spindles  wrought 
in  a  400  reed,  will  produce  1,152  yards  of  Linen,  which,  when 
whitened,  and  made  into  buckram,  is  worth  7d  per  yard,  and 
amounts  to  £67  4s. 

"  But  as  this  supposition  consists  merely  in  speculation,  and 
cannot  be  so  low  in  fact,  because  the  worst  Flax  that  grows  in 
Great  Britain  is  of  infinitely  a  finer  quality  than  the  Riga  and 
Petersburg  Flax,  and  as  the  refuse  or  tow  of  the  worst  British 
Flax  is  of  a  sufficient  quality  for  the  fabric  of  Dundee  Linens, 
I  shall  proceed  to  show  what  sum  the  produce  of  an  acre  of  Flax 
may  be  supposed,  at  a  medium,  to  save  or  yield  to  these  ki 
doms."  This  is  shown  by  the  M-o-nd  series  of  calculations  in  the 
former  ret! -ivm •«•  t »  this  letter.  The  letter  is  certainly  not  flat- 
tering to  tie  manufacturers  of  Dundee  at  that  early  period. 

After  the  rebellion  of  1745  the  Government  resolved  to  put 
an  end  t<>  the  arbitrary  system  ,,f  hereditary  jurisdictions,  and  in 
1747  an  Act  -^  them  in  the  down.  The  Duke 


584  MODERN  LIM;N. 

of  Douglas  was  paid  £1800  for  his  constabulary  rights  and  pri- 
vileges in  Dundee.  The  town  thus  freed  from  control  began  to 
emerge  out  of  the  gloom  in  which  it  had  so  long  been  shrouded, 
and  a  brighter  day  soon  dawned  upon  her. 

In  Brice  of  Exeter's  "  Universal  Geographical  Dictionary/' 
published  in  London  in  1759,  it  is  said  "  Dundee  is  one  of  the 
best  ports  for  trade  in  all  Scotland,  particularly  for  foreign,  yet 
has  it  considerable  inland  business  also,  especially  for  corn  and 
Linen  cloth,  which  makes  the  country  round  about  rich  and 
populous,  being  maintained  by  the  great  quantities  of  goods 
which  the  merchants  of  Dundee  buy  for  exportation." 

By  this  time  the  liberality  of  Parliament  in  granting  a  bounty 
on  brown  Linens  for  exportation  was  beginning  to  be  felt. 
Formerly  the  trade  could  not  be  carried  on  without  loss,  partly 
from  the  weight  of  the  fabrics  made,  and  partly  from  the  lowness 
of  the  prices  got  for  them.  Now  the  industry  of  the  inhabitants 
was  stimulated,  manufactures  were  established,  and  prosecuted 
with  a  success  that  operated  in  a  most  beneficial  manner  on  the 
domestic  habits  and  comforts  of  the  people. 

Pennant,  in  his  tour  in  1776,  says,  "  Dundee  used  to  be  cele- 
brated for  the  manufacture  of  plaiden,  which  was  exported  un- 
dressed and  undyed  to  Sweden,  Germany,  &c.,  for  clothing  the 
troops  in  these  countries,  but  this  was  superseded  by  the  manu- 
facture of  Osnaburgs  in  1747,  and  it  is  now  the  staple  of  the 
couoty  of  Angus.  In  1773  4,488,460  yards  of  Linen  were 
stamped." 

The  Eev.  Dr  Kobert  Small,  in  his  Statistical  Account  of 
Dundee,  published  in  1762,  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the 
manufactures  of  the  town  at  that  period.  He  says — "  The 
principal  and  staple  manufacture  of  Dundee  is  Linen  of  various 
kinds: — 1st,  Osnaburgs,  and  other  similar  coarse  fabrics  of 
different  names,  for  exportation,  and  which  alone,  till  lately, 
were  subjected  to  the  national  stamps.  The  quantity  of  these 
stamped  between  November,  1788  and  1789,  amounted  to 
4,242,653  yards,  valued  at  £108,782  14s  2d ;  and  subtracting 
from  this  a  fourth  part,  supposed  to  be  brought  from  six  neigh- 
bouring parishes  into  Dundee  Stamp  Offices,  there  will  remain 
for  the  quantity  made  in  this  parish,  3,181,990  yards,  in  value 
£80,587  8s  2d.  All  the  different  sorts  of  canvas  for  shipping  : 


'1  his  fabric   i*  entirely  confined   to    the   town,  and   the  quantity 
annually  madr   maybe  rat.-d   at  704,000  \  :id  valued  at 

.000.     The  cloth  -  ind  niii.Ie  by  some  of  the  principal 

manufactuivrN  is  thought  to  be  superior  in  quality  to  any  other 
in  IJritain,   and   hy  a  regulation  now  introduerd.  and  l'..r  which 
we  are  chi.-ily  in  Irht.-d   t.»  .Mr  (Jraliain  of  Kiutry,  ft'  .subjcrtin.n 
it  to  public  stamp- masters,  will  probably  retain  its  char;; 
A  process  is  also  known  by  which  the  buyer,  at  a  small  addi- 
tional  ttptMe,    may    have   it    effectually    secured   from   mildew. 
i'.d.   Sack-cloth,   principally  tor   the   consumption  of  th< 
bouring  country  :    The  quantity  annually  made   may  amount  to 
10,000  yards,  ami   may  be  valued  at  Jl'800.     4th,  Ba^in.i;  lor 
11  wool,  in  quantity  liOjOOO  yards,  and  iu  value  £5,500- 
,~>th,  Some  diaper  by  one  Company  lately   Mfc&tidied       lith. 
The  unater  p;irt  oi' the  Linen  necessary  for  household  purpo 
but  the  quantity  and  value  of  this  I  cannot  pretend  to  ^ 

•   1  .iuds  of  Linen,  the  manufacture  of  cotton 

i  la; ely  introduced,  and  will  probably  soon  become  a 
very  important  branch  of  business.  Several  Companies  are 
already  engaged  in  it ;  they  employ  about  400  men,  women, 
and  children  in  spinning  cotton  into  yarn  for  woof;  they  are 
supposed  to  spin  annually  135,000  Ibs.  of  yarn,  valued  at 
!'•_!<  IL'.")!  ) ;  -.n.l,  with  warp  which  they  buy  from  distant  cotton- 
mills,  most  of  these  Companies  have  begun  to  work  up  their 
yarn  into  calicoes,  handkerchiefs,  and  coarse  waistcoats.  One 
Company  also  spins  yarn  for  muslin,  to  the  annual  value  of 

HX).     An  En^li>h  Company  from  Lambeth  is  also  en^ 
in  t>tab!i>hing  an  woollen  manufacture,  where  every  branch  of 
the  business,  from  the  wool  to  the  finished  cloth,  is  proposed  to 
be  carried  on.     The  looms  employed  in  all  the  kinds  of  wea\ 
and  in  all  parts  of  the  parish,  are  from  1800  to  1900. 

"  The  manufacture  of  coloured  thread  has  been  established  in 
Dundee  for  50  or  GO  years,  and  mifl  for  a  c.'U-iderahle  time 
peculiar  to  it.  Thi-  I.IIMIM-S  is  in  the  hands  of  seven  different 
: panics  or  masters,  who  use  Gt'.  twisting  mills,  and  employ 
about  1,;>10  .-pinners,  and  :570  servants  to  make  the  yarn  into 
thread.  The  quantity  annually  made  is  computed  at  iy>i),568 
Ibs  .  and  valued  at  £33, GOG.  The  spinners  live  in  different 
parts  of  Scotland,  where  labour  is  cheaper  than  in  Dundee." 


586  MODERN  LINEN. 

"  Two  Companies  are  engaged  in  manufacturing  cordage  of  all 
kinds  for  shipping,  and  ropes  for  all  the  various  uses  of  the 
country.  They  employ  about  30  persons,  and  they  also  carry 
on  the  whole  business  of  ship-chandlers." 

In  addition  to  these  branches  of  trade,  Dr  Small  mentions 
that  leather  was  tanned  in  Dundee,  the  computed  annual  value 
of  which  was  £14,200.  About  32  persons  were  employed  in 
tanning,  who  used  £5000  of  oak  bark  ;  12  curriers  in  dressing 
upper  leather  to  shoes ;  150  in  making  boots  and  shoes  for 
exportation,  and  200  for  home  consumption.  The  value  of  the 
boots  and  shoes  exported  was  about  £6,923.  Soap-making  was 
an  art  known  in  Dundee  in  the  1 6th  century,  and  the  manufac- 
ture was  at  one  time  carried  on  extensively,  but  in  1791  the 
duty  to  Government  had  declined  to  £1,828  19s  OJd.  The 
manufacture  of  glass  had  then  been  introduced  three  or  four 
years,  and  two  glass-houses,  one  for  bottles  and  the  other  for 
window-glass,  had  been  erected,  employing  100  persons,  and 
yielding  a  duty  to  Government  in  1791  of  £3,406.  Many  per- 
sons were  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  tobacco  and  snuff. 
A  sugar-house,  with  three  pans,  employed  15  persons.  There 
was  also  a  foundry  and  salt-works.  Two  native  banks  and  two 
branch  banks,  one  from  Edinburgh,  the  other  from  Paisley,  did 
business  in  Dundee,  with  an  estimated  circulation  of  £160,000 ; 
and  a  Fire  Insurance  Office,  which,  although  established  only  a 
few  years,  had  then  assurances  current  to  the  extent  of  £800,000 

In  1751  the  Excise  duties  collected  in  Dundee  were — Malt, 
£811  13s  l|d;  Ale  and  Beer,  £1,214  15s  3Jd  ;  Candles,  £160 
4s  2d ;  Hides,  £283  11s  8Jd;  in  all,  £2,470  4s  3d.  In  1791 
they  had  risen  to  £10,015  lls  Od ;  and  the  Custom  House  duties, 
and  other  items  paid  to  Government  by  Dundee  same  year, 
amounted  to  £56,845  14s  3|d.  In  1745  the  tonnage  cleared 
inwards  from  foreign  ports  was  1,280  tons  ;  outwards,  500 
tons.  No  account  of  the  inward  coasting  was  kept,  but  the  out- 
ward was  3,000  tons.  In  1791  it  was,  inward  foreign,  10,520 
tons,  outward,  1,276  ;  inward  coasting,  40,923,  outward,  20,055 
tons.  On  5th  January,  1792,  116  vessels,  navigated  by  698 
men,  and  measuring  8,550^  tons,  belonged  to  the  port,  of  which 
34  were  employed  in  the  foreign,  78  in  the  coasting,  and  4  in 
the  whale-fishing  trade. 


SCOTCH  i 


Flax  from  Ruiuia, 

Do.  from 

limp, 
Tow  or  Cedilla, 

C'l-ivci  -  -H.  .1, 

Linseed, 

iibcr. 
Fir-  balks, 


OOOM  IMPORTED  FKOM  FOBUON. 
In  174& 
None. 
74  torn. 
Nome. 
Nona. 
100  Ibs. 
1,906  hhds. 


Swedish  Iron, 


100 

10,500 

SOtons. 

S  BBOUOHT  COABTWItUL 


CotionWool,  ..  ..  None, 

Tea  from  London,    . .  . .  None. 

Porter,  ..  ..  None. 

Coals  from  the  Forth,  . .  No  account. 

Sugar,  in  1745  uo  account,  but  ^  tons. 


GOODS  SENT  COAKfWISft. 


Linen,  brown  and  white,      . 

Thread,  whito  and  coloured, 

Sail-cloth, 

Cotton  Bagging. 

B.irley  or  Big, 

Wheat, 


1,000,000  yards. 
12,544  Ibs. 
None. 
None. 
3,393  qrs. 
350  qrs. 


In  1 
2,348  T..ns. 


1,036  hhds. 
1,708  loads. 


13,100 

45  tons. 


35  Tons. 
47,743  Ibs. 
1,080  hhds. 
28,021  tout 


7,842,000  yards. 
130,952  Ibs. 
280,000  yards. 
65,000     „ 
23,917  qrs. 
3,097    „ 


Dr  Small  says  "  the  particular  cause  of  the  increase  and 
]>r..sperity  of  Dundee  is  undoubtedly  the  bounty  allowed  by 
Parliament  on  Linen  manufactured  for  exportation.  By  this 
the  industry  of  the  inhabitants  was  first  set  in  motion  and 
encouraged  ;  and  their  consequent  prosperity,  if  it  be  not  an 
(.•vidi-no.1  in  favour  of  bounties  in  general,  is  at  least  a  decisive 
one  that,  in  some  cases,  they  are  wise  and  judicious,  and  may 
be  productive  of  the  greatest  benefit.  Whether  the  Linen 
manufacture  coull  now  be  supported  without  the  bounty,  or 
whether  the  spirit  of  industry  which  is  now  awakened  could  be 
easily  and  profitably  di \vrtrd  into  other  channels,  is  a  question 
on  which  it  would  be  presumption  in  any  private  person  to 
pronoumv,  and  perhaps  any  experiment  on  the  subject  miuhi 
be  dangerous." 

For  some  years  prior  to  1793  the  average  price  of  12-lu-ad 


588  MODERN  LINEN". 

Flax  in  the  Dundee  market  was  from  .£38  to  £40  a  ton,  and 
for  a  considerable  period  it  neither  fell  much  below,  nor  rose 
much  above  these  figures.  During  that  time  the  price  of  3 
ft.  lint  yarn  fluctuated  from  2s  lOd  to  3s  2d  per  spindle, 
according  to  the  rate  paid  for  spinning,  which  then  varied  from 
Is  Od  to  Is  lOd  a  spindle.  The  spinning  of  6  ft.  lint  yarn 
then  cost  2d  a  spindle  less  than  3  fts.,  and  for  spinning  7 
lb.  tow  yarn  from  Is  6d  to  2s  a  spindle  was  paid.  Tow 
was  at  that  time  of  so  little  value,  that  it  was  barely  sufficient 
to  pay  the  heckling  of  the  Flax  ;  but  the  quantity  taken  off  was 
small,  as  the  quality  of  the  Flax  was  then  superior  to  what  it 
is  now.  At  that  time  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  to  have 
25  to  26  spindles  of  3  ft.  yarn  from  the  hundred-weight  of 
12  head  St  Petersburg  Flax.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a 
fine  quality  of  Flax,  if  carefully  handled  and  little  broken  in 
the  scutching  and  preparing,  has  naturally  little  tow  upon  it. 
It  is  rough  usage  in  the  preparation  that  breaks  the  fibre  and 
produces  tow,  the  normal  condition  of  the  fibre  being  Flax. 
The  descriptions  of  Linen  chiefly  made  in  Dundee  about  this 
period  were  Osnaburgs  and  sheetings.  The  warp  of  both  was 
three  pound  lint  yarn,  and  the  weft  either  six  pound  lint  or 
seven  pound  tow  yarn.  Osnaburgs  were  almost  wholly  Flax 
warp  and  weft,  the  tow  yarn  spun  being  chiefly  put  upon  some 
of  the  qualities  of  sheetings  then  made.  The  sail-cloth  manu- 
factured was  wholly  of  Flax,  and  the  little  cotton  bagging  pro- 
duced was  of  hemp.  After  1793  the  price  of  Flax  rose,  and 
from  1795  to  1799  St  Petersburg  12-head  remained,  with  little 
fluctuation,  at  about  £52  a  ton.  In  1796  the  quantity  of  Flax 
and  Hemp  imported  was  3,336  tons,  of  the  value  of  £160,128. 

Shortly  after  Dr  Small  wrote  his  Statistical  Account  of  Dun- 
dee, a  new  element  of  material  prosperity  was  introduced  into 
the  town.  Up  to  that  period  all  the  Linen  yarn  used  in  the 
manufacture  had  been  spun  by  hand.  About  the  year  1787-8, 
Flax  spinning  by  machinery  was  commenced  at  Bervie,  and, 
nearly  contemporaneously  therewith,  at  other  localities  in  the 
country.  About  1792-3,  a  small  Flax-spinning  mill,  to  be 
driven  by  a  steam-engine  of  perhaps  10  horse-power,  was  erected 
by  Fairweather  &  Marr,  in  Chapelshade.  It  was  the  first 
attempt  of  the  kind  made  in  Dundee,  but  it  did  not  succeed. 


SCO!    11   I  IM  581) 

'I'll.-  next  effort  to  estaMi-h   ipinning    h\   machinery  wa-   made 
l.\    tlu-   late    David    r.irnie    in    (luthric    Street    (afterwards   the 
Flour  Mill),  to  the  west  of  the  present  Bell  .Mill,  tip 
being  of  12  horse-power.     It  was  also  unsuccessful,  and  l.oth 
mills  ultimately  ceased  In  <pin.      In  1798  Mr  \Vilki«-  <>f  Audi 
lishic  erected  a  mill  in  (luthrie  Street,  where  the  East  Mill  m>w 
stands  with  a  steam-engine  of  20  horse-power ;  and  about  the 
same  period  mills  were  eivevd  on  the  east  side  of  North  Tay 
Street,  of  12  horse-power  ;  and,  in  the  Dens,  of  G  horse-power, 
tin  five  mills  being  in  all  of  about  60  horse-power. 

William  Brown,  in  his  "  Reminiscences  of  Flax-spinning," 
ring  i"  the  works  in  operation  in  Dundee  for  Flax-spin- 
ning, previous  to  1800,  says— "Works  had  been  erected  there 
in  (luthrie  Street,  in  1793,  and  in  the  same  street,  \vl 
the  mill  called  Ka-t  Mill  now  stands,  which  was  formed  out 
of  a  tan-work  in  1798  ;  at  North  Tay  Street ;  at  Chapel- 
shade,  previously  a  cotton-work,  and  at  Dens,  under  where 
Messrs  Baxter's  larger  work  now  stands;  in  all,  five  mills, 
having  about  60  horse-power  of  steam,  driving  about  2,000 
spindles,  and  spinning  about  5,000  spindles  per  week  of  Flax 
yarns,  five  to  six  pounds  per  spindle.  No  tows  were  then 
spun,  or  merely  small  quantities  on  trial."  The  total  produc- 
tion of  mill-spun  yarns  in  Diindee  at  the  end  of  last  century 
was  therefore  very  trilling,  "hut  it  was  the  commencement  of  a 
new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Linen  marufacture  of  the  town. 
From  this  period  mill-spinning  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
other  branches  of  the  trade  ;  but  it  may  not  be  out  of  pla« 
trace  consecutively  the  onward  progress  of  spinning,  and  inci- 
dental ivtrrences  to  it  will  afterwards  suffice. 

No  farther  progress  was  made  in  the  erection  of  mills  for  spin- 
ning by  steam-power  until  1 806,  when  James  Brown  of  Cononsyth 
erected  the  Bell  Mill  in  (Juthrie  Street.  Indeed,  before  that  \ 
spinning  had  rather  retrograded,  as  want  of  success  had  closed 
the  two  mills  which  had  been  first  started.  A  new  descrip- 
tion of  spinning  machines  had  in  the  meantime  sprung  up  in 
various  parts  of  the  town,  of  a  very  light  construction,  driven 
by  manual  labour,  and  in  some  cases  by  real  horse  power. 
These  concerns  generally  consisted  of  two  or  three  frames  of 
20  to  30  spindles  each,  with  a  preparing  frame  of  two  heads, 


590  MODERN  LINEN. 

which  served  for  both  drawing  and  roving.  Each  frame 
was  driven  by  a  man  with  a  crank  connected  with  a  moving 
board  under  his  feet  to  ease  the  labour,  which,  being  continuous, 
was  very  severe.  The  yarn  spun  on  these  machines  was  chiefly 
3  ft>.  Flax,  the  hire  price  for  spinning  being  about  one  shilling 
a  spindle.  Horses  were  soon  abandoned,  being  more  costly  as  a 
moving  power  than  men ;  but  the  rise  in  the  price  of  Flax  in 
1809,  and  the  increase  of  works  driven  by  steam  and  water- 
power,  put  a  stop  to  this  primitive  mode  of  mill  spinning. 
Afterwards,  some  of  these  spinners  started  small  steam-engines, 
but  they,  too,  were  ultimately  relinquished,  as  they  were  unable 
to  compete  with  the  larger  works  subsequently  built. 

The  Bell  Mill,  formerly  called  West  Ward  Mill,  was  a  weighty 
undertaking  for  the  age.  The  proprietor  of  it  was  concerned 
in  Trottick  Mill,  Arrott  Mill,  and  Friockheim  Mill,  and  as  he 
felt  much  interested  in  Flax-spinning,  he  wished  to  have  a  work 
superior  to  either  of  these.  Cotton  spinning  was  then  in  a  very 
prosperous  condition,  and  he  was  almost  persuaded  to  construct 
his  new  mill  for  cotton.  Providence  had  otherwise  decreed,  and 
the  mill  was  put  up  for  Flax.  This  decision  perhaps  finally  estab- 
lished the  Flax  manufacture  in  the  town,  and  thus,  to  some  extent, 
determined  the  destinies  of  Dundee  as  to  its  future  trade.  The 
plans  of  the  mill  and  the  machinery  were  procured  from  Leeds, 
then,  as  now,  the  headquarters  for  Flax -spinning  and  machine- 
making  in  England.  The  building  was  97  feet  long,  40  feet 
wide,  four  storeys  and  attic  in  height,  and  chiefly  fire-proof. 
The  machinery  consisted  of  forty  spinning  frames  or  sides  for 
Flax  and  tow  yarns,  with  some  twisting  frames,  mostly  of  30 
spindles  a  side,  and  ample  preparing  machinery  for  all  the 
spinning — the  whole  being  driven  by  a  steam  engine  of  25  horse- 
power. For  twenty  years  the  mill  stood  unmatched  in  the  town, 
but  now  it  is  as  far  surpassed  by  recent  erections  as  it  then  out- 
stripped its  compeers.  The  building  cost  £7000,  and  the  steam 
engine  and  machinery  £10,000,  an  outlay  showing  some  adven- 
ture on  the  part  of  the  proprietor,  but  he  was  a  shrewd  and 
intelligent  man,  far  in  advance  of  his  age.  Spinning  operations 
were  commenced  on  1st  May,  1807,  the  yarns  produced  being 
2,  3,  and  6  ft>.  Flax,  and  4,  6,  8,  and  10  ft),  tow.  The  2  ft),  yarn 
was  from  Dutch  or  English  Flax,  and  intended  for  sewing 


SCOTc  II  I. IN.  .~>'.'l 

tin-mil.  then  larjM-h  made  in  Dundee,  the  thread-makers  twist- 
ing and  finishing  it  in  their  own  premises.  Baltic  Flax  of  good 
quality  was  required  lor  th.-  '.*>  and  r,  II..  yarn,  and  the  tow  yarn 
made  from  the  tow  taken  from  the  Flax  heckled  at  the  \\urk  . 
hut  tow-spinning  \va<  then  in  a  very  haekward  state,  and  it  was 
not  until  long  after  that  yarn  at  all  satisfactory  to  a  spinner 
cm ild  he  produced.  The  weekly  production  of  yarn  was  2700 
spindles,  and  the  cost  of  spinning  was — wages,  5d;  coals,  1 
oil-,  repairs,  rent,  and  charges,  3d,  being  in  all  9Jd  per  spindle, 
exclusive  of  interest,  deterioration  of  machinery,  &c.  At  pre 
3d  a  spindle  covers  these  charges. 

The  Flax -spinning  mills  in  operation  in  the  end  of  1807  were 
the  following:  — 

We«t  Ward  Mill,  James  Brown,  1  steam-engine,  25  horse  power. 
East  Mill,  George  Wilkie,     .         1  „  20 

Tay  Street,  David  Cathro,  1  „  12  „ 

Dens,  Peter  llutton,  1  ,.  6  ,, 

Total,  .         4  63 

In  1811,  the  consumption  of  Flax  by  these  four  mills  was  1£ 
tons  a  day,  or  468  yearly,  and  the  produce  224,640  spindles  of 
yarn.  The  whole  capital  then  invested  in  spinning  machinery 
did  not  exceed  £22,000,  and  the  whole  Flax  imported  into  Scot- 
laud  was  then  about  6000  tons  yearly.  For  a  part  of  this  year 
the  only  mills  in  operation  in  Dundee  were  East  Mill  and  the 
one  in  the  Dens,  the  other  two  having  been  stopped.  At  a  sub- 
sequent period  they  were  started  again. 

The  troublous  times  before  this  period  were  most  inauspicious 
to  Mill-spinning  On  1st  March,  1811,  the  Advertiser  contained 
an  advertisement — "For  sale,  the  Flax-spinning  mill  in  West 
Ward,erected  in  1807  by  the  deceased  James  Brown  ofCononsyth, 
of  25  horse-power,  containing  31  spinning-frames,  with  900  spin- 
dles for  Flax  ;  14  spinning-frames,  with  372  spindles  for  tow;  and 
4  twisting  frames,  containing  120  spindles  for  thread  twisting. 
Apply  to  Brown  &  Co.,  at  the  Mill."  The  Bell  Mill  is  still  in  the 
family  of  the  projector.  In  external  appearance  it  remains  un- 
changed, but  the  original  machinery  has  been  long  removed,  and 
the  mill  is  now  in  full  operation  as  a  Jute  spinning  and  weav- 


592 


MODERN  LINEN. 


ing  concern,  and  it  is  in  every  way  substantial  and  complete.  On 
19th  June,  1812,  Tay  Street  Mill  was  advertised  for  public  sale.  It 
had  a  12  horse  steam-engine,  8  frames  of  30  spindles  each,  being 
240  spindles  for  Flax  yarn,  and  the  like  number  of  frames  and 
spindles  for  tow  yarn,  making  480  spindles  in  all.  The  advertise- 
ment mentioned  that  David  Cathro  had  put  in  machinery  to  the 
value  of  £8000  in  1809  and  1810.  The  upset  price  was  £4000. 
A  plan  of  the  mill  was  to  be  seen  on  applying  to  Archibald 
Crichton,  a  gentleman,  who  (April  1864),  is  still  alive.  In 
same  newspaper  Lochty  Mill,  Carnoustie,  was  advertised  to  be 
sold  or  let ;  and  a  Flax-spinning  frame  and  preparing  frame, 
to  be  driven  by  manual  labour,  were  advertised  for  public  sale  in 
a  house  in  Kosebank.  On  13th  August,  1812,  the  spinning-mill 
then  going  in  Dens  was  advertised  for  public  sale,  with  steam- 
engine,  8  new  roller  spinning  frames,  and  preparing  machinery 
to  put  same  on  either  Flax  or  tow.  Next  year  the  spinning-mill 
at  Bullionfield,  containing  5  frames,  2  carding-engines.  &c.;  was 
advertised  for  sale.  Such  advertisements  show  the  unhealthy 
state  of  the  trade,  as  there  would  not  have  been  so  many  mills 
in  the  market  had  spinning  been  prosperous. 

The  progressive  increase  in  mill  spinning  by  steam-power  from 
1807  to  1832  was  as  follows:— 


Mills  in  Operation  in  1807, 
Do.      added  1813, 

Do.      added  1818, 

Do.      added  1820, 

Do.      added  1821, 

Do.      added  1822, 


Total  in  1822,  as  in  detailed  statement, 


Engines,  4 
1 
1 
1 
3 
7 


Horse-power,    63 
6 


6 
38 
59 


Do.  do. 

1824, 

Do.  do. 

1825, 

Do.  do. 

1826, 

Do.  do. 

1828, 

Do.  do. 

1829, 

Do.  do. 

1830,  1 

and  2, 

Total  in  Dundee  in  1832, 
Do.    ,,  Lochee         ,, 
Do.  Dighty  Water  „ 
Do.  do.,  driven  by  water,  equal  to 


nt, 

Engines,  17 

Horse-power,  178 

3 

36 

1 

14 

3 

64 

1 

20 

8 

121 

2 

49 

5 

201 

Engines,  40 

Horse-power,  683 

3 

41 

5 

56 

alto 

»» 

20 

Total  in  Dundee  and  Neighbourhood  in  1832,  Engines,  48        Horse  power,  800 


SCOTCH    1  IN 

i  >UND*B  AT  MARTINMAS  1822,  WITH  Tin 

Tons'  NAMES,   AND  THE  HORSE-POWER  AND  SPINDLES  EMPLOYED,  AM>   TUK 
I'uoHABLE  YEAR  IN  WHICH  THE  MILLS  WERE  STAI 

WbM  SUrUd    Ilo»»«-Pow«r.  Spindle* 

1.  Will  Jam  Baxter  and  SOD,        Dens  Mill,  15  600 

2.  Bell  and  Balfour,  Chapelshade,  1821          12  600 

6 


a   Raaq  I                                  W;,r,l  ll^\,                     1820  6  3<X) 

4.  Andrew  Broun,                        Bell  Mill,                            1807  25  1.1.  '-J 

6.  J.  and  W.  Brown,                   East  Mill,                          1798  20  '.»  O 

6.  Jamea  Carmi.                           Upper  Dens,                      17'.'S  6  240 

7.  Chalmers  and  Hackney,          T.iy  Street  (East),              17:H  12  <>M 

8.  I'..             Do.,                          Do.       (West),            IO1  20  1,056 

9.  P.  Davie  and  W.  Boyack,       South  Dudhope  Mill,        1818  6  420 

10.  George  Gray,                            Anchor  Mill,                       1822  8  •-".'» 

11.  .I.i  ^esHynd,                            Ward  Road,                        1822  4  210 
11'.  Kinmond  and  Co.,                   Lower  Dens,                       1822  12  360 

13.  David  Lawson,                         Ward  R.                              1S22  4  168 

14.  Alexander  Mil  UP,                      Scouringburn,                    1821  6  240 

15.  Mrs  John  Scott,                       North  Dudhope  Mill,        1813  6  288 
1«'..  John  Sharp  and  J.  Preston,     Ward  Road,                       1822  10  L'KS 
17.   William  Shaw,                         Cowgate,                             1822  6  228 

Total,  17  Engines,  178  7,944 

In  March   1826,  there  weie  166  foremen  and  overseers,  247  hecklers,  and  1,688 

preparers,  spinners,  and  shifters,  in  all  2,101  hands  employed  in  these  17  mills. 


TABLE  OF  THE  SPINNING  MILLS  WITHIN  5  MILES  OF  DUNDEE,  AND  ALSO  OP  THOSE 
IN  THE  NEIGHBOURHOOD  BUT  MORE  DISTANT  FROM  DUNDEE,  WITH  THE  PRO- 
PRIETORS' NAMES,  AND  THE  NUMBER  OF  SPINDLES  AT  MARTINMAS  1822. 

First—  Within  Five  Miles  of  Dundte. 

Bullion,  ....        David  Stephen,    .        .        .     Spindles,  180 

Lochee—  East  Mill,          .         .        Watt  and  Brown,         .        .  ,,  240 

Do.       West  Mill,         .        .        William  Anderson,      .        .  „  144 

Rose  Mill,        ....        James  Smith,      .  120 

Mary  field  .....        Roxburgh  an  i  HaUey,        .  ..  210 

Strathmartine,  D.  Murray's  Children,        .  ..  120 

Kirton,  ....        Hay  and  Ireland, 

Baldovan,         ....        Low,  Samson,  and  Miller,  „  1*0 

Fountainbleau,         .        .         .        John  Scott,         ...  ,,  !"> 

Balunie,  ....        William  Anderson,      .        .  ,,  240 

Monifieth,        ....        Banks  and  Fairweather,      .  ,.  -VI 

Grange  Mill  of  Monitieth,        .        P.  Kinmond  and  Co  ,         .  ,,  lit 

Windy  Mill  .....        Boyack  and  Co.,          .  180 

Dunham-  .....         William  Braid,  ....  396 

Baldovie,         ....        A.  Ireland  and  Co.,     .        .  ,,  1!»J 

Lihie,  W.  Craik,  .....  90 

Do.,      ......        P.  Craik,  .....  168 


P  F 


594  MODERN    LTNKN, 

Second — In  Neighbourhood,  but  beyond  Fire  Milts  ft  om  Dtind 
Glamis,  .        .        .        •        William  Baxter  am1  Son,     .     Spindles,     GOO 

Carnoustie,      ....         Robert  Templeman  and  Co.,          .  360 


Do.,  ....  John  Alexander, 

Idvies,  ....  William  Mackay, 

Do.,      .....  James  Smith, 

Do., Thomas  Pilmer, 

Douglastown,  .         .        .  James  Watt, 

Blairgowrie,     ....  Grimond  and  M'Intosh, 

Lornty,  ....  David  Grimond, 

Rattray,  ....  Paton  and  M'Leish,     . 

Haughs  of  Rattray,          .         .  Alexander  Dick, 

Milton  of  Rattray,  .         .  Heron, 

Alyth, Gilbert  Sandy,     . 

Ruthven,  J.  Taylor  and  Co., 

Murthall,         ....  John  Watt, 


144 

90 

96 

90 

420 

141 

240 

240 

270 

136 

120 

512 

360 


Total  Spindles 

Subsequent  to  1832  the  increase  in  Mill-spinning  was  more 
rapid  than  before,  and  Jute,  in  Dundee,  began  to  take  its  place 
among  the  fibres  spun.  In  1835  the  trade  had  become  widely 
developed  in  and  around  Dundee,  and  in  December  that  year, 
the  horse-power  (steam  and  water),  employed  in  Flax-spinning, 
and  in  the  course  of  erection,  in  the  district  of  which  Dundee 
is  the  centre,  or  which  came  into  competition  with  Dundee, 
was  as  follows,  viz. : — 

Horse-Power    Horse-Power    Tn+al 
Employed.        Erecting. 

Dundee, 928  371            1,299 

Lochee,  Dighty  Water,  &c.,  ...  95  25  120 
Arbroath  and  Neighbourhood,  297  33  330 
Montrose  and  Neighbourhood,  .  .  210  40  250 
Brechin  and  Neighbourhood,  78  78 
Letham,  .....  12  12 
Bervie,  .....  15  15 
Aberdeen— Estimated  to  come  into  Competi- 
tion with  Dundee,  ...  100  100 
Blairgowrie  and  Ruthven,  ...  120  50  170 

Perth, 14  14 

Kirkcaldy, 125  16                141 

Kingshorn,       .....  70  70 

Dysart,             .....  14  14 

River  Leven,               ....  308  308 

Cupar  Fife  and  Neighbourhood,  67  67 

St  Andrews,     .....  6  6 

Leith  and  Kirkhill,    ....  50  50 

2,509  535  3,044 


S<  i»T<   II    I.IN 

Iii  is.")!,  ihe  moving  jK>wer  (steam  and  water),  employed  in 
Flax-spinning  and  power-loom  weaving  was  as  follows,  viz. : — 

No.  of  Work*.    IfofM-Powtr.  H«m-Pow«r. 

Ihuiileo,          .  .        40  1,830  Brought  Forward,           .  :i, •'>'.) I 

Lochee,           .  3  117  IVrth,              ....  20 

Arbroath,  \,-.,  .         1-  630  Kirkcaldy l'i<) 

Montrnso,  ic.,  .          6  365  Kinghorn  and  Dysart,    .        .  80 

:*  92  River  Leven,           ...  400 

Aberdeen,  3  460  Cupar  Fife,  &c 70 

Ulairgowrie,  &c.,  1  I  297  Leith,  Greenock,  &c.,    .         .  280 

87  Total,      .        .  -l.r..M 


The  steam-power  employed  by  the  several  firms  in  Dun<l< •»> 
aiul  Lochee  in  1851  ranged  from  205,  the  highest,  down  to  the 
lowest,  14  horse-power.  For  some  years  subsequent  to  this  date 
little  progress  was  made  here,  but  the  great  demand  occasioned  by 
the  Crimean  war  gave  an  impulse  both  to  spinning  and  power- 
weaving.  Details  regarding  the  various  spinning  mills  and 
power-loom  factories  in  the  several  counties  throughout  the  king- 
dom, in  the  beginning  of  1862,  will  be  found  in  the  Abstract  of 
the  Factory  Returns,  prepared  by  the  Inspectors  for  presenta- 
tion to  Parliament,  and  given  afterwards.  Since  then  marked 
progress  has  been  made  in  Dundee,  both  in  spinning  and  in 
power-loom  weaving,  but  especially  the  latter,  and  some  particu- 
lars relative  to  the  extent  of  machinery  now  in  operation  will  be 
given  hereafter. 

It  was  the  practice,  from  time  immemorial,  for  the  housewives 
and  maidens  of  the  surrounding  district  to  bring  the  produce  of 
their  spindles  and  spinning-wheels  into  Dundee  for  sale  on  the 
market  days.  The  market-place  was  the  "  Luckenbooths"  and 
West  End  of  the  IILrh  Street,  and  there  they  assembled  weekly 
with  their  stock  of  Linen-yarn.  The  manufacturers  attended 
the  market  as  regularly,  and  made  their  purchases ;  the  business 
being  carried  on  very  inueh  in  the  same  way  as  is  still  done  in 
the  Butter  Market.  The  yarn  was  generally  brought  to  mar- 
ket as  taken  off  the  red.  and  the  quantity  exposed  for  sale  by  the 
several  parties  varied  from  a  spindle  to  perhaps  ten  or  a  dozen 
spindles.  This  retail  mode  of  procuring  supplies  restricted  the 
business  of  the  manufacturers ;  and  the  many  qualities  offered 
PP  2 


f>!)fj  MODEIIN  LINEV. 

for  sale  (the  yarns  of  the  various  spinners  varying  greatly  both 
in  quality  and  size),  made  it  tedious  to  assort  them  properly,  and 
thus  difficult  to  produce  many  pieces  alike,  or  even  one  piece 
uniform  throughout.  Indeed,  at  one  period  the  manufacturer 
was  simply  a  weaver,  who  bought  his  own  yarns,  wove  them  in 
his  own  dwelling,  took  his  piece  upon  his  shoulder  to  the  stamp- 
office,  and,  when  stamped,  carried  it  in  the  same  primitive  way 
to  the  shops  of  the  recognised  buyers,  going  from  door  to  door 
until  he  found  one  willing  to  give  a  price  to  his  mind. 

As  trade  extended  it  became  customary  for  dealers  to  traverse 
the  more  distant  districts  of  the  country  to  buy  up  the  yarn,  which 
they  brought  into  the  town  and  sold  to  the  larger  manufac- 
turers. Others  bought  Flax,  had  it  spun  by  hand,  and  sold 
the  yarn  to  the  manufacturers.  Some  manufacturers  bought 
Flax  on  their  own  account,  and  employed  the  women  in  town  to 
spin  it ;  or  they  sent  it  to  agents  in  the  country,  who  gave  it  out 
to  the  women  in  the  district  to  be  spun,  getting  a  commission 
for  the  trouble  on  the  yarn  returned.  These  systems  were  all 
resorted  to  until  a  regular  and  abundant  supply  of  mill-spun 
yarns  were  procurable,  when  they  were  discontinued  ;  but  it  is 
little  more  than  thirty  years  since  these  modes  of  collecting  sup- 
plies had  to  be  resorted  to,  and  since  the  traffic  in  yarns  on  the 
High  Street  altogether  ceased. 

The  class  of  goods  made  in  the  town,  even  in  early  times,  was 
chiefly  confined  to  coarse  fabrics,  and  although  the  description 
has  often  changed  to  suit  the  demands  of  the  markets  for  which 
they  were  intended,  their  prevailing  character  is  still  the  same. 
The  spinning  machinery  first  erected  in  the  town  and  neighbour- 
hood was  adapted  for  heavy  yarn,  suitable  for  the  quality  of 
goods  made.  Perhaps  it  was  well  for  the  success  of  the  attempt 
that  it  was  so,  as  it  might  have  been  more  difficult  to  get 
machinery  for  fine  yarns  started  in  the  experimental  days  of 
mill-spinning,  and  serious  difficulties  then  would  have  retarded 
the  progress  of  the  trade.  The  many  improvements  which  have 
now  been  effected  in  machinery  adapt  it  for  spinning  very  varied 
sizes  of  yarn,  even  from  material  which  at  one  time  would  have 
been  thought  incapable  of  being  spun  at  all,  and  thrown  aside 
as  useless. 

In  the  early  days  of  mill-spinning  it  was  with  difficulty  that 


I'    II    !   1M 

iieient  number  of  hands  ruuld  be  gut  I'm  pn-paivrs,  spin- 
ners, or  mien,  and  it  was  then  the  practice  in  and  around 
Dundee  for  tlie  owners  of  mills,  or  their  m;i  i'-nd  the 

neighbouring  ci.untry  lairs  to  engage  hands,  and  BOmetimei  • 
tent  had  it.  be  kept  all  day  as  an  inducement   to  th«-  peop' 

8  to  terms.      Kngagemeni  -;dly  made   lor  six  or 

twelve  months,  as  with  farm  and  lions*  hold    M  rvauts  at   th< 
I'l.-M'iit   day,  and  arlcs  given  as  earnest    of  the    bargain.      Th 
system  has  been  entirely  changed  for  many  years.     Then  work 
in  mills  was  new  and  little   understood,  and  the   prejudices 

nst  it,  and  those  who  took  employment  in  them,  very  strong. 
The  hours  of  labour  were  long,  ranging  from  fourteen  to  fil; 
a  dav,  in  towns,  and,  in  some1  eases,  they  wore  even  longer  in 
country  mills.      In  !eed,  in  >ome  mills  the  hours  were  altogether 

arbitrary,  and  depended  upon  the  oaprioe  or  whim  of  the 
manager,  and  the  cupidity  of  the  owner.  Holidays  were  rare, 
and  when  they  were  granted  the  time  was  subsequently  made 
up  by  working  extra  hours.  Now  employment  in  mills  is  a 
uvular  and  recognised  species  of  labour,  and  the  hours  precisely 
delined  hy  the  Factory  Acts.  Wages  are  higher  for  the  shoit 
hours  of  the  present,  than  they  were  for  the  long  weary  hours 
of  the  early  day  of  the  trade.  Six  complete  holidays  must  he 
allowed  yearly,  as  well  as  the  weekly  half-holiday  on  Saturday, 
and  no  making  up  of  lost  time  is  allowed,  with  a  slight  excep- 
tion in  the  case  of  works  driven  by  water- power.  The  lofty  and 
well  ventilated  mills  of  the  present  age,  where  every  appliance 
<»f  modern  skill  is  impressed  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of 
the  hands,  tends  to  make  them  healthy  and  happy. 

Haifa  century  ago  it  \\as  with  much  dillicnlty  that  the  vari- 
ous articles  and  materials  m mired  in  carrying  on  the  work,  such 
as  pressing  rollers,  bobbins,  flyers,  belts,  lists,  &c.,  could  be  got, 
and  at  best  they  were  not  well  Mii'.d  l,,r  the  purpose.  Now  the 
M  .iv-  required  are  supplied  at  a  moderate  cost,  ready-made  and  of 
tirst-rate  Duality,  hy  parties  who  make  a  trade  of  turn:>!iinu;  such 
articles.  Before  the  introduction  of  coal  gas  the  mills  were 
lighted  by  whalo  oil  lamps.  As  may  be  suppo  ia  mode  of 

li^htin^  was  imperfect,  troublesome,  unhealthy,  and  dangerous. 
The  substitution  of  gas  did  much  to  render  employment  in  mills 
more  attractive  to  the  bands,  and.  by  removing  obstacles  to  the 
prosecution  of  the  trade,  tended  to  make  success  more  certain. 


598  MODERN  LINEN. 

Indeed,  without   gas,  Flax-spinning  would  not   so  soon  have 
attained  its  present  perfection. 

Night  spinning  by  relays  of  hands  was,  previous  to  1824, 
carried  on  to  some  extent  in  Dundee  ;  but  it  was  found  in  prac- 
tice not  to  be  profitable  ;  and,  as  it  was  attended  with  many  dis- 
advantages, it  has  long  since  been  entirely  discontinued.  Mr 
Brown  mentions  that  the  machinery  first  put  into  mills  was  not 
soon  superseded.  At  a  mill  in  Dundee  the  first  set  of  machines, 
made  on  the  spot  in  1798,  continued  in  use  till  1822,  when  the 
spinning-frames  were  displaced,  part  of  them  being  sold  for 
same  use  in  other  works.  Some  of  the  Flax-spinning  machinery 
in  that  mill  continued  working  till  1830,  at  little  disadvantage 
for  some  purposes. 

Hand-heckling  was  long  an  important  branch  of  the  Linen 
trade  in  Dundee,  and  the  Flax-dressers,  numerically,  once  bore 
a  much  higher  proportion  to  the  total  hands  employed  than 
they  have  done  of  late  years.  Early  in  the  century  they  in 
some  measure  controlled  the  trade,  dictating  the  rate  of  wages, 
number  of  apprentices,  &c.,  and  enforcing  their  demands, 
however  unjust,  by  strikes.  This  high-handed  policy  compelled 
employers  to  seek  substitutes,  and  heckling  machines  were 
invented  and  introduced  as  competitors  with  the  men.  Now 
they  have  in  a  great  measure  supplanted  them,  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  work  being  done  by  machinery.  It  is  nearly  sixty 
years  since  machines  were  erected  for  heckling  Flax  in  Leeds, 
but  it  was  many  years  later  before  they  were  started  here,  and 
for  some  time  they  made  little  progress,  as  they  could  not  be 
adapted  to  humour  strong  or  weak  Flax  like  the  human  hand. 
The  late  John  Sharp  invented  and  patented  a  heckling  machine, 
which  was  much  approved,  and,  through  his  instrumentality, 
and  that  of  others  who  sought  the  same  object,  difficulties  were 
surmounted,  and  now  the  work  is  as  well,  and  considerably 
cheaper,  performed  by  the  machine  than  by  hand.  For  this 
result,  and  for  the  generally  fallen  condition  of  the  hecklers  as 
a  class,  the  men  have  only  their  own,  or  their  predecessors'  ill- 
timed  tyranny  to  blame. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  century  there  were  several  small  cotton 
works  in  town,  but  although  they  occasionally  had  their  seasons 
of  prosperity,  they  gradually  declined,  and  the  cotton  spinning 
trade  was  ultimately  abandoned  here  early  in  the  century.  The 


SCOKH   LI  SEN. 

n  north  side  of  King  Street  was  advertised  to  be  sold 
00  L'Uth  November,  1801,  with  all  its  machinery,  consisting  of  a 
double  20-inch  carding  engine,  with  hilly  AT.,  about  n, 

dozen  "  spinning-jennies/' and  four  looms, &c..  AC.    In  May  1802, 
it  N  reported  in  th.-  Advertiser  that  there  was  a  great  demand 
for  weavers  of  coarse  cotton  cloth  in  Dundee,  and  that  this  wan 
seasonable,  as  thru  the  Linen  trade  was  very  dull,  and  weir, 
could,  in  a  few  days,  after  changing  from  one   manufactin 
another,   make   excellent   work  at  either.      In  July,  1802,  it 
says,  "  hundreds  of  families  are  now  supported  by  the  manufac- 
ture of  coarse  cottons,  which  still  continue  in  great  demand/' 

After  the  peace  of  Amiens  the  sail-cloth  manufacturers  were 
crushed  by  the  high  price  of  material,  and  the  want  of  demand  ; 
and  it  was  recommended  that  the  cloth  should  he  made  of  Hemp 
instead  of  Flax,  as  it  had  fallen  50  per  cent,  since  the  Peace,  while 
Flax  kept  about  double  the  price  it  had  been  a  few  years  be- 
A  1  ifeshire  manufacturer,  in  recommending  Hemp,  said 
'  Russian  and  (icrman  Linens,  and  the  finest  foreign  diapers,  are 
of  Hemp  entirely,  and  a  little  extra  bleaching  makes  them 
lo,,k  like  Flax,  and  I  recommend  an  application  to  the  Legis. 
la t ure  fur  a  drawback  on  the  import  duty  of  £4  4s  3d  a  ton  on 
II chip,  which  would  be  granted  as  soon  as  Hemp  was  shown  to 
been  used  successfully  instead  of  Flax  for  Linens." 

In  the  beginning  of  the  century,  and  for  many  years  there- 
after, l.leachfields  were  more  numerous  on  the  Dighty  and  in 
other  districts  than  now,  and  their  chief  work  was  in  blenching 
-made  Linen,  or  what  was  called  u  customer  work."  Long 
advertisements  from  the  various  fields  often  appeared  in  the 
newspapers  ;  and  the  regular  prices  were,  "for  all  plain  Linen, 
yard  wide  and  under,  bleached  in  the  best  manner,  wove  in  a  900 
and  all  under,  3d  per  yard  ;  1000  reed,  3£d  ;  1200,  4d  ; 
L400,  lid,  I:.«H),  5d;  1600,  5Jd;  1700  and  upwards,  6d ; 
Is,  4d  to  Gd  ;  diapers,  4d  to  5d  ;  damasks,  6d ;  plain 
Linen,  bleached  half  white,  2|d  ;  2-2ds  white,  3d;  coarse 
tweeK  same  price  ;  and  sheetings,  <fcc.,  more  than  yard  wide,  at 
reasonable  prices/'  There  is  now  little  or  no  "  customer  work" 
done  at  the  tit-Ills,  this  branch  of  the  trade  having  ceased  with 
the  manufacture  of  household  Linen  by  the  peasantry,  farmers, 
and  oth- 


600  MODERN  LINEN. 

In  the  end  of  1802,  a  seller  of  Dundee  cotton  bagging  sued  a 
purchaser  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  London,  for  the  price. 
The  defender  pleaded  that  he  had  always  been  supplied  with  this 
article  from  Inverness,  but  in  this  instance,  in  consequence  of 
not  getting  it  from  there  in  time,  the  seller  had  prevailed  on 
defender's  clerk  to  take  some  Dundee  bagging,  which  proved 
unfit  for  his  purpose,  It  was  said  in  reply,  by  the  pursuer's  agent, 
that  Dundee  bagging  was  universally  known  to  be  inferior  to 
Inverness,  but  if  a  person  chose  to  take  it  instead  of  the  other, 
he  must  do  so  with  all  its  known  imperfections.  The  defence  was 
that  it  was  not  a  merchantable  commodity,  nor  fit  to  carry  home 
cotton.  The  matter  was  left  to  the  arbitration  of  one  of  the  jury. 
The  Dundee  Advertiser  of  21st  December,  1802,  in  commenting 
on  the  trial,  says  tl  that  the  bagging  must  have  been  made  long 
ago,  when  it  was  notorious  that  an  inferior  article  was  made  here. 
The  cotton  bagging  made  in  Dundee  for  the  previous  year  was 
equal  to  Inverness  or  any  other,  and  the  quality  was  daily  im- 
proving. It  was  perhaps  to  be  regretted  that  the  stamping  of 
this  article,  as  well  as  of  Linens,  properly  so  called,  had  not  been 
enforced  by  the  Trustees,  for  it  was  unquestionable  that  the 
stamping  of  Linens  had  prevented  many  frauds  which  would  have 
ruined  the  staple  trade  of  the  place.  The  baneful  effects  of  such 
mean  practices  have  been  bitterly  experienced  in  the  article  of 
sail-cloth,  to  which,  unluckily,  the  stamps  do  not  attach/' 

In  December,  1 802,  three  Waulk  mills,  with  lofts  and  utensils, 
situate  at  the  Dens,  were  advertised  to  be  let,  and  it  was  said 
they  would  suit  for  a  brewery  or  barley  mill.  The  Dens  are  now 
used  for  very  different  purposes  than  making  beer  or  barley. 

In  the  beginning  of  1803  great  complaints  were  made  in 
Dundee  and  other  places,  that  the  Russian  merchants  managed 
the  Flax  market  so  that  the  manufacturers  were  entirely  at  their 
mercy  ;  and  it  was  expected  that  this  would  drive  the  farmers  to 
cultivate  the  plant  more  extensively,  so  as  to  make  the  trade  less 
dependent  on  these  parties.  That  complaint  has  often  been 
made  since  then,  not  without  much  truth.  The  only  means  of 
checking  such  an  abuse  of  power  is  the  more  extensive  cultiva- 
tion of  Flax  in  other  places,  Until  spinners  receive  supplies  of 
Flax  from  other  countries  than  Russia  and  Prussia,  or  until 
the  quantity  raised  in  these  countries,  available  for  consumption 


BC<> 

in  the  Unit-  <1  K ingdom,  exceed  thnv^uin  in,  nl.->  nfth.- tnule  here, 
tin-  in.  rchants  there  will  have  tin-  OOllferd  "f  priott;  and  tli- •:• 
no  doubt  they  will  continue,  as  they  have  hitherto  done,  to  turn  it 
to  tin-  bcM  possible  ace. Mini  t'.>r  theirown  advantage.  The  same 
principle  guides  sellers  of  every  commodity,  as  prices  are  regulated 
by  the  supply  and  demand,  and  it  is  ri^ht  that  they  hhould  he  SO. 

l>t  April  1803,  a  vessel  sailed  from  Dundee  for  New  York 
with  l-J.5,583  square  yards  cotton  bagging ;  60,466  yards  Osna- 
burgs  ;  (J95  yards  chequered  Linen  ;  3,680  yards  striped  Linen 
mixed  with  cotton;  13,149  ells  sail-cloth;  1,224  Ibs.  thread; 
and  40  hhds.  Dundee  porter  and  strong  ale,  <fec. 

On  27th  .Inly,  1804,  " arrived  the  Mary  Anne  from  Davis' 
Straits,  brimful  of  blubber.  Besides  having  all  her  casks  full, 
nearly  two  large  whales  were  stowed  in  hulk,  and  her  pumps 
were  choked  with  oil."  The  whale  fishing  has  long  formed  an 
important  branch  of  the  trade  of  Dundee,  and  from  its  nature, 
with  varying  success.  Sometimes  two  prosperous  years  have 
followed  each  other,  but  more  frequently  a  successful  season  has 
been  succeeded  by  one  or  more  bad  or  indifferent  ones.  In  1827, 
out  of  nine  vessels  from  the  port,  the  Achilles,  Captain  William 
Valentine,  came  in  with  22  fish ;  Princess  Charlotte,  Captain 
William  Adamson.  with  21  ;  Three  Brothers,  Captain  William 
Stiven.  with  20;  Fairy,  Captain  Welsh,  with  19  ;  and  Thomas, 
Captain  G.  Thorns,  with  15  fish;  all  being  full.  The  other 
four  were  also  well  fished,  the  total  quantity  of  oil  being  about 
1,600  tons.  Next  year  the  same  nine  vessels  brougft  195  fish, 
about  l,bOO  tuns  of  oil,  valued,  with  bone,  &c.,  at  £60,000  to 
£70,000.  1832  and  1833  were  also  most  successful  years,  the 
nine  ve>sels  belonging to  Dundee  having 235  and219fish  in  these 

re>j  i  ,ti\c!y.  In  the  latter  year  the  produce  was  about  100 
whalebone  and  2,015  tuns  nil,  ot  t he  estimated  value,  at  L 
and  £20,  of  £65,300.  In  1833  the  gross  produce  of  the  year's 
tithing  hy  Iiriti>h  ve— eN  was  estimated  at  15,000  tuns  of  oil. 
Since  then  some  very  fortunate  years  have  rewarded  the  exer- 
tions ot  the  whale-fishers,  but  on  the  whole  the  trade  has  not  been 
so  profitable  as  it  formerly  was.  This  year,  1864,  a  more  valu- 
able fleet  has  gone  to  the  fishing  from  this  port  than  ever  left 
before,  the  whole  having  steam-power  to  aid  them.  May  success 
attend  their  lal <•• 


G02  MODERN  LINEN. 

In  1804  many  complaints  were  made  about  the  sail-cloth  then 
manufactured  for  Government  being  subject  to  mildew,  partly,  it 
was  said  from  having  been  woven  in  shops  rather  below  the  level  of 
the  ground,  and  partly  by  the  unequal  application  of  the  large 
quantity  of  ashes  with  which  it  was  beeched.  It  was  proposed  to 
beech  it  twice  instead  of  once,  with  less  lee  each  time,  washing 
it  between  the  beechings.  Other  modes  were  suggested,  but  it 
is  doubtful  if  any  of  them  proved  effectual,  as  the  starch  used  in 
weaving  the  cloth  would  mildew  when  it  got  damp,  however  the 
yarn  was  prepared. 

The  Advertiser  says  the  practice  of  purloining  Flax,  yarn,  &c., 
entrusted  to  parties  to  heckle,  wind,  or  weave,  was  common,  and 
much  complained  of.  In  November  1804,  a  woman  was  brought 
before  the  Justices  of  the  Peace  of  this  district,  charged  with 
selling  the  materials  entrusted  to  her,  and  a  man  with  having 
purchased  same.  Under  the  statute  22,  George  II.,  the  woman 
was  sentenced  to  be  imprisoned  for  fourteen  days  and  publicly 
whipped,  and  the  man  was  fined  £20,  and  in  case  of  non-payment, 
to  be  imprisoned  and  publicly  whipped.  He  paid  the  fine. 
In  July  1805,  six  embezzlers  of  Flax  and  Hemp,  confided  to 
them  for  spinning,  and  twelve  resets,  including  four  manufac- 
turers, were  each  fined  by  the  Justices  £20,  or  to  be  publicly 
whipped  at  the  market-cross,  in  terms  of  the  Act  of  Parliament. 
By  a  more  recent  Act,  7  and  8  Geo.  IV.,  c.  29,  it  is  declared 
that  any  person  stealing,  to  the  value  of  £10,  any  Linen,  woollen, 
silk,  or  cotton  goods,  whilst  exposed  during  any  stage  of  the 
manufacture  in  any  building,  field,  or  other  place,  shall,  upon 
conviction,  be  liable,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court,  to  be  trans- 
ported beyond  seas  for  life,  or  for  any  term  not  less  than  seven 
years,  or  to  be  imprisoned  for  any  term  not  exceeding  four  years, 
and,  if  a  male,  to  be  once,  twice,  or  thrice  publicly  or  privately 
whipped,  as  the  court  shall  think  fit.  The  theft  of  Flax,  yarn, 
&c.,  ifi  but  too  common  in  the  present  day,  but  if  purloiners  or 
resets  knew  that  they  run  a  risk  of  being  publicly  whipped,  under 
these  statutes  (if  still  in  force) ,  it  would  deter  them  from  the  com- 
mission of  such  crimes  in  future,  and  this  would  confer  a  boon 
on  the  trade. 

The  Act  15,  Charles  II.,  cap.  15,  is  not  of  the  sanguinary 
character  of  those  referred  to.      It  ordains  that  any  person, 


UN: 


nut  i  eigner,  may,  without  paying  anything,  set  up  in  any 

place,  privileged  or  not,  corporate  or  not,  any  branch  of  the 
Linen  manufacture  ;  and  I'mviiriuT--  prai  -'.i.-iim'  tli«-  same  shall,  on 
taking  the  oath  of  all*  A;c.,  be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges 

of  natural  horn  subjects.  This  Act,  if  umvpealed,  is  of  some 
importance  to  the  many  foreign  gentlemen  who  now  settle  in 
this  country  with  the  intention  of  engaging  in  the  Linen  trade. 

Mr  I'.rown  mentions  that  about  1810  or  1811,  an  engineering 

istahlishmentwas  commenced  in  Guthrie  Street,  which  M.pplied 

at  first  small  steam-engines  for  the  spinning  frames  piv\ionsly 

worked  by  hand.     The  size  begun  with  was  two  horse-power, 

but  soon  several  of  four  to  MX   horses  \\<  ti  Canted  for  enlarged 

When  the  first  steam-engine  of  two  horse-power  was 

put  into  hands,  kin-  the  first  made  in  the  district,  it  was  talked 

s  a  wonder.      Now  splendid  engines  of  loo  horse-bower  are 

turned  out  of  the  same  establishment  by  J.  &  C.  Carmichael,  the 

propri.'tors,  and  even  these  leviathans  are  not  the  limit  of  the 

at  which  engines  could  be  furnished  by  them. 

On  5th  February  1813,  three  per  cent,  consols  were  quoted  in 

Advi'ft'i**  /  at  59J  ;  PTR  Flax,  £115  to  £120,  or  about  double 

consols  ;  oatmeal,  2s  6d  per  peck  ;  and  quarten  loaf,  Is  5d.     On 

19  tb  March  same  year,  "In  consequence  of  the  changed  aspect 

of  the  political  atmosphere,  some  fine  ships  belonging  to  the 

t<>\\n  sailed  for  the  Baltic.     Six  summers  have  passed  without 

such  a  gratifying  sight  before  .  the  trade  to  the  Continent  having 

(arried  on  by  the  ruinous  intervention  of  licenses,  and  of 

rate." 

In  18H  there  was  c  n-id<  r.Ue  discii>sioii  about  abolishing 
the  dnti«-s  on  the  importation  of  Linen.  Those  who  opposed  it  said 
duties  had  induce*  1  pn  ties  to  in  vest  an  astonishing  capital  in 
mills  and  bleuchworks,  which  would  be  lost  if  they  were  removed, 
and  Dundee,  with  >nt  its  manufactures,  would  degenerate  into  a 
p.dt;  .'  'fli  •  in  -i-eiianis.  manufacturers,  and  shipping  in- 

ihlish  a  Chamber  of 

ConiMerce  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  the  trade,  and  t 
means  to  oppose  the  abolition  of  the  duties. 

In  December  1^16,  the  high  price  of  proviMons  and  the  stag- 
nation of  trade  caused  the  meal  mobs  in  Dun-'. 

On  14th  May  I>17.  the  shore-dues  were  kt  by  public  roup  to 


004  MODERN  LINEN. 

Thomas  Neish  for  £5,605,  being  £'245  above  the  up^et  price. 
The  Advertiser,  on  16th  mentioned,  that  W.  Hackney  was  to  join 
him,  and  that  Mr  Hackney's  grandfather  had  had  the  shore-dues 
and  public  warehouse  together,  fifty  or  sixty  years  before,  for  £100 
a  year.  Before  1793  Bell  and  Balfour  had  the  shore-dues  by  pri- 
vate bargain  at  £560  yearly.  That  year  they  were  put  up  to 
auction  for  three  years,  and  the  same  firm  took  them  at  £965  a 
year.  In  1796  they  were  again  put  up  to  auction  for  other 
three  years,  and  taken  by  William  Wilson  at  £1,550  a  year. 
Since  1822,  excepting  1825-6,  they  have  been  collected  by  the 
Trustees,  and  in  the  year  ending  31st  May,  1863,  the  amount 
of  shore-dues  collected  by  the  Harbour  Trustees  was  £23,564. 

Among  the  exports  from  the  Harbour  in  1818  were  "  yards 
of  plain  bounty  Linen,  ells  of  sailcloth,  Ibs.  thread,  square  yards 
of  diaper,  hucks,  and  sheeting,  square  yards  of  cotton  bagging, 
and  Ibs.  cotton  thread  and  yarn/' 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  Linen  stamped  in  Dundee 
in  the  years  specified :  — 

Yards  Fees  paid  Yarns  Fees  paid 

Stamped.        Siarnp-master.  Stamped.          Stamp-master. 

1773  4,488,460             1789  4,242,653 

1805  3,909,948  £407  5  8  1816  7,296,007  £760  0  0 

1806  4,727,178J  492  8  3  1817  7,958,071|  828  19  3 

1807  4,604,167  479  12  0  1818  8,600,363$  895  17  5 

In  1789  the  estimated  value  of  the  Linen  stamped  in  Dundee  was 
£108,782  14s«2d,  and  in  1818,  £302,245  12s  lid.  The  average 
yearly  quantity  stamped  in  Forfarshire  during  the  years  1805  to 
1807  was  11,536,656  yards,  the  Stamp-master's  fees  for  which 
was  £1,201  14s  8d  yearly  on  average.  For  the  years  1816  to 
1818  the  yearly  average  was— yards,  17,485,794,  fees,  £1,821 
8s  8d,  being  an  increase  of  fully  50  per  cent,  in  the  latter  years 
over  the  previous  ones.  The  average  yearly  fees  paid  the 
Stamp-masters  in  Scotland  for  the*  five  years  ending  1780,  were 
£1,414  14s  9d  ;  1790,  £1,995  Os  8d  ;  1800,  £2,346  3s  5d  ; 
1810,  £2,303  16s  lOd;  1818,  £3,007  11s  Id  respectively. 

On  19th  October  1821,  the  Advertiser  gave  a  report  of  the 
state  of  the  staple  trade  of  the  district,  and,  as  it  is  very  interest- 
ing, it  is  given  nearly  entire.  "  Since  the  beginning  of  1820 
there  has  been  little  variation  in  the  prices  of  the  Linen  manu- 


•  ' 


faetures  of  Forfai>hire.  tin-  lluctuations  hein^  only  from  Jd  to 
Jd  a  yard,  a  steadiness  new  in  the  history  of  Linens.  Formerly 
Siivlit/.  Flax.  -n  Osnaburgs  varied  t'mm  r.Ul  to  9d,  while  tow  of 
same  description  varied  from  (id  to  Sd.  IhmdeeiM  ]»or.  -1-lth 
sheetings  now  sell  at  7Jd,  and  the  variation  in  them  is  fully  a  Id. 
(  hving  to  prodigious  over-production,  cotton  bagging,  for  ti 
years  prior  to  1821,  had  almost  ceased  to  be  named  among  the 
staple  productions,  but  the  manufacture  of  bagging  has  now 
resumed  its  place  on  a  moderate  scale.  Baltic  hemp  bagging 
now  sells  at  9d  to  9]d,  and  Sunn  hemp  at  8d  to  8Jd  a  yard. 
The  manufacture  of  bleached  sheeting,  dowlai,  <fec.,  in  Fife  and 
Forfar  shires,  in  point  of  extent  and  value,  now  exceeds  that  of 
Osnaburgs  and  brown  sheetings.  The  Linen  trade  has  1 
enriched  by  the  addition  of  bleached  sheeting  and  raven-ducks 
in  imitation  of  Russian  Linen,  and  dowlas  in  imitation  of  Ger- 
man do.,  and  the  imitation  Linens  are  now  carried  to  those 
very  markets  of  which  our  Continental  rivals  had  before  the 
monopoly.  Bleached  imitation  Russia  sheeting  may  be  quoted 
at  12d  to  15d,  ducks,  9Jd  to  lOJd,  dowlas,  lOd  to  lOJd. 
Hempen  and  tow  sackings,  hessians,  and  various  other  fabrics, 
have  also  been  introduced  within  about  five  years.  The  intro- 
duction and  improvement  of  spinning  .machinery  has  been  a 
principal  agent.  It  has  increased  the  quantity,  improved  t  la- 
quality,  and  diminished  the  price  of  the  yarns  brought  to  mar- 
ket. Yarns  are  now  spun  on  the  average  at  half  the  price  which 
used  formerly  to  be  paid  for  hand-spinning.  In  the  early  stages 
of  the  manufacture,  the  difficulty  of  procuring  yarns  necessarily 
limited  the  trade,  and  Osnaburgs  and  sheetings  were  almost  the 
only  descriptions  made  in  this  neighbourhood.  Six  months  had 
formerly  been  allowed  for  spinning  and  manufacturing  the  Flax 
into  Linen,  now  two  months  does  it.  The  improved  quality 
of  the  Linens  has  increased  the  demand  for  them,  which  bad 
goods  never  do/'  It  is  added  —  "Every  improvement  requires 
caution,  and  should  not  be  embarked  in  rashly.  It  requires  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  details  of  machinery, 
and  perseverance  to  encounter  and  overcome  difticul; 

The  Advertiser  of  3d  February  1822,  says—"  Two  Flax-spin- 
ning frames  of  30  spindles  each,  made  by  Daniel  Duff  &  Co., 
were  yesterday  morning  set  a  working  at  St  Roque  Mill  for  the 


606 


MODERN   LINEN. 


first  time,  and  in  the  short  space  of  thirteen  hours  and  a  half 
turned  off  66  spindles  of  yarn." 

In  October  1 822,  the  wages  paid  to  spinners  in  mills  was 
from  7s  to  9s,  and  children  from  2s  6d  to  4s ;  spinners  of  hemp 
yarn  by  hand  from  5s  to  6s,  and  weavers  from  12s  to  15s,  all 
per  week.  In  1826  Flax-dressers  were  paid  2s  per  cwt.,  and  in 
1827  the  rate  rose  to  2s  6d  per  cwt. 

In  1823,  there  were  shipped  at  Dundee  82,250  pieces  Osna- 
burgs,  12,008,580  yards,  the  bounty  on  which  was  £75,053  12s 
6d.  It  was  at  this  time  estimated  that  about  one  million  was 
laid  out  as  fixed  capital  on  buildings  and  machinery  for  the 
manufacture  of  Linen  in  Forfarshire. 

Quantity  and  official  value  of  the  Linens  and  sailcloth  exported 
from  Dundee  for  the  years  ending  5th  January  1824  to  1827: — 


Year  Endincr. 

Linens  Exportd. 

Value. 

Sailcloth  Exptd. 

Value. 

Yards. 

£         S.       D. 

Ells. 

£           S.      D. 

5th  Jan.  1824 
,,       1825 
1826 

„       1827 

2,331,127 
2,873,005 
2,610,234 

2,852,922 

71,300  16    9  k 
74,175  ]2  10| 
70,180    4  10 
69,049    1    9 

18,922 
69,379 
58,426 
2,001,496 

951    5  10 
3,325  11     1 
3,233  14    8£ 
41,877  17    9 

The  bounty  on  Linens  having  been  reduced  periodically,  great 
exertions  were  made,  previous  to  the  days  when  the  different 
instalments  came  off,  to  have  all  the  goods  possible  shipped  in 
time  to  secure  the  higher  rate,  and  some  ludicrous  scenes  oc- 
curred on  these  occasions. 

The  Advertiser  of  Thursday,  7th  July,  1826,  says:— "Yes- 
terday being  the  last  day  that  the  description  of  Linen  known 
by  the  name  of  canvas,  No.  10,  was  entitled  to  bounty  on 
exportation,  large  quantities  were  shipped.  Clerks,  packers, 
carters,  porters,  seamen,  were  all  actively  engaged  in  making 
the  shipments,  and  it  is  said  that  an  old  merchant  renewed  his 
youth  for  the  day,  and  wrought  miracles.  He  had  purchased 
largely  of  No.  10's  at  3Jd  per  yard,  and  got  them  all  on  board 
in  time,  which  entitles  him  to  receive  2d  per  yard  of  bounty. 
The  original  cost  of  the  Linen  shipped  to  him,  deducting  the 
bounty,  is  therefore  1  Jd  per  yard.  The  bounty  on  the  whole 
shipments  amount  to  about  £11,000." 


8C< 

The  hustle  and  .-utivity  am.  n:  tip-  < 

Dundee  (luring  the  week  pn-eeding  the  f,th  July.  IS'JS.  when 
another  per  erntaire  of  the  hounty  came  off.  was  unpTvecd«-nt''d. 
'I'll,-  total  qnanti'  M  for  the  w.vk  fn>m  'J'.Mli  December, 

1827,  to  f)th  .January.   IS'JS.  was  as  follows: — 


!  :tncl  under  Gd  per  yar.l, 
.,      6d  and  uot  above  1»  6d, 

Total, 
Sail-cloth, 

Yard*. 
690,422 

6<Kt. 

Vain*. 
£15,411    :i    l' 
17,660    6    0 

1,300,148 
11.874  ell* 

£83,071    8    2 

Ml 

In  December,  1828,  vessels  sailed  from  Dundee  for  Mobile, 
New  York,  and  St  Domingo  ;  and  vessels  were  then  load  in  <j 

uieir".  Bahia,  Pernamlmco,  New  Orleans,  Charleston, 
Savannah,  New  York,  <te.,  with  Linens.  The  direct  export 
trade  has  been  all  but  lost  to  Dundee  since  facilities  were 
n Horded  by  railways  in  carrying  goods  quickly  to  Liverpool,  <fec., 
where  frequent  opportunities  are  got  for  shipping  them. 

The  fifth  reduction  of  10  per  cent,  from  the  bounty  on  the 
export  of  Linen  took  place  on  5th  January,  1829.  From 
(»th  December,  1828,  to  5th  January,  1829,  but  particularly  on 
the  last  day,  there  were  upwards  of  31,000  pieces  shipped  for 
foreign  ports,  the  value  of  which  was  upwards  of  £78,000.  The 
total  value  of  Linens  and  sail-cloth  exported  from  Dundee  for 
bounties  in  year  ending  f>th  January,  1829,  was  £308,768  3s  Dd. 

At  a  meeting  of  merchants,  Flax-spinners,  and  others  inters 
in  the  Linen  trade,  held  in  the  Town  Hall,  Dundee,  27th  June, 

1831,  it  was  agreed,  by  a  majority,  that  no  application  should  1  e 
made  for  a  continuance  of  the  Bounty  on  Linen. 

The  shipments  of  Linen  for  the  week  ending  5th  January f 

1832,  were  very  extensive,  the  time  for  the  payment  of  bounty 
having  expired  on  that  day.    Considerable  quantities  which  could 
not  be  got  shipped  were  put  into  bond,  the  Lords  of  the  TreaMiry 
having  been  pleased  to  allow  Linens  entitled  to  bounty  to  be 
lodged  in  warehouses  under  the  Kind's  lock,  on  condition  that 
such  were  exported  within  three  months,  and  that  the  Crown  be 
not  subjected  to  any  expense — the  bounty  only  to  be  paid 

the  goods  were  duly  shipped.      The  following  details  of  the 
bounty  Linen  exported  from  Dundee  for  the  quarter  ending  f>th 


MODERN  LINEN. 


January,  1832,  are  taken  from  the  Custom-House  Books.  The 
quantity  for  this  quarter  was  much  beyond  the  average,  as 
extraordinary  efforts  were  made  to  get  goods  off  by  5th  Jan., 
to  secure  the  bounty,  which  then  ceased  entirely. 


To  what  Place 
Exported. 

From  5d  to  6d 
per  Yard. 

From  6d  to  la  6d 
per  Yard. 

Exceeding 
IsGdper  Yd. 

Sailcloth. 

Gibraltar 

Yards. 

33,781 
42,985 
280,798 
634,177 
206,227 
36,223 
836,798 
968,998 

Yards. 

486.873 
215,112 
1,260,164 
1,121,640 
527,039 
373,793 
890,640 
3,361,257 

Yards. 

2  134 
55617 

Ells. 

36,243 
46,638 
9,856 
2,878 

40,478 
382,958 

Canada  

Havti 

St  Thomas  
Cuba          

Brazil 

United  States,  
Total,  : 

3,039,987 
11,3:54,256  yards  L 

8,236,518 
inen,  and  519,051 

57,751 

ells  Sailcloth. 

519,051 

The  total  value  of  Linen  exported  from  Dundee  for  bounty, 
and  the  amount  of  bounties  paid  thereon,  for  the  year  ending  5th 
January,  were  as  follows  : — 

1830 Value  Exported,   £277,977    0    0  Bounties,  £39,043  12    8 

1831 Do.  365,595    0  11  Do.         41,359    0  11 

1832 Do.  596,424    0    0  Do.         46,854    7    2 

Bounties  ceased  on  5th  January,  1832. 

The  total  value  of  British  manufactures  exported  from  Dun- 
dee in  the  latter  year  was  as  follows  :  — 


Woollen  Manufactures, 

Silk  Do. 

Cotton  Do. 

Hardware, 

Linen  Manufactures, 


£200 

667 

20,141 

1,616 

596,424 

£619,048 


In  1800  the  price  of  St  Petersburg  12-  head  Flax  in  Dundee  rose 
from  £52  to  £73  a  ton;  in  1801  it  averaged  £71 ;  in  1802,  £60; 
1803-4,  returns  defective  ;  1805,  £65  ;  1806,  £62  ;  1807,  £65  ; 
1808,  £103-;  1809,  £118;  1810,  £85  10s ;  1811,  £17;  1812, 
£105  ;  1813,  £88  ;  1814,  £80  ;  1815,  £73  ;  1816,  £51;  1817, 
£52  10s;  1818,  £66  10s;  1819,  £65  ;  1820,  £54;  1821,  £50. 


The  average  price  for  the  seven  years  prior  to  1815  was 
and  for  seven  years  subsequent  to  the  war  £59,   showing  a 
tall  of  £35  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war.      This  was  cm 
partly   l.y  tin-  fall   in    flights   (at  one  tim«\   as  ivluted  by 
late  David  Blariin.  he  paid  the  extraordinary  frei 
a  ton  for  Flax,  from  Riga  to  Dundee),  nn<l  insurance,  which 
in    1821  did   not  amount  to  one  fourth  of  what  they  were 
during  the  war,  and  partly  to  the  increased  value  of  the  cur- 
rency,   which    depressed    the    price    of    Flax    and    all    other 
materials.      Another  cause  was  the  increased  supply  of  Flax 
received  from  Ireland.    Prior  to  the  Revolutionary  war,  Flax  had 
been  imported  at  £33  and  £34  a  ton.   In  1821  it  was  thought  that 
when  12-head  St  Petersburg  Flax  fell  to  £40  per  ton,  it  might 
be  considered  to  have  attained  its  level ;  and  that  £38  was  tho 
minimum  price  at  which  it  could  be  landed  here  to  pay  all  parties. 

In  the  first  decade  of  the  century,  the  sorts  of  Flax  principally 
used  in  Dundee  were  St  Petersburg  12-head,  Riga  Thiesen- 
hausen,  and  Dutch,  and  English,  and  the  prices  of  all  these  de- 
scriptions were  then  nearly  the  same.  In  February,  1809,  these 
Maxes  on  the  average  advanced  to  £150  a  ton,  being  the  highest 
point  they  ever  reached.  During  these  years  the  fluctuations 
were  sudden  and  violent,  sometimes  rising  or  falling  £20  a  ton  in 
a  few  days,  chiefly  caused  by  events  of  war.  Yarns  varied  as 
much  as  the  raw  material.  The  highest  price  paid  for  yarns 
was  in  the  spring  of  1809,  when  3  Ib.  Flax  was  7s  a  spindle  ;  6 
ft.  do.,  11s  9d  ;  and  6  ft).  Tow,  10s  3d. 

In  the  end  of  June  1826  the  price  of  Flax  fell  greatly,  and  at 
that  time  St  Petersburg  12-head  was  quoted  at  £29  to  £29  10s, 
9-head  £24  to  £24  10s  ;  Riga  PTR  £35 ;  DC  £'28  to  £30,  RT 
£22  10s  to  £23  ;  Libau  £27  ;  Archangel  qualities,  £27  to  £:tf . 
These  are.  perhaps,  the  lowest  prices  which  Flax  ever  touched 
in  Dundee.  3  Ik  1'lax  yarn  then  fell  to  Is  lOd  ©  2s ;  4  ft),  do., 
2s  3d  @  2s  5d ;  6  and  7  ft>.  tow  yarn,  2s  4d  @  3s ;  10  to  12  ft- 
do.,  3|d  to  4£d ;  prices  at  which  they  had  never  been  qu 
before. 

The  price  of  Jute  has  fluctuated  greatly  since  its  introduction 

into  the  trade,  arising  from  scanty  or  superabundant  supplies, 

or  the  result  of  speculation.     The  finer  qualities  have  been  sold 

here  as  low  as  £10,  and  as  high  as  £35  a  ton.     The  price  of 

Q  Q 


610  MODERN  LINEN. 

fine  Jute  for  the  twenty  years  preceding  1853  averaged  about 
£16,  and  since  then  it  has  averaged  about  £26 ;  the  average 
price  of  all  qualities  since  1853  being  about  £22  a  ton. 

A  prices-current  of  the  raw  materials,  yarns  and  Linens,  in  the 
Dundee  market,  for  each  year  from  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury, is  appended.  Excepting  when  otherwise  stated,  the  prices 
were  those  current  about  the  end  of  October  in  the  respective 
years,  and  as  the  leading  articles  of  the  period  are  quoted,  the 
class  of  goods  then  made,  as  well  as  the  approximate  price,  is 
shown.  In  the  early  decades  of  the  century  the  prices  are  taken 
from  the  Market  Eeports  of  the  Advertiser  ;  subsequently  they 
have  been  made  up  from  various  sources,  and  with  considerable 
care. 

In  1809  Flax-dressers  were  paid  3s  6d  per  cwt.  for  heckling 
Baltic  Flax,  yielding  50  ft>.  for  3  ib.  yarn,  and  6s  per  cwt.  for 
Dutch  and  English  Flax,  yielding  60  Ib.  for  2  ft>.  yarn. 

In  the  beginning  of  1819  great  complaints  were  maele  about 
the  low  wages  paid  for  weaving.  The  goods  then  made  were  of 
two  classes,  sheeting  and  Osnaburg,  and  sail-cloth  and  bagging. 
Working  fourteen  hours  a  day,  the  quantity  weaved  by  a  man 
in  a  year,  on  the  average,  as  taken  from  the  books  of  many 
manufacturers,  was — 

Osnaburgs,  26  pieces,  3,796  yards,  Sail-cloth,  78  pieces,  3,120  yards. 

Sheetings,    26      „      3,276      ,,  Bagging,     78      „       4,680    „ 

On  Osnaburgs,  &c.,  a  common  hand  could  earn  about  £10  17s 
8d  a  year,  and  a  dexterous  person  about  double ;  and,  on  sail- 
cloth, &c.,  a  common  weaver  could  make  about  £1.5  2s,  and  a 
first-rate  one-half  as  much  more.  The  women  were  employed 
spinning'and  winding.  Three-pound  Flax  yarn,  and  coarse  Hemp 
and  tow  yarn  were  chiefly  spun,  two  spindles  a  week  being  the 
average  quantity  spun,  which,  at  8d  a  spindle,  made  Is  4d  a 
week.  At  that  time,  low  as  wages  were,  manufacturers  were 
then  said  to  be  losing  on  every  piece,  not  a  bale  having  been 
exported  excepting  on  speculation  for  several  months.  The 
Advertiser  adds— "  So  flourishes  the  staple  trade  of  Dundee  !" 

Early  in  1820,  a  Committee  on  the  State  of  the  Labouring 
Poor  gave  in  a  Report,  showing  that  the  wages  then  paid  for 
weaving,  &c.,  in  Dundee  were  as  follows,  viz. : — 


SCOTCH  LINEN. 

SaiKluth,  2  webs  per  week,  at  4«  ;W  ••oh,  Ss  6d 

Bagging,  2  web.        do.  do.  *«  ''-I 

Sacking,  5  piece*  in  three  weeks,  at  4*  6,1  eaoh  (per  week),  7  <  •;•! 

Sheeting,  1  piece  in  10  d.tys,  10f  Od 

Osnaburg,  1  Jo.,         do.  '•>»  «'«1 

Lew  winding,  rent,  &c.,  about  2«  4^1  por  piece  of  shwting  aud  Oauaburg. 

The  women  employe .-d  in  mills  earned  about  5s  a  week ;  best 
hand-spinners,  who.n  fully  employed,  2s  6d  ;  but,  on  the  ave- 
rage, from  scarcity  of  work,  &c.,  Is  2d  a  week.  About  1500 
women  were  then  employed  in  hand-spinning  in  Dundee.  It 
was  said  that  the  women  were  only  paid  4s  for  spinning  as  much 
yarn  as  would  extend  from  Dundee  to  Aberdeen  in  a  direct 
line.  (The  distance  is  65  J  miles,  and  as  a  spindle,  14,400 
yards,  is  upwards  of  eight  miles  long,  the  rate  per  mile  is  about 
three  farthings,  which  scarcely  allows  sixpence  for  spinning  a 
spindle.)  A  weaver  then  put  the  same  quantity  of  weft  in  his 
web,  in  the  same  space  of  time  as  it  took  to  spin  it,  for  about 
double  the  money. 

On  22d  May  1 822,  a  meeting  of  merchants  and  others  inte- 
rested in  the  Linen  trade  was  held  in  Dundee  to  resuscitate  the 
Forfarshire  Chamber  of  Commerce,  when  office-bearers  wero 
elected,  &c. 

The  length  of  the  webs  given  out  to  be  weaved  has  often  been 
a  source  of  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  weavers.  The  price  of 
weaving  throughout  the  town  was  nearly  uniform  for  the  respec- 
tive fabrics,  but  some  manufacturers  warped  their  webs  longer 
than  others,  which  gave  their  weavers  extra  work,  without  a 
corresponding  increase  of  pay.  Previous  to  1824,  the  length  of 
webs  were  as  follows,  viz. : — 

4-tthi  and  9  8ths  sheeting*,  126  yards,  White  "heelings,  115  to  116  y*rd«, 

Oimaburg*,  116  yard",  Cotton  bagging,  60  to 

Hessian  sheeting*,  115  yard*,  Three  f»-ct  Backing,  60  t«  62  yard*, 
Dan.lv  sheetings,  96  to  93  yards. 

In  1833  the  webs  given  out  by  various  maiiufjirtuTvrs  wero  pub- 
licly measured  on  the  Magdalen  Green.  The  greatest  differ- 
ences were  found  to  be  upon  hessian  sheetings,  which  varied  from 
123  to  150  yards  ;  Liverpool  sacking,  from  99  to  113  ;  canvas, 
from  4f>  and  cotton  bagging  from  65  to  78  ;  but  all 

fabrics  differed  considerably,  showing  that  the  weavers  had  good 
ground  of  complaint.     That  year  the  manufacturers  met  and 
resolved  upon  a  uniform  standard  of  lenirflis  A*  follow?- — 4-4fh 
QQ2 


612  MODERN  LINEN. 

and  9 -8th  brown  sheeting,  22  por.,  131  to  132  yards ;  4-4th  and 
9-8th  imitation  do.,  24  and  26  por.,  106  to  108  ;  4-4th  and 
'.)-8th  brown  or  bleached  sheeting,  28  to  36  por. — short  lengths, 
108,  long  do.,  1 33 ;  hessian  sheetings  and  sand  bagging,  32  to  72 
inches  wide,  132  to  134  ;  mending  bagging,  34  inches  wide,  103 
«.;o  105  ;  do.  40  inches,  66  to  68  ;  Osnaburgs,  22  to  26  por.,  148 
to  150;  Dowlas,  25  to  27  inches,  22  to  28  por.,  148  to  150  ;  do. 
30  to  40  porter,  134  to  136  ;  Liverpool  sacking,  12  to  16  porter, 
100  to  102;  farmers'  do.,  14  to  16  porter,  94  to  96;  factory 
fabrics,  viz.,  sacking,  cotton  bagging  and  pimento,  1J  ft>.  per 
yard,  62  to  64;  do.,  1J  ft).,  66  to  68;  hop-pocketing,  82  to 
84  ;  tarpauling,  42  to  44  ;  canvas,  40  to  42. 

This  list  shows  the  class  of  goods  then  made  in  Dundee,  some  of 
which  have  ceased  to  be  woven  here,  and  are  now  the  staple  fabrics 
of  the  district  towns.  It  is  curious  to  mark  the  changes  which 
time  makes  upon  the  trade  of  a  locality.  Dundee  was  once 
famous  for  its  bonnets,  its  bottles,  and  its  buckles  ;  but  now  the 
Bonnethill,  the  Bucklemaker  Wynd,  and  the  Bottle-work  are  all 
that  remain  (excepting  the  ancient  Incorporation  of  Bonnet- 
makers,  whose  yellow  banner  floats  in  "the  centre  of  the  Nine 
Trades),  to  tell  that  these  ancient  trades  once  flourished  here. 
The  thread  manufacture  once  employed  many  people  in  town, 
but  it,  too,  has  been  long  lost.  The  Soap-work  Lane,  and 
the  Sugar-house  Wynd  tell  of  works  that  were.  Its  great 
leather  trade  is  kept  in  remembrance  by  the  Tannage  Court,  &c., 
and,  though  long  almost  extinct,  it  is  once  more  prosecuted 
vigorously,  Henry  Henderson  &  Sons  having  tan-works  and 
currying  premises  here,  perhaps  unequalled  in  extent  by  those 
in  any  other  town  in  Scotland 

In  1831  there  were,  by  the  census  returns,  363  manufac- 
turers here,  and  6,828  persons  employed  in  the  Linen  trade, 
of  whom  700  belonged  to  Lochee.  The  wages  then  paid 
were  —  flaxdressers,  10s  to  12s;  girls  and  boys,  3s  to  6s; 
women,  5s  to  8s ;  weavers,  7s  to  10s ;  mechanics,  14s  to  18s 
a  week,  the  total  amount  paid  yearly  being  £156,000.  Since 
that  period  the  wages  paid  to  the  operatives  engaged  in  the 
staple  industry  of  the  town  have  fluctuated  with  the  rising  or 
falling  fortunes  of  the  trade,  and  with  the  supply  and  demand 
in  the  labour  market.  Sometimes  low  wages  and  dear  provi- 


>T«  H   UN  EM/ 

is  have  caused  diiv  distress,  and  gomet  i  h  wages  and 

n  provisions,  as  at  present,  have  afforded  many  comforts  to 
the  pnul  nt.     Prosperity  never  benefits  the  improvident. 

A  j  ,iiil  in  some  of  the  leading  department*  of  the  trade 
are  as  follows: — Spinning-mills— preparers,  7s  3d  to  8s  3d; 
spinners,  8s  3d  to  8s  9d ;  shifters,  5s  9d  to  6s  ;  boys,  4s  6d  to 
9s;  i  ad  warpers,  piecework,  9s  to  14s;  overseers,  21s 

to  24s.  Power-loom  factories—winders,  piece  work,  7s  to  9s ; 
weavers,  piece  work,  9s  to  11s ;  tenters,  22s  to  2Gs.  Hand-loom 
factories — warpers,  15s  to  16s;  weavers,  piece  work,  5s  6d  to 
6s  for  sacking  ;  h  Is  per  spindle  of  weft  put  on,  and  Is 

per  piece  additional.  Fl  ix-dressers,  2s  6d  per  cwt.  Mechanics, 
17s  to  25s.  Calenderers,  15s  to  16s ;  lappers,  15s  to  17s. 

In  1832  the  mills  in  operation  in  Dundee  and  the  immediate 
irhood  (599  horse-power)  consumed  15,600  tons  of 
Flax,  and  produced  7,488,000  spindles  of  yarn.  The  sum  then 
invested  in  machinery  was  estimated  at  £240,000.  In  the 
mills  about  3000  persons  were  employed,  of  whom  600  were 
under  14  years  of  age,  1,073  under  18,  some  under  12,  and  a 
few  from  6  to  7,  the  others  being  18  or  more. 

In  Thomson's  History  of  Dundee  the  value  of  the  articles  im- 
ported into  the  town,  and  chiefly  used  in  the  manufactures,  for 
the  three  years  ending  31st  May  1838,  is  stated  at  i'3,^84,585, 
and  the  value  of  the  exports,  £4,108,970,  giving  a  surplus  of 
JL'^J  1,385,  or  between  ±~>  and  26  per  cent,  on  the  imported  value. 
In  t!  -1st  May  1838,  the  value  of  the  imports  is 

stated  at  £782,513,  and  of  the  exports,  £1,172,669,  being  an  in- 
crease of  nearly  50  per  cent.  After  adding  about  30  per  cent, 
to  the  value  of  tip.-  raw  material,  of  which  the  manufactured 
articles  consisted,  for  additional  cost  of  labour,  it  leaves  a  pro  tit 
of  20  per  cent.  According  to  the  same  authority  there  were  in 
Dundee  in  1846,  at  least  36  mills,  with  a  motive  power  on  the 
aggregate  of  1,242  horses,  driving  not  less  than  71.i'>7«>  ?*  pi  i  idles. 

On  7th  Sept.  1821  the  Advertiser  states  that  in  Dundee  *'  a 
power-loom  is  about  to  be  used,  by  wny  of  experiment,  in  the 
of  our  staple  fabric  of  Linens."  Probably  this  experi- 
ment had  not  turned  out  well,  as  it  was  not  followed  up.  Other 
experiments  were  subsequently  made,  but  no  power- looms  were 
regularly  worked  in  town  for  ji;;;ny  years  thereafter. 


614  MODERN  LINEN. 

In  1826,  when  Wm.  Baxter  &  Son  put  up  their  second  mill 
in  Lower  Dens,  they  proposed  to  put  in  ninety  power -looms,  as 
well  as  spinning  machinery,  but  this  intention  was  abandoned, 
and  it  was  not  until  ten  years  thereafter  that  they  carried  out  their 
early  proposal  of  erecting  a  power-loom  work.  Towards  the 
end  of  1836,  Messrs  Baxter  erected  a  power- loom  factory  at  their 
Upper  Dens  works,  and  it  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind  started 
in  Dundee.  In  a  report  of  the  New  Factory  which  appeared  in 
the  Advertiser,  it  is  mentioned  that  the  weaving  shop  or  shed 
alone  is  150  feet  long  by  75  in  width,  lighted  from  the  roof,  and 
it  is  expected  that  from  300  to  400  people  will  be  employed 
in  weaving,  and  in  the  subsidiary  processes.  It  is  added — 
11  This  mode  of  manufacturing  has  for  a  considerable  time  been 
carried  on  successfully  in  Aberdeen,  and  is  extending  there.  It 
has  also  been  introduced  into  several  manufacturing  towns  in 
England."  Shortly  after  this  period,  Alexander  Rowan  erected 
Dudhope  Works,  and  John  Laing  Dens'  Eoad  Factory  ;  and  a 
little  later  A.  and  D.  Edward  and  Co.  erected  a  factory  at  their 
Logie  works.  For  a  considerable  period,  these  four  were  the 
only  power-loom  factories  in  Dundee. 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  new  era  has  dawned  on  the  trade. 
Many  power-loom  works  have  been  put  up ;  others  are  in  course 
of  erection,  and  others  contemplated,  some  of  them  of  great  mag- 
nitude. Judging  from  the  changes  which  have  taken  place 
within  the  last  ten  years,  a  very  few  years  more  will  see  hand- 
looms  almost  entirely  supplanted,  as  they  cannot  compete' success- 
fully with  power-looms,  excepting  for  a  few  fabrics  for  which  they 
still  seem  to  be  best  suited. 

Calendering  and  press-packing  Linens  were  unknown  in  Dun- 
dee during  the  first  two  decades  of  the  century.  Previous  to 
the  introduction  of  calenders  a  few  of  the  outside  sheets  of  the 
piece  were  beetled,  i.  e.  beaten  on  a  large  stone  with  wooden 
mallets  by  two  men,  who  then  lapped  up  the  piece,  and^  tied  it 
with  two  or  more  cords  depending  on  the  width  of  the  piece, 
The  goods  were  then  generally  shipped  loose,  or  hand-packed  and 
shipped.  The  bales  were  so  light,  compared  with  their  bulk, 
that  the  traders  had  to  carry  a  large  quantity  of  ballast  to  put 
their  vessels  into  sailing  trim.  This  is  not  required  with  bales 
packed  by  hydraulic  pressure,  as  they  are  compact  and  heavy. 


8CV.  KH. 

In  1822,  William  Shaw,  who  wa  reeling  a  smill  spin- 

ning-mill at  East  Port,  was  recommended  by  some  of  the  u 
chants  of  the  town  to  turn  part  of  the  premises  into  a  calendering 
and  press-packing  establishment,  there  being  nothing  of  the  kind 
here  at  that  period.    He  went  to  Glasgow  and  purchased  a  oalen- 
;;id  u  hydraulic  press,  and  had  them  erected  in  his  work,  and 
the  press  was  the  first  to  be  worked  by  steam-power.     For  some 
time  the  ne\v  finishing  machinery  was  not  appreciated,  and 
two  years  it  was  barely  employed  four  days  a  week.     This  was 
discouraging,  but  Mr  Shaw  persevered,  and  subsequently,  as  the 
advantages  of  calendering  became  better  known,  work  flowed 
in  upon  him.     In  1810,  William  Sandeinan  had  a  calender  at 
Douglasfield  for  finishing  his  bleached  goods,  and  a  pack: 
press,  wrought  by  manual  labour,  but  packing  by  it  was  a  slow 
process,  and  the  pressure  comparatively  light. 

Few  goods  are  now  sent  off  without  undergoing  some  process 
of  calendering,  as  it  greatly  improves  the  appearance  of  the 
fabric,  without  injuring  its  quality.  The  calenders  employed 
are  heavier,  make  a  more  powerful  impression,  and  put  a  better 
finish  upon  the  goods  than  those  used  in  the  infancy  of  the 
trade.  They  are  of  four,  five,  or  six  bowls  or  rollers,  two  of 
which  are  made  of  paper  and  the  others  of  iron.  Calendering 
machinery  is  now  made  of  the  most  approved  construction,  and  ex- 
cellently suited  for  the  purpose.  The  hydraulic  packing  presMi 
are  powerful  constructions,  and  capable  of  exerting  a  pressure 
on  the  bales  of  fiom  1,000  to  2,000  tons,  and  upwards.  The 
goods  are  beetled,  sarceneted,  cylindered,  chested,  or  mangled, 
&c.,  as  may  be  desired,  the  different  style  of  finish  given  the 
goods  being  the  effect  of  putting  them  through  between  the  rol- 
lers in  particular  ways.  The  goods  are  cropped,  then  slightly 
damped,  preparatory  to  the  calendering  process.  Afterwards 
they  are  measured,  lapped,  or  made  up  to  suit  the  special  taste  of 
the  market  for  which  they  are  intended,  then  packed,  and  shipped. 
In  most  processes  <.f  c  ilemlering  the  goods  are  slightly  contracted 
in  width  and  extended  in  length.  Few  coarse  Linens,  excepting 
those  specially  finished  for  padding,  receive  any  starch  or  Bother 
extraneous  sn  preparatory  to  calendering,  to  give  them 

an  appearance  of  having  more  body  than  they  really  possess. 
The  firmness  and  consistency  of  Linen  is  chiefly  owing  to  the 


61G  MODERN    LINEN. 


quantity  of  fibrous  material  in  the  cloth,  and  this  adds  value  to 
Linen  goods.  There  are  now  seven  public  calenders  here,  which 
belong  to  highly  respectable  proprietors,  and  the  works  are  large 
airy,  and  well  ventilated,  great  attention  being  paid  to  the  corn-- 
fort and  well  being  of  the  men.  There  are  no  women  or  children 
employed  in  any  of  the  works.  The  works  are  under  most  care- 
ful management,  every  thing  in  and  about  them  being  maintained 
in  admirable  condition.  In  addition  to  the  public  calenders,  many 
of  the  large  manufacturing  concerns  have  calendering  and  pack- 
ing establishments  of  their  own,  upwards  of  a  thousand  hands 
being  employed  in  the  calendering  department  of  the  trade. 
Extensions  in  calendering  necessarily  keep  pace  with  manufac- 
turing progress. 

The  staple  trade  of  Dundee  has  been  subject  to  violent  perio- 
dical convulsions,  some  of  which  have  been  local  in  their  charac- 
ter, and  others  national.  In  the  early  years  of  the  century 
these  changes  were  chiefly  caused  by  the  sudden  rise  or  fall  in 
the  price  of  the  raw  material,  which  moved  up  or  down  with  the 
varying  fortunes  of  the  combatants  in  the  wars  of  the  period. 

Flax,  which  in  1809,  rose  to  £150  a  ton,  fell  in  1810  to  £80. 
The  loss  on  stock,  and  the  stagnation  in  trade  which  accom- 
panied and  partly  produced  the  fall,  ruined  nearly  all  the  mer- 
chants, manufacturers  and  spinners,  and  for  a  time  there  were 
only  two  spinning-mills  at  work  in  the  town.  In  1812  Flax 
again  rose  greatly,  but  only  to  fall  the  farther  the  two  following 
years,  it  being  £45  a  ton  lower  in  1814  than  in  1812.  Many 
failures,  and  contracted  employment  were  the  inevitable  result. 
In  1815  prices  again  rose  considerably,  but  next  year  they  fell 
to  a  much  lower  point  than  they  had  touched  at  any  previous 
time  this  century,  and  caused  many  bankruptcies.  Each  of 
these  changes,  by  the  compulsory  stoppage  of  production,  threw 
many  of  the  operatives  idle,  and  produced  great  suffering 
throughout  the  town. 

For  a  long  period  prior  to  the  autumn  of  1825,  trade  had 
been  in  a  healthy  state  in  Dundee,  but,  towards  the  end  of  that 
year,  a  great  commercial  panic  occurred  in  London  and  quickly 
spread  over  the  country.  Many  bankers  failed,  consols  fell  to 
79,  and  trade  became  completely  paralysed.  About  Christmas 
William  Sandeman,  bleacher,  Douglasfield,  and  merchant  in. 


; 


C17 

Dundee,  who  in  1810  had  stopped  for  the  then  large  sum  of 
£60,000,  again  failed  for  a  large  amount,  and  others  followed  in 
rapid  succession.  Dundee  had  its  full  share  of  the  terrible 
calamity,  nn-l  tin  ind  privations  which  the  people 

then  s'lii  r.-d  were  most  distressing.  So  great  was  the  stagna- 
tion in  I. u •  iru-ss  nit  Government  came  to  the  help  of 
tho  merchants,  and,  on  getting  a  deposit  of  goods,  granted 
Exchequer  bills  upon  them.  Many  of  the  largest  merchants 
took  advantage  of  the  aid  so  proffered,  and  it  proved  a  great 

;'  to  th.-in,  and  U-n.  lit  to  the  trade.  Early  in  1827  the 
American  trad-.-  iv\  iv.-d.  This  gave  an  impulse  to  business,  and 
those  who  had  weathered  the  storm  of  1826  speedily  made  up 
their  lo^  i  ;  but  even  yet  that  calamitous  year  is  remem- 

bered with  sorrow  by  all  who  suffered  the  fiery  ordeal. 

In  1834  bagging  was  in  great  demand  for  the  United  States, 
and  handsome  profits  were  realised  by  exporters.  This  stimu- 
lated the  manufacture,  which  was  continued  on  an  extensive 
scale  during  1835.  In  the  end  of  that  year  a  great  fire  occurred 
in  New  York,  destroying  property  to  the  extent  of  20,000.000 
dollars,  including  a  large  quantity  of  bagging,  and  ruining  nearly 
all  the  American  insurance  offices,  some  of  which  only  paid  from 
20  to  50  per  cent,  on  the  claims  upon  them.  To  supply  the 
void  caused  by  this  fire,  great  exertions  were  made  to  send  bag- 
ging out  in  quantity,  and  the  article  was  so  overdone,  that  many 
goods  lay  over  for  years,  and  did  not  ultimately  pay  freight  and 
charges.  The  losses  thus  sustained  brought  ruin  upon  many  of 
the  manufacturers  and  merchants,  the  first  who  stopped  being 
a  son  of  the  man  who  failed  for  large  amounts  in  1810  and 
1825.  In  this  crisis  the  banks,  as  in  1816,  opened  wareho 
received  goods  in  deposit,  and  made  advances  upon  them,  which 
did  much  to  allay  the  pome  and  alk-viate  the  distress.  For 
many  months  at  this  trying  period  great  hardships  were  en- 
dured by  the  op  and  it  was  some  years  before  business 
was  again  in  a  ivally  prosperous  condition. 

The  next  serious  disaster  was  the  effect  of  the  railway  specula - 

s  in  1847.     1  Mning  the  mania  produce  of  all  kinds  rose  to 

fictitious  prices;  and,  when  the  bubble   burst,  goods  became 

unsaleable,  and  fell  far  below  their  intrinsic  value.      The  vast 

-  the  fall  in  shares,  in  which  all  had  speculated,  and  in 


618  MODERN  LINEN. 

the  value  of  merchandise,  brought  so  many  to  ruin  that  a  general 
bankruptcy  for  a  time  seemed  inevitable.  Some  of  the  previous 
panics  had  been  greatly  intensified  in  Dundee  by  overtrading, 
and  by  the  undue  extension  of  mills  and  factories,  but  the  mis- 
fortunes of  1847  were  chiefly  owing  to  speculations  apart  from 
the  regular  trade.  This  town  having  been  longer  in  catching 
the  fever  than  others,  had  little  time  to  get  helplessly  involved, 
still  the  ruin  among  merchants  was  wide-spread  and  most  serious, 
and  the  distress  among  the  working  population,  which  was 
aggravated  by  the  then  high  price  of  provisions,  was  extremely 
severe. 

During  the  Crimean  War  an  immense  demand  sprang  up  for 
coarse  Linens,  and  the  manufactures  of  Dundee  were  largely  con- 
sumed by  both  beligerents  during  the  seige  of  Sebastopol.  The 
profits  then  realised  stimulated  enterprise,  and  led  to  the  erec- 
tion of  extensive  new  works  for  spinning  and  weaving  by  power, 
and  to  great  additions  to  previous  ones.  In  this  way  the 
production  was  extended  greatly  beyond  the  legitimate  wants  of 
consumers,  and  much  money  was  locked  up  in  buildings  and 
machinery  which  ought  to  have  been  conserved  and  retained  in 
the  trade.  In  1857  the  report  of  the  failure  of  a  Trust  Company 
in  America,  followed  by  a  panic  there,  reached  this  country. 
Suddenly  the  storm  burst  over  the  kingdom  ;  merchant  princes 
succumbed  to  the  tornado,  and  banks  of  good  repute  gave  way 
before  it. 

In  Scotland  two  banks  closed  their  doors,  unable  to  stand  the 
run  which  was  made  upon  them,  a  thing  before  unknown  in  the 
history  of  the  country,  and  one  of  them  was  then  closed  for  ever. 
The  Bank  of  England  raised  its  discount  to  10  per  cent.,  but 
this  did  not  check  the  demand  for  gold  ;  and  unless  the  Govern- 
ment had  interposed  its  authority,  and  permitted  the  Bank  to 
violate  the  Bank  Charter  Act  of  1844,  it  also  would  have  been 
compelled  to  suspend.  Had  this  not  been  averted,  most  disas- 
trous results  would  have  followed.  In  Dundee  the  prices  of 
goods  fell  seriously,  in  some  cases  50  per  cent.,  many  failures 
occurred,  and  much  distress  was  endured  by  the  working-classes. 
After  that  period  trade  went  on  regularly,  but  quietly,  until 
the  second  year  of  the  war  in  America  Cottons,  which  had 
risen  to  five  times  their  cost  before  the  war,  could  not  be 


SCOTCH   LINEN  619 

got  in  quantity,  and  the  void  was  in  many  cases  supplied  by 
Linen,  which  increased  the  demand  throughout  the  world.  The 
extensive  requirements  of  the  armies  in  America,  both  Federal 
and  Confederate,  have  absorbed  an  immense  quantity  of  coarse 
and  heavy  Linens,  and  caused  the  pressing  demand  for  them 
which  has  kept  the  mills  and  factories  in  full  operation  for  the 
last  two  years.  The  immediate  effect  of  this  unparalleled  acti- 
vity has  been  to  add  greatly  to  the  wealth  of  almost  every  house 
engaged  in  the  Linen  trade  here,  and  to  the  prosperity  and  im- 
portance of  the  whole  town.  Part  of  the  wealth  thus  acquired 
has  been  laid  out  in  extending  old  works  or  in  building  new  ones. 
If  these  extensions  aro  k-  j>t  within  legitimate  bounds  they  will 
be  profitable  to  the  builders  and  beneficial  to  the  community,  but 
if  not  they  will  do  injury  to  all.  One  marked  effect  of  the  in- 
creased means  at  the  command  of  those  engaged  in  the  trade  is, 
that  instead  of  payments  being  made  as  formerly  by  long  dated 
bills,  they  now  generally  in  cash.  This  shows  that  the  wealth  is 
not  fictitious  but  real. 

The  following  paragraph  is  taken  from  the  Dundee  Commer- 
cial and  Shipping  Gazette  of  2d  May  1840 : — 

"  DIRECT  TRADE  WITH  INDIA. — We  have  this  week  to  record 
an  important  event  connected  with  the  trade  of  our  port — the 
arrival  of  the  barque  Selma,  Luckie,  from  Calcutta  direct. 
This  is  the  first  arrival  of  any  vessel  from  the  East  Indies  with 
a  cargo  for  Dundee.  The  Selma  is  the  property  of  Mr  William 
Davidson,  shipowner,  and  was  built  here  some  years  ago.  She 
has  a  miscellaneous  cargo,  consisting  chiefly  of  Jute  hemp, 
sugar,  rice,  &c.  We  regard  this  as  honourable  to  the  enterprise 
of  our  merchants,  and  trust  it  is  only  a  beginning  to  a  pros- 
perous trade  with  the  British  dominions  in  the  East.  The 
Selma  cast  anchor  in  Carolina  Roads  on  Sunday  morning,  26th 
April,  after  a  passage  of  156  days,  and  was  towed  into  Earl 
Grey's  Dock  on  Wednesday,  in  presence  of  a  crowd  of  spectators, 
who  had  assembled  to  witness  the  arrival  of  the  East  Indiaman." 
The  following  are  the  particulars  of  her  cargo  : — '  Selma,  (258, 
of  Dundee),  Luckie,  from  Calcutta,  with  850  bales  Jute  hemp, 
400  bags  rice,  200  bags  sugar,  197  bags  linseed,  40  buffalo 
home,  1  box  preserv  <es  preserved  ginger,  5  canisters 

arrow  root,  1,900  cocoa  nut-  1'J  coils  rope,  29  pieces  teak  wood, 


620  MODERN  LINEN. 

100  pieces  bamboo,  7  bundles  country  twine,  2  boxes  tea,  6 
hhds.  wine,  and  3  boxes,  2  baskets  shells,  for  William  David- 
son ;  376  bales  Jute  hemp,  for  David  Keith ;  100  bags  rice,  25 
bags  black  pepper,  3  bags  cloves,  and  1  bag  nutmegs,  for  Geo. 
E.  Baxter ;  135  bags  rice,  and  75  bags  linseed,  for  D.  and  J. 
Moncur,  &c.,  &c.,  &c/" 

In  April  1864,  twenty-four  years  after  the  arrival  here  of  the 
first  vessel  from  Calcutta  with  Jute,  there  were  nine  ships  in  the 
port  which  had  arrived  direct  from  Calcutta,  the  united  cargoes 
of  which  were  44  276  bales  of  Jute,  and  a  few  hundred  bales  of 
cuttings,  besides  linseed,  &c.  Other  two  vessels  would  have 
been  here  at  same  time  with  a  farther  quantity  of  8,560  bales, 
but  they  were  unfortunately  stranded  or  lost  when  almost  at 
their  destination.  One  vessel  with  2,641  bales  had  come  in  the 
previous  month,  and  seven  other  ships  are  known  to  be  on  the 
way,  the  cargoes  of  which  amount  to  41,850  bales,  making  a 
total  of  97,327  bales  of  Jute.  It  is  expected  that  several  other 
vessels  will  yet  come  direct  from  Calcutta  to  Dundee  in  the 
course  of  the  year.  So  great  has  been  the  increase  of  the  trade 
since  the  remarks  on  the  subject — page  65 — were  written,  that 
it  is  estimated  the  direct  shipments  this  year  will  be  about 
110,000  bales,  of  the  value  when  landed  here  of  £400,000. 

The  more  direct  any  trade  can  be  carried  on  between  the  pro- 
ducer and  consumer,  and  the  fewer  hands  the  material  passes 
through  in  its  various  transformations  from  the  raw  to  the 
manufactured  state,  the  cheaper  will  the  goods  be  produced. 
This  vast  extension  of  so  legitimate  a  branch  of  trade  is  there- 
fore gratifying.  Messrs  Gilroy  and  Messrs  Cox,  the  largest 
consumers,  now  employ  their  own  ships  in  this  trade,  and  the 
"East  Indiamen"  belonging  to  Dundee  are  already  a  large  and 
valuable  fleet. 

From  a  statement  of  the  quantity  of  Jute  consumed  here, 
kindly  furnished  by  John  Mitchell,  of  Arngask,  it  appears  that 
in  1851  there  were  only  five  firms  here  who  used  more  than  100 
bales  a  week,  the  largest  consumers  being  Gilroy  Brothers,  put 
down  at  200  bales.  Now,  of  the  about  forty  houses  in  Dundee 
and  neighbourhood  who  spin  Jute,  seven-eighths  of  them  cut  up 
more  than  100  bales  a  week,  and  some  firms,  as  already  men- 
tioned, use  about  ten  times  this  quantity. 


SCOTCH  LINKN.  621 

The  Flax  trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  a  few  respectable 
iii ins,  agents  for  houses  at  the  various  shipping  ports  in  Russia, 
itc.     Sometimes  the  spinners  contract  with  the  agents 
during  1  foi  Flux  to  be  shipped  by  their  constituents 

on  the  opening  of  the  navigation  in  >pring,  at  a  free-on-board 
price,  or  otherwise  as  may  be  agreed  on ;  and  sometimes  order?  are 
given  by  the  spinners  to  be  executed  if  they  can  be  done  within 
certain  preset  ms.  Unlimited  orders  are  now  rarely  en- 

ti  u^tcd  to  the  for-  »f  Flax,  tow, 

<fec.,  are  annually  con*':  the  merchants  abroad  to  their  con- 

stituents lu  re,  who  sell  it  to  consumers,  charging  a  commission 
for  their  trouble,  and  this  is  the  most  legitimate  mode  of  con- 
ducting  the  business  and  the  most  convenient  to  the  spinner. 
An  approximation  to  the  quantity  used  in  the  district  is  sup 
plied  by  the  tubular  statements  appended. 

Of  late  years  great  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
structure  of  the  spinning-mills  in  Dundee.  It  was  difficult  to 
make  much  alteration  upon  the  outward  appearance  of  some  of 
the  older  works,  but  where  this  was  practicable  it  has  been  done. 
Internally  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  ventilation,  con- 
veniences of  various  kinds  for  the  comfort  of  the  workers  have 
been  provided,  and  the  employment  rendered  as  healthy  as 
possible.  The  recently  built  mills  have  been  constructed  on 
the  most  approved  principle,  with  every  modern  appliance  for 
the  phy>ical  comfort  of  the  operative ;  and  the  danger  to  health, 
consequent  upon  the  nature  of  the  employment,  has  been  reduced 
to  the  minimum  point.  Some  of  the  new  works,  entirely  fire- 
proof, are  most  imposing  structures,  palatial  in  appearance, 
colo>  \tent,  and,  in  durability,  magnificence,  or  comfort, 

i passed  by  the  mills  in  any  other  town  in  the  kingdom,  or 
of  any  other  country  in  the  world. 

Although  a  tabular  statement  of  the  proprietors  of  spinning- 
mills  and  power-loom  factories,  with  MfaM  details  of  the  respec- 
tive works,  are  given,  a  distinct  notice  of  a  few  of  the  larger 
establishments,  employing  more  than  one  thousand  hands,  and 
whose  recently  erected  works  are  unusually  imposing,  will  not  be 
altogether  a  work  of  supererogation 

The  most  extensive  spinning  and  manufacturing  concern  here 
is  that  of  Baxter  Brothers  &  Co.  The  head  of  the  firm  is  ^ir 


622  MODERN  LINEN. 

David  Baxter,  bart.,  of  Kilmaron,  the  chief  of  the  merchant 
princes  of  Dundee.  Sir  David  has  performed  many  generous 
deeds  to  his  native  town,  but  his  crowning  act  of  princely  muni- 
ficence, in  conjunction  with  his  sisters,  in  presenting  the  noble 
Baxter  Park  to  the  people  of  Dundee,  has  raised  him  high  in 
the  admiration  of  the  good  and  great  of  the  land.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century,  William  Baxter,  the  father  of  Sir  David, 
was  engaged  in  the  Linen  trade.  He  was  an  intelligent  and 
much  respected  merchant,  and  during  his  long  and  honourable 
career  he  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  compeers.  In  1822  he} 
along  with  his  eldest  son,  Edward,  as  Wm.  Baxter  &  Son, 
erected  a  spinning-mill,  of  15  horse-power,  in  the  lower  Dens. 
Before  this  date  the  family  had  a  mill  at  Glamis.  In  1825, 
Baxter  Brothers  &  Co.  (other  sons  having  been  assumed  as 
partners)  put  up  another,  and  a  larger  work,  to  the  northward, 
of  30  horse-power.  Subsequently  additions  were  made  to  it, 
and  an  engine  of  90  horse-power  substituted  for  the  others.  In 
1833  the  erection  of  Upper  Dens  Works  was  commenced,  and 
for  the  last  thirty  years  progress  and  improvement  there  have 
been  constant. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  firm  experimented  in  power-looms 
so  early  as  1826,  and  in  1836  went  largely  into  them.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Thomson's  "  History  of  Dundee,"  that  in  1846 
the  firm  had  in  operation  in  Lower  Dens  Mills,  1  engine  of  90 
horse-power,  driving  3028  spindles  for  dry  spun  Flax  and  tow  ; 
Upper  Dens  Works,  2  engines  of  70  and  35  =  105  horse- 
power, driving  2,136  spindles  on  dry  tow,  and  5,872  of  wet 
spinning — together,  8,008  spindles  ;  being  a  total  of  11,036 
spindles.  Also,  2  engines  of  30  horse-power  coupled  =  60 
horse-power,  driving  256  power-looms,  intended  to  be  increased 
to  420 ;  and  a  calender  work,  with  an  engine  of  10  horse-power, 
the  total  power  being  265  horses.  Since  that  date  the  increase 
has  been  continuous  and  rapid.  They  now  contain  16  steam- 
engines,  of  the  aggregate  of  615  nominal  horse-power,  20,000 
spindles,  and  1,200  power-looms,  and  employ  about  4,000  hands. 

The  material  used  by  Messrs  Baxter  consists  chiefly  of  Flax 
and  tow,  with  a  little  Hemp.  This  firm  is  perhaps  the  only 
one  here  who  have  never,  at  any  period,  spun  Jute  in  their 
works.  In  point  of  consumption  of  raw  material  they  are  the 


wxm-n  LIN-EM. 

largest  Linen  manufacturers  in  thu  world,  no  firm  using  nearly 
as  much  weight  of  Flax,  Ac.,  as  they  do.  The  goods  made  by 
Q  consist  of  sail-cloth,  sheetings,  dowlaa,  ducks,  <fcc.,  for  the 
excellent  quality  of  which  they  have  an  established  reputation. 
In  addition  to  the  yarn  vptiu  in  the  works,  the  Messrs  Bax- 
111  chase  largely  from  other  spinners;  and  the  whole  goods 
iuced  by  them  are  calendered  and  made  up  within  the  work, 
and  sent  cut  in  bales,  or  as  may  otherwise  be  required  by  their 
customers;  the  value  being  about  a  million  sterling  a  year. 
There  are  several  distinct  spinning-mills  in  the  Dens  Works, 
but  the  larger  one,  on  the  north  side  of  and  fronting  Princes 
et,  is  a  noble  structure,  of  about  250  feet  in  length 
and  four  lofty  storeys  in  height,  besides  attics.  The  en- 
gines are  placed  iu  the  centre  of  the  building,  and  over  them  is 
a  fine  statue  of  James  Watt.  Within  the  works  there  is  a 
foundry  and  mechanic  shops,  where  much  of  the  spinning 
and  weaving  machinery  used  in  the  works  are  made.  The 
ground  upon  which  the  works  are  erected  extends  to  upwards 
of  10  acres,  and  it  is  nearly  all  covered  with  the  mills,  factories, 
warehouses,  and  other  necessary  premises  required  for  carrying 
on  so  extensive  an  establishment.  The  buildings  are  most  sub- 
stantial and  the  machinery  of  the  highest  class,  the  internal 
arrangements  admirable,  and  the  management  of  the  works  per- 
fect. This  excellence  has  been  attained  by  Peter  Carmichael, 
the  partner,  who  for  many  years  has  taken  the  superintendence 
of  the  works. 

Logic  Works,  belonging  to  A.  &  D.  Edward  &  Co.,  situated 
at  the  west  end  of  Scouringburn.  were  begun  in  1828,  the  first 
steam-engine  being  of  30  horse-power.  In  1833  the  work  wa« 
enlarged  ;  and  subsequently  several  additions  were  made.  In 
184(>  it  contained  two  engines,  of  90  and  70  =  160  horse- 
power, driving  in  all  14,068  spindles  ;  but  it  has  since  then 
been  again  and  again  extended.  The  mill  fronting  the  Scour- 
ingburn is  about  300  feet  long,  and  is  of  four  storeys  and  attics 
in  height.  Though  not  quite  so  lofty  as  one  or  two  of  the  more 
modern  structures,  it  was  spacious  for  its  day,  being  then  the 
largest  building  in  town,  and  it  is  still  a  most  imposing  and 
handsome  erection.  This  mill  forms  one  side  of  a  large  open 
quadrangular  court ;  the  buildings  on  the  opposite  sides,  which 


624  MODERN  LINEN. 

are  high  and  extensive,  are  used  as  heckling  and  preparing- 
rooms,  and  the  whole  are  fire-proof  throughout. 

In  184G  forty  power-looms  were  put  in  operation  in  the  range 
forming  part  of  the  north  side  of  the  mill  court,  but  as  it  was 
found  impracticable  to  make  room  here  for  the  continued  in- 
crease, a  large  fire- proof  power-loom  factory  was  erected  in  1851 
on  the  nursery  grounds  immediately  to  the  south  and  west  of 
the  spinning-mill.  This  factory  is  a  handsome  building  of  four 
storeys,  and  the  power-looms  being  all  placed  on  one  open  floor, 
partly  in  the  main  building,  and  in  a  line  of  parallel  sheds 
running  behind  it  to  the  south.  The  two  upper  storeys  of  the 
main  building  are  used  as  winding,  warping,  and  preparing 
flats.  Adjoining  the  power  loom  factory  is  the  fire-proof  calen- 
der lapping  and  packing-  house.  Contiguous  to  the  works,  and 
fronting  Milnbank  Eoad  and  Scouringburn,  are  the  requisite 
warehouses  for  Flax,  Jute,  &c. 

The  machinery  now  in  operation  consists  of  17,000  spindles 
and  GOO  power-looms,  with  the  necessary  preparing,  calendering, 
mangling,  and  packing  machines,  employing  altogether  about 
2.500  hands.  The  works  are  driven  by  5  engines  of  260  horse- 
power. 

For  a  long  time  the  Messrs  Edward  spun  only  Flax  and  tow, 
but  latterly  they  have  added  the  spinning  and  manufacture  of 
Jute.  Their  machinery  keeps  pace  with  the  times,  modern  im- 
provements being  readily  adopted,  and  the  whole  kept  in  first- 
rate  working  order.  The  yarns  produced  are  dry  spun  Flax, 
tow,  and  Jute,  and  wet  spun  Flax  and  tow  of  all  sizes.  The 
goods  manufactured  are  sail-cloth,  duck,  dowlas,  shirtings  of  all 
widths,  up  to  three  yards  wide,  diapers,  hessians,  and  indeed  all 
descriptions  of  Linen  or  Jute  goods,  suited  either  for  the  English 
or  foreign  markets.  Linen  damasks  of  various  widths  and 
qualities  are  also  manufactured,  and  this  is  the  only  establiph- 
ments  in  the  district  where  figured  Linens  are  produced  to  any 
extent  by  power. 

The  internal  arrangement  and  adaptation  of  the  works  is  excel- 
lent. The  material  of  which  the  manufactured  article  is  to  con- 
sist goes  from  department  to  department  systematically,  until  it 
is  despatched  from  the  packing-house  in  bales,  either  for  the 
English  trade  or  for  the  remote  markets  of  the  world.  The 


•COT i   I!    UNI 

sit  unt  imi  of  the  works  is  very  good  and  healthy,  being  almost  in 
the  country.  1". mided  on  the  south  and  west  by  green  fields  and 
nursery  grounds. 

Unquestionably  t  he  largest  and  most  imposing  building  set  ir 
for  fipiunin- and  \Nea\inUMs  that  n-cuntly  erected  by  QilroyBrot  i 
&  Co.,  in  Lochee  Itoad,  and  tunning  part  of  Tay  Works.  I 
building  is  392  feet  in  length,  the  wings  of  four  storeys  in  height, 
besides  attics,  and  the  centre  of  five  storeys,  the  altitude  to 
the  tup  of  the  pediment  being  90  feet.  The  masonry  is  built. 
in  regular  eourses.  the  centre  and  wings  being  ornamented  by 
ni-tic  corners,  the  whole  building  being  of  the  most  substantial 
character,  and  fire-proof  throughout.  In  the  frieze  of  the  pedi- 
ment over  the  centre  portion,  the  Dundee  arms,  on  a  large  scale, 
are  sculptured  in  stone ;  and  on  the  apex  is  a  splendid  colos- 
sal statue  of  Minerva  (upwards  of  ten  feet  high),  with  the 
spindle  and  distaff,  which  aptly  crowns  this  magnificent  struc- 
ture. Internally  every  thing  is  in  keeping  with  the  grandeur 
of  the  exterior,  and  the  spirited  proprietors  have  left  nothing 
undone  which  could  add  to  the  comfort  of  the  employes  within. 
This  stately  pile  only  forms  a  portion  of  Tay  Works,  which  ex- 
tend in  all  nearly  1000  feet  along  the  Lochee  Road,  with  mills, 
power-loom  weaving  factory,  and  other  erections  necessary 
for  the  subsidiary  branches  of  tho  establishment,  behind.  The 
works  contain  five  steam-engines  of  240  horse-power,  10,096 
spindles,  and  300  power-looms,  and  give  employment  to  1,700 
hands ;  and  within  a  short  period  these  figures  will  be  con- 
siderably increased.  In  1851  the  power  employed  by  Messrs 
(iilroy  was  only  80  horses,  so  that  the  progress  since  made  has 
been  very  great.  The.classes  of  goods  manufactured  are  chiefly  of 
Jut  ,  and  comprise  hessians,  sacking,  bagging,  <fec.,  which  are 
calendered  within  the  works,  and  sent  out  in  bales  ready  packed 
for  market.  The  firm  have  also  many  hand-looms,  and  employ 
in  all  upwards  of  2000  people.  Tay  Works  are  arranged  on 
the  most  approved  principle,  the  machinery  is  of  the  best  descrip- 
tion, and  no  expense  is  spared  to  keep  it  in  first  rate  order. 
The  internal  economy  of  the  work  is  as  near  perfection  as  it  is 
possible  to  attain,  and  every  department  is  conducted  with 
clock -like  regularity. 

The  spinning- mill  at  Bow  Bridge  Works,  built  by  J.  nml 
R  R 


626  MODERN  LINEN. 

A.  D.  Grimond  in  1857,  is  perhaps  the  finest  structure  of  its  kind 
in  existence,  and  with  its  erection  a  new  era  in  spinning  mills 
was  inaugurated.     It  only  forms  a  portion  of  the  proposed  build- 
ings, but  from  its  great  elevation,  and  noble  parts,  it  is  a  magnifi- 
cent instalment  of  the  complete  work.    This  erection,  entirely  fire- 
proof, is  190  feet  in  length,  110  in  width  on  the  basement  floor  and 
52  on  the  others,  and  71  feet  in  height  to  the  easing.     The  four 
floors  are  respectively  18,  17,  16,  and  16  feet  high,  and  the  attic 
has  the  full  height  of  the  roof  thrown  into  it.     The  basement 
storey  is  built  of  rock  rustic,  and  the  others  of  best  square  rubble. 
The  engine-room  is  a  model  of  stability  and  elegance,  lighted 
by  plate-glass  windows  on  two  sides.     The  windows  in  the  mill, 
are  10  feet  by  5J,  with  circular  tops,  which  open  for  ventilation, 
and  the  building  is  beautifully  painted.     The  engines,  two  of 
50  horse-power  each,  work  together,  with  a  large  cog-wheel  be- 
tween them,  which  turns  the  machinery,  at  same  time  acting  as  a 
fly-wheel.     Economy  of  labour,  being  an  important  matter,  has 
been  a  guiding  principle,  and  with  that  view  the  material  travels 
from  machine  to  machine  with  the  least  possible  amount  of 
manual  labour,  not  stopping  in   its  course  until  it  is  trans- 
formed from  the  original  fibre  to  the  finished  thread,  warped 
or  prepared  for  the  loom.      The  boilers  are  in  a  fire-proof 
building  apart  from  the  mill,  and  were  the  largest  here  at 
the  time  they  were  put  in.      The  engines  and   boilers  were 
made  at  Bolton,  and  are  of  superior  construction  and  finish. 
The  mill  was  designed  with  great  care,  and  is  altogether,  both 
externally  and  internally,  a  model  work,  and  can  hardly  be  sur- 
passed for  stability,  simple  grandeur,  superiority  of  machinery, 
or  admirable  arrangement  throughout.     Messrs  Grimond  have 
for  some  years  had  large  hand-loom  factories  at  Maxwelltown, 
&c.,  for  the  supply  of  goods  for  their  home  trade,  having  ware- 
houses in  London,  Manchester,  Belfast,  &c.,  and  recently  they 
have  added  power-looms,  both  at  their  Bowbridge  and  Maxwell- 
town  establishments.      Their  works  now  contain  five   steam- 
engines  of  132  horse-power,  with  3,600  spindles,  and  136  power- 
looms  ;  about  600  hands  being  employed  in  these  departments. 
At  their  extensive  hand-loom  works  they  employ  nearly  1000 
people,  making  about  1,600  hands  in  all.     The  goods  Messrs 
Grimond  make  are  hessians,  sacking,  carpeting,  matting,  hearth 


m  H  MS  EN.  627 

Rlg8,  &C.  Tlicy  ha\v  lately  put  up  a  ral.  -ndi-i  in-'  wmk,  and 
will  now  be  mahlcd  to  Mod  "il"  the  goods  ready  packed  i'-r 
shipment. 

The  several  mills  belonging  to  Oliver  Gourlay  Miller  spin  n . 
yarn  on  the  a*,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  than  those  of 

any  other  firm  in  Scotland.  Mr  Miller  is  successor  to  the  old- 
established  firm  of  J.  &  W.  Brown,  who  in  1846  had  three  mills. 
of  75  horse-power,  containing  3,576  spindles.  He  is  son-in-law  to 
tin-  junior  partner  of  that  firm,  who  was  a  practical  spinner  in 
1809,  and  from  whose  "  Reminiscences  of  Flaxspiuning"  various 
extracts  and  details  are,  with  the  kind  permission  of  the  author, 
given  in  this  volume.  The  works  were  extensive  when  Mr 
Miller  entered  into  possession  of  them,  but  he  has  recently  ex- 
tended and  unproved  the  old  mills,  and  erected  a  large  new 
one.  They  are  all  contiguous,  and  comprise  the  following 
mills,  viz. : — Arch,  2  engines  of  46  horse-power,  and  3,728 
spindles  ;  East,  2  engines,  38  horse-power,  and  1 ,200  spindles  ; 
North,  1  engine,  25  horse-power,  1,740  spindles  ;  Column,  2 
engines,  46  horse-power,  2,606  spindles;  and  South  Mills  (old 
and  new  together),  3  engines,  105  horse-power,  5,760  spindles  ; 
—in  all,  10  engines,  260  horse-power,  16,970  spindles.  Mr 
Miller's  great  staples  are  Flax  and  tow,  but  he  also  spins  a 
little  Jute.  The  organization  of  the  several  works  is  complete, 
the  machinery  of  the.  most  approved  construction,  and  it  is  kept 
quite  up  with  the  age  in  every  modern  improvement.  Mr  Miller 
has  attained  celebrity  for  the  quality  of  his  yarns,  the  whole  of 
which  he  sells  in  the  market,  in  the  raw  state,  or  bleached, 
creamed,  or  otherwise  prepared,  as  he  does  not  manufacture  any 
of  them  into  cloth.  The  prize  medal  for  quality  of  dry  spun  yarn 
was  awarded  to  Mr  Miller  at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1862. 

St  Roque's  Spinning- work  and  Wallace  Power-Loom  Work, 
belonging  to  W.  R.  Morison  &  Co.,  are  extensive  establish- 
ments. The  spinning  mills  contain  3  steam-engines,  with  an 
aggregate  of  92  horse-power,  and  4,000  spindles  ;  and  the  power- 
loom  works,  which  are  at  some  distance  from  the  mills,  two 
engines,  together  of  100  horse-power,  and  510  power-looms, 
with  the  necessary  calendering  machinery  for  finishing  the 
Linens  made  at  the  works.  The  power-loom  factory  has  a 
handsome  frontage  of  about  360  feet  in  length,  and  as  it  stands 
R  R  2 


f>28  MODERN  LINEN. 

on  a  rising  ground,  fronting  the  south,  it  has  a  commanding 
appearance.  These  works  were  recently  acquired  by  the  firm, 
and  are  now  in  active  operation.  Together  they  are  most  suit- 
able for  the  trade,  and  efficiently  conducted ;  and  they  employ 
about  1,700  hands. 

Seafield  Works,  belonging  to  Thomson,  Shepherd,  and  Briggs 
have  risen  with  surprising  rapidity,  having  been  begun  little  more 
than  ten  years  ago,  and  now  they  contain  seven  steam-engines  of 
165  horse-power,  6000  spindles  and  120  power-looms.  The 
works  also  contain  upwards  of  450  hand-looms,  the  total  number 
of  people  employed  being  2,000.  The  older  portions  of  these  works 
have  been  quite  eclipsed  by  the  new  mill  and  power-loom  shed, 
which  have  been  built  to  the  south  of  them.  This  mill  is  a 
splendid  building,  about  300  feet  in  length,  and  four  storeys  and 
attics  in  height,  and  the  factory,  which  communicates  with  the 
mill,  is  of  the  same  length  and  nearly  square.  The  machinery 
is  only  in  course  of  being  put  into  the  new  erections,  but  when 
completed  the  productive  powers  of  the  works  will  be  doubled. 
The  firm  spin  Jute  chiefly,  and  manufacture  carpeting,  cocoa- 
nut-matting,  sacking,  bagging,  &c.,  which  are  calendered  and 
made  up  on  the  premises. 

Several  other  firms  have  large  spinning  and  weaving  estab- 
lishments, which,  had  space  admitted,  it  would  have  been  desir- 
able to  refer  to  specially,  as  the  organization  of  these  works  is, 
in  every  respect,  quite  equal  to  those  detailed.  Indeed,  the 
spirit  of  the  age  is  so  thoroughly  bent  on  utilitarian  improve- 
ments, that  every  spinning  and  weaving  establishment  in  town 
has  made  wonderful  progress,  and  the  description  of  those  given 
is,  to  some  extent,  applicable  to  all,  even  the  most  unpretending, 
and  all  are  worthy  of  high  commendation. 

The  warehouses  in  which  the  raw  material  sent  here  for  sale 
is  stored  were,  at  one  time,  very  temporary  erections  A  most 
serious  fire  occurred  about  eight  years  ago,  by  which  several 
warehouses  and  their  contents,  to  the  value  of  nearly  £50,000, 
were  destroyed  or  injured.  This  caused  more  attention  to  be  paid 
to  their  construction.  Subsequently  several  fires  occurred  in 
Flax  warehouses,  and  the  fire  offices  adopted  a  tariff  specially  for 
them,  which  has  compelled  proprietors  to  effect  improvements 
upon  the  buildings,  and  thus  lessen  the  risk  of  fire,  but  they  are 


SCOTCH   I.I 


629 


still  tar  t K.I  11  being  perfect.     A  very  handsome  range  of  \s 
houses  has  been  built  by  Robert  Fleming,  on  the  site  of  some  of 
those  destroyed,  which  do  credit  to  the  proprietor. 

Although  there  is  apparently  great  risk  from  fire  in  spinning- 
mills,  yet,  for  many  years,  there  have  been  fewer  serious  fire.^  in 
them  than  in  Flax  warehouses.  A  few  months  ago,  the  Royal 
Insurance  Company,  taking  this  fact  into  consideration,  resolved, 
with  that  spirit  of  liberality  for  which  the  office  has  been  so  long 
proverbial,  to  give  the  spinners  the  advantage,  and  reduced  the 
premium  on  this  class  of  risks  to  the  extent  of  fully  30  per  cent. 
This  large  reduction  effected  a  saving  of  several  thousand  pounds 
a  year  to  the  spinners,  and  they,  to  show  their  appreciation  of 
the  boon,  have  very  generally  given  the  Royal  a  full  share  of 
their  insurances. 

Some  of  the  spinners  have  their  counting-rooms  at  their  mills, 
but  others  have  them  in  and  around  the  "  Cowgate,"  which  is  the 
common  market-place  for  the  Linen  trade  of  the  town ;  and  all 
id  that  mart  daily,  much  of  the  business  being  transacted  on 
the  street.  As  stocks  of  yarn  and  Linen  are  now  usually  kept 
at  the  mills  and  factories,  or  in  the  public  calenders,  where  the 
goods  can  be  inspected,  extensive  premises  near  the  "  market" 
are  unnecessary,  and  a  plain  room  or  two  generally  suffice  for 
counting-houses.  A  few  years  ago  Alexander  Easson  erected  a 
range  of  elegant  offices  adjoining  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  with 
it  forming  a  handsome  square,  far  more  suitable  for  the  mer- 
chants meeting  for  business  purposes  than  the  public  street,  but 
it  is  not  taken  advantage  of,  as  "use  and  wont"  attaches  them  to 
the  old  resort,  the  far-famed  "  Cowgate." 

Jaffe  Brothers,  merchants,  have  recently  erected  in  Seagate, 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  "  Cowgate/'  a  magnificent  warehouse,  witli 
splendid  counting-rooms  and  other  conveniences  for  carrying 
on  their  extensive  business.  It  would  add  to  the  architectural 
embellishments  of  the  town  were  others  to  follow  their  spirited 
example,  and  put  up  equally  useful  and  ornamental  premises. 

The  Royal  Exchange  is  a  handsome  building,  unfortunately 
built  on  a  bad  foundation,  which  has  hitherto  rendered  it  im- 
practicable to  complete  the  elegant  tower  intended  to  have 
been  put  up,  and  which  would  have  added  greatly  to  the 
beauty  of  the  structure.  The  reading-room  in  the  building  is  a 
chaste  and  pretty  apartment,  but  it  would  have  been  more  con- 


630  MODERN  LINEN. 

venient  had  it  been  on  the  ground  floor,  instead  of  up  a  flight 
of  stairs.  The  Chamber  of  Commerce,  under  whose  auspices 
the  Exchange  is  conducted,  was  recently  Incorporated  by  Eoyal 
Charter,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  stability  thus  given  it  will 
increase  its  importance  and  extend  its  usefulness. 

The  Linens  manufactured  in  Dundee  comprise  Flax,  Hemp, 
and  Jute  goods,  line  and  tow,  and  mixtures  of  them  in  various 
proportions,  and  formed  in  many  ways.  Several  of  the  fabrics 
are  made  in  imitation  of  the  Linens  originally  produced  in 
Germany,  Eussia,  Spain,  and  other  countries.  The  classes  of 
Linens  made  are  numerous ;  and  as  every  quality  is  finished 
and  lapped  in  a  variety  of  ways,  to  suit  them  for  the  different 
markets  of  the  world,  their  names  are  legion.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  enumerate  the  various  sub-divisions  of  each  class  of 
Linens,  but  the  following  are  a  few  of  the  leading  fabrics  manu- 
factured :  — Sail-cloth,  brown,  boiled  and  bleached  ;  Duck  ; 
Spriggs  ;  Canvas  Padding ;  Sheeting,  brown,  creamed,  checked, 
bleached,  &c.  ;  Dowlas  ;  Diaper  and  Damask  ;  Hessian  Sheet- 
ing ;  Sacking  ;  Hop-pocketing ;  Bagging ;  Tarpauling ;  Ham- 
mocking  ;  Scrims ;  Carpeting ;  Hearth  Bugs ;  Matting,  &c. , 
&c.  In  the  manufacture  of  many  of  these  Linens  the  art  of  the 
bleacher  and  dyer  is  taxed  to  produce  snowy  whiteness  or  bril- 
liant hues ;  and  the  beauty  and  excellence  of  some  of  the  fabrics 
produced  can  scarcely  be  excelled. 

It  was  intended  to  give  a  tabular  statement  of  the  steam-en- 
gines, horse-power,  spindles,  power-looms,  hand-looms,  and  per- 
sons employed  in  the  Linen  manufacturing  establishments  in 
Dundee  and  in  the  manufacturing  towns.  In  consequence  of 
many  of  the  hand-looms  being  placed  in  the  dwellings  of  the 
weavers,  it  was  not  practicable  to  ascertain  their  number,  and  they 
have  been  excluded  from  the  statement.  Perhaps  there  may  be 
5,000  hand-looms  still  in  operation  in  Dundee,  but,  as  the  dis- 
taff and  the  spinning-wheel  have  been  superseded  by  the  spindle, 
so  in  like  manner  the  power-loom  is  fast  displacing  those  wrought 
by  manual  labour,  and  in  a  few  years  hand-looms,  in  this  district, 
will  be  numbered  with  the  things  that  were. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  table  that  there  are,  in  May  1864,  160 
steam-engines  engaged  in  the  staple  trade  of  Dundee  and  Lochee, 
of  the  aggregate  of  4,621  horse-power.  The  number  of  spindles 
are  170,552,  and  the  power-looms,  6,709  The  total  number  of 


SCOTCH   I  IV 

hands  employed,  according  to  the  table,  are  3G,Oi>();  but  tin- 
figures  do  not,  in  many  cases,  represent  those  only  who  are  em- 
pl'.yed  in  the  spinning  mills  and  power-loom  factories.  Several 
of  the  houses  have  many  hand-looms  in  operation,  and  the 
weavers  and  others  employed  in  and  about  them  are  includ.  •«!, 
because,  from  the  intimate  union  between  the  two  classes  in 
several  of  the  works,  it  was  not  possible  to  separate  them  into 
component  parts — workers  at  machinery  and  by  hand. 

The  manufacturers  who  employ  hand-looms  only  are  not  in- 
rliuk-d  in  the  table,  and  the  number  of  operatives  in  their  em- 
ploy could  not  be  correctly  ascertained  and  are  not  given.  Many 
of  (he  hand-loom  manufacturers  have  recently  got  small  steam- 
engines  to  drive  winding  machinery,  cylinders,  <fec.,  but  even 
with  these  adjuncts  it  is  with  difficulty  they  can,  in  many  fabrics, 
compete  with  those  who  have  power-looms. 

The  consumption  of  Flax,  Tow  and  Codilla,  Hemp,  and  Jute  in 
Dundee,isat  present  about  70,000  tons  per  annum,  which  at  an  ave- 
rage value  of  £35,  makes  the  cost  of  the  raw  material  £2,450,000. 

The  quantity  of  yarn  now  spun  here  weekly  may  be  about 
500,000  spindles,  or  25,000,000  per  annum,  which  at  3s  per 
spindle,  is  £3,750,000.  No  data  exists  whereby  an  approxima- 
tion even  of  the  quantity  of  yarns  exported  from  Dundee  can  be 
arrived  at,  but  it  must  be  considerable.  Neither  is  there  any 
data  to  assist  in  estimating  the  yards  of  Linen  manufactured 
here,  or  their  value,  but  perhaps  the  total  value  of  the  yarns  and 
Linens  produced  in  Dundee,  for  home  and  foreign  consumption, 
may  amount  to  about  £5,000,000,  of  which  about  one-half  is 
exported,  and  the  other  half  consumed  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  wages  paid  to  those  engaged  in  the  staple  trade  can  only 
be  guessed  at.  Perhaps,  in  round  numbers,  it  may  not  be  very 
wide  of  the  mark  to  estimate  the  people  directly  engaged  in  the 
Linen  manufacture  here  at  50,000,  and  the  wages  paid  to  them 
weekly  at  £20,000,  or  say  £1,000,000  per  annum.  The  total 
population  of  Dundee  now  considerably  exceeds  100,000,  and  if 
the  estimate  given  be  correct,  it  shows  that  about  50  per  cent. 
of  the  inhabitants  are  employed  in  the  staple  trade  of  the  town. 
In  addition  to  the  hands  directly  employed  in  the  Linen 
trade,  a  large  number  are  engaged  in  auxiliary  branches  in  and 
around  the  town,  viz.,  engineers  and  machine-makers,  flaxdrcs- 


632  MODERN 

sers,  bleachers,  dyers,  calenderers,  carters,  <fec.,  &c. ;  indeed,  a 
large  proportion  of  the  population  are  directly  or  indirectly 
engaged  in,  or  supported  by,  the  Linen  trade. 

The  amount  of  capital  embarked  in  the  spinning  and  power-loom 
works  in  Dundee  and  Lochee  may  be  estimated  at  £2,000,000. 
The  Flax,  tow,  &c.,  bought  by  spinners  and  others  in  Eussia, 
Prussia,  &c.,  and  the  Jute  imported  direct  from  Calcutta,  as 
well  as  what  is  purchased  in  London  and  Liverpool,  are  almost 
wholly  paid  for  in  cash.  The  credit  system  in  the  purchase  of 
goods  on  the  spot  is  latterly  all  but  extinct,  cash  payments  being 
now  the  rule  and  biUs  the  exception.  Many  of  the  merchants 
export  yarn  and  Linen,  but  especially  the  latter,  to  the  various 
markets  of  the  world,  and  it  is  from  six  to  twelve  or  eighteen 
months,  and  sometimes  even  longer,  before  remittances  are  re- 
ceived for  same.  These  several  operations,  from  their  magnitude, 
necessarily  imply  large  means,  but  what  the  floating  capital  now 
engaged  in  the  trade  here  really  is,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  as  no 
approximation  even  can,  with  any  approach  to  certainty,  be  given. 
v  It  was  a  fortunate  circumstance  for  Dundee  that  Jute  was  in- 
troduced into  its  manufactures.  Since  then  the  extension  of  the 
town  has  been  in  some  measure  dependent  on  the  progress  made 
in  incorporating  this  fibre  into  its  staple  trade.  During  the  last 
two  years,  in  consequence  of  the  cotton  famine  and  the  American 
war,  the  demand  for  Linen,  as  already  mentioned,  has  increased 
amazingly.  Flax  has  been  an  important  article,  as  genuine 
Linens  have  been  largely  consumed,  and  this  branch  of  the 
trade  has  enjoyed  universal  prosperity.  Its  Oriental  sister,  Jute, 
has,  however,  been  a  more  important  fibre  here,  as  its  products 
are  cheap  yet  sightly,  and  they  have  afforded  a  ready  means  for 
supplying  the  extraordinary  demand  for  low  class  Linens.  The 
consumption  of  this  article  has  therefore  increased  enormously, 
arid  is  still  extending,  and  it  may  now  be  called  the  great  staple 
of  Dundee.  Notwithstanding  the  high  price  of  Jute  for  the  past 
two  years,  this  trade  has  been  very  remunerative,  and  some  par- 
ties have  realized  handsome  fortunes  in  it.  The  superstructure 
of  the  prosperity  of  Dundee  may  therefore  be  said  to  be  founded 
on  Jute.  May  the  building  be  as  stable  as  it  is  stately  1  May 
the  halo  which  surrounds  the  Linen  trade  of  Dundee  long  con- 
tinue to  shine  with  undiminished  lustre  ! 


SCOTCH   1 


IMPORT*      INTO      DUN  DIM, 
FROM    1815    TO    1863. 


1 

Year. 

Flax. 

Flax 

ndilla. 

Hemp. 

Hemp 

Vdilla. 

Total 

Tu,.y. 

•'lax  and  Tow 
nd  Codilla  of 
Hemp  «Si  Flax. 

Hemp. 

Tl.  Tons 

Iniprtd 

1815 
1816 
1817 

1818 
1819 
1820 
1821 

1822 

1824 
1826 

1820 
1827 
1838 
1829 
1830 
1831 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 
1837 

1838 
1839 

1840 
1841 
1S42 
1843 
1S44 
1S45 
1846 
1847 
1S4S 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1862 
1853 

1854 
1855 
1864 
is;,: 
1861 
1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 

1,221 

2.015 
2,9S9 

8,609 
3,160 
3,911 
6,736 
6,666 
4,893 
6,860 
11,675 
7,178 
12,789 
14,524 

•  •    • 

966 
851 
1,735 
1,418 
321 
1,047 
716 
3,136 
3,063 
2,150 
2,327 
1092 
1  200 
582 

2,187 
3,666 

4.724 
4,927 
8,471 

6,452 
9,791 

7.924 

9,000 
13,902 
8,270 

14,049 
15,106 
16,775 

20,4% 
17,91*0 
22,198 
22.980 
22,152 
27,130 
43,279 
15,^37 

31,986 
23,208 
37,980 

2S,:;55 
36,900 

31,120 
35,717 
41,944 

3  1.5.  "4 

30,818 

39,490 
49,399 
55,718 
47,074 
43,974 
62,612 
48,468 

55,444 
00,:  52 
02,042 
55  928 
72.503 

70,898 
66,164 

77,.'  505 
75,971 

12,501 

13,045 
11,212 
16,112 
15.091 
11,871 
11,963 
30.053 
10,503 

21,217 
13,012 

15.080 
17,497 
15,033 

IS,  (MS 
20,038 
23,40L 

12,  ;;9«. 
13,104 
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31,572 
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83,10 

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2,753 
3,760 
3,740 
3,986 
4,338 
5,455 
6,521 
8,721 
2,934 

7,620 
5,720 
8,244 
7,364 
6,205 
7,146 
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1,204 
2,131 
1,573 

2,588 

3,604 

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1,227 
1,174 
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612 
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1,110 
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3,113 
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35,236 

25.094 
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6,516 
8,313 
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7,386 
9,874 
8,165 
0,224 
12,533 
10,948 
8,158 
13,828 
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17,924 
19,825 
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9,209 
7,648 
10.021 
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4,302 
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9,542 
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14,083 

10,184 

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12,142 
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16,928 
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26,894 

31.031 
24.342 

30,086 

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38,277 

46,983 

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K  PRICES  CURRENT—FROM  20rn  TO  30rn  OCTOBER  or  EACH  YEAR 
FROM  1801  TO  1864— Continued 


1823 

1824 

1825 

1826 

-  v 

£ 

JL1         £ 

£       £ 

£      £ 

StPtabtf.   liMiuad       Ton 

*0      62 

49      60 

45        0 

37       38 

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4 

2      43 

4.:       44 

38        0 

.'50      3  1 

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66      59 

62 

48        0 

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60      52 

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44         0 

36      37 

r 

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43      44 

3 

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30        0 

43        0 

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40        0 

38       89 

40      41 

38         <> 

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84 

32      33 

32       32  10 

31        0 

Ili";i  Mlivnr                                   4 

3         0 

39      40 

4 

4       4:, 

41         0 

I>o  Com  Pass                     37      <w 

35       86 

37       38 

34        0 

Codilla. 

32       33 

24      26 

21         0 

S.     D.       8,     D. 

S.      D.      8.      D. 

8.     D.      S.      D. 

YAM*. 

.-{  11-  Khx—  Mill  Sp.  8p. 

2     8 

2  10 

2729 

2     1\     2     9 

2225 

1  ll.s      . 

3     2 

3     5 

3132 

3    0 

3     3 

28       2   11 

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3    0 

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0     5 

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644 


MODERN  LINEN. 


DUNDEE  PRICES  CURRENT— FROM  20TH  TO  SOra  OCTOBER  or  EACH  YEAR 
1801  TO  1864— Continued. 


1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

FLAX. 

£       £ 

£    s.     £    s. 

£    i 

3.       £    S. 

£  s.      £    s. 

StPtsbrg.  12-head..  Ton 

35      36 

32  10     33     0 

35    0    38     0 

47    0      0    0 

9-head  

30      31 

26  10    27  10 

32     0    33    0 

43     0      o    0 

Riga  PTR         

37      39 

33  10     34    0 

35  10    36     0 

47    0      0    0 

Do    DC  

32      34 

29     0     29  10 

32  10    33     0 

43     0      00 

Do.  RT  

27      29 

25  10    26     0 

28  10    29    0 

39    0      0    0 

Archangel,  

35     0    45     0 

38    0      00 

HEMP. 

QI    T>p4-prqVyiirrr  Plpan 

40        0 

40    0      00 

44 

100 

38     0      00 

Do.        Half-Clean 

31         0 

32     0     33     0 

34    0      0    0 

30  10      00 

Riga  Rhyne  

44        0 

43    0      00 

45     0      0    0 

40     0     42     0 

Do.  Com.  Pass  

36        0 

36    0      00 

36    0      00 

Cedilla...  !  .'."" 

24        0 

22     0     23     0 

23     0      0    0 

24    0      00 

S.    D.       S.      D. 

S.     D.      S.     D. 

S.     D 

S.     D. 

S.    D.       S,      D. 

YARN. 

3  Ibs  Flax—  Mill  Sp.  Sp. 

2123 

2023 

1  11 

2     0£ 

2023 

4  Ibs     „ 

2729 

2629 

2     4 

2     6 

2528 

6  Ibs  Tow            ,, 

2328 

2226 

2     2 

2     5 

2428 

7&81bsTow     „ 

2427 

2326 

2     3i 

(•    2     6* 

26       2  10 

10&12,,     „        „      Lb. 

0     3£     0     4 

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r   o   3f 

0     3£     0     4 

LINENS.         Yd. 

Bid.  Flax  Shg.  9/8  34  pr. 

0    8£    0     9 

0     8£    0     8f  0    8; 

[    0    8£ 

0     8£    0    8J- 

Bn.  Tow      ,,     9/8  24  pr. 

0     6}    0     6^ 

0     6^    0     6^0     6 

o   e| 

0606} 

Do.  do.  Shtg.  4/426pr.. 
Do.  Imtn.  Forfar,  36  in.. 
Do.  Shtg.  4/4  do.  24  por. 
Do  do  4/4  22  por  

0     6}    0     6f" 

3        6-j^jr    0        65- 

0    5£    0     5^ 
0    41    0    4A 

0     6f    0    0 
0     6^0     6A 
0    5^0    5J 
0    41    0    4,% 

0    6AO    6J 
0    5fg  0     6 
0    4^  0     5 
040     4JL 

0     6£    0    0 
0606^ 
0    5      0    5J 
0    4^  0    0 

Flax  Dowlas  27  in.  32  pr. 

**        •*4                     T2 

0606} 

0606* 

0    5i 

^    0    5f 

0600 

Tow  Duck  27  in.  30  por. 
Flax  Osnaburg  24  por.... 

0     5f     0     7 
0    5^  0    5£ 

0    5*    0     6A 
0    5}    0     0 

0    & 
0     5; 

•   o   5} 

-    0    0 

0     6J    0    0 
0    5}    0     0 

Tow  do  26  por  

050     5JU 

0    5^  0    0 

0    4^ 

L    0    0 

0    4H  0    0 

Do     do   24  por  0     4*     0     0 

0    4f    0     4f| 

0    4^ 

r           0           0 

T2 

0    4^.  0    0 

Do  do  22  por 

0     4^0     4^ 
0     7£    0     7f 

0    4^0    0 
0     7J     0    0 

04041 
0     7J    0     0 

0     3^0    4J 

o   7}   o   o 

RusHpCotBg42in.  l^lb 

R.  Tow  Wp  do.  do.  do..  0    6£    0     1\ 

0     6       0     6f 

0    5 

0    5£ 

0  5J      0    61 

Hp  Pimento  27  in.  1  Ib.   0     6f     0     0 

0     6£    0     7 

0    6' 

t    0     7 

0    6J     0     7 

Hp  Twd  Skg  28  in  1^  lb!0     1\    0    8}- 
Do.  Twd.  do.  27  in  \\  Ib.  0     6|    0     7} 

0    7£    0     7f 
0     6*    0    6f 

0       7; 

0     6< 

.     0     0 
.    0    0 

0     1\    0    0 
0    6}    0    0 

Hesn.  Shtg.  40  in.  18  por  0    4f    0    5     0    4f    0    0" 

0    4J 

0    0 

0    4|    0    4f 

Do.  do.  40  in.  15  por  0    4      0    0    (0    4X  0    0 

0    41 

r     0     0 

0    4|    0     0 

Sand  Bagging  32  in  0    3|    0    4     0    3}    0    4 
Sail-ClothComBrn.No.10     9f    0    9£   0     8f    0    9J 

0    3|    0    3f 
0    8£    0     9 

0    3j    0    4 
0    8|     0     9J 

Do.       Bleached   ,,110       1     oj 

10      0     0     0  11 

0  11£ 

0  11       00 

Do.       Navy         ,,113       1     3j 

1     3£    0    0     13 

0     0 

1     4£     0     0 

l>i-NDii  PRICES  CURRENT— FROM  20xH  TO  30rH  OCTOBER  OF   EACH  YEA 
•  M  1801  TO  1864.  —  Cwtimud. 


1831 

1832 

1833 

\x. 
St  Petersburg  12-Lead  Ton 

D.. 

£    s.       I 

46    0        00 
43    0        00 

1- 
] 

39    ( 

.       £    s. 

^one. 
)        0    0 

£     s 
1 

.       £    B. 

\ 
)       4'J   10 

RigaPTR  

45  10        00 

42    ( 

)        0    0 

43     ( 

)        0    0 

D,,    Di             

41    10         00 

38    ( 

)        0    0 

)      39  10 

37  10        00 

34  1( 

)      35    0 

35  If 

)      36    0 

\ivh;ui''t  1 

None. 

1 

*one. 

49     ( 

)        0    0 

HEMP. 

St  Petersburg  Clean  

37     0        00 

26  l( 

)      27    0 

27    ( 

)        0    0 

Do.          Half-Clean  

28  10      29    0 

21     ( 

)        0    0 

21     ( 

)      21    10 

39    0        00 

?9    ( 

)        0    0 

28     ( 

)        0    0 

i1          

30    0      81     0 

25     ( 

)        0    0 

22     ( 

)      23     0 

20    0      22     0 

14     ( 

)       15     0 

15     ( 

)       16    0 

YAKN. 
:>  ll.s.  Flax,  Mill  Spun  Sp. 

8.    D.        8.    D. 

2     1$     2     3 
2628 

8.    O. 

1    11 

0     7i 

8.   D. 
2       1 

\    0    8 

8.    D. 

2     0 
0    8 

S.     D. 

2     2 

0    8& 

('»  ll'H  Tow                     

28      30 

2     8 

3    0 

2     7 

2     9 

7&81bs.  Tow,,          
10&12,,      „     „          Lb. 

P.M.  Flax  Shg.,  9/8,  34  por...Yd. 
Urn.  T.,w     „     98,24      , 
Do      do.       ,     4/4,  26 

2  101     3     2 
0    4{     0    5 

0    81    0    0 
0    5|    0    6i 
0    6A  0    6} 

2  10 
0    4\ 

0    83 
0    6 
0    6 

3     4 

r   o   6* 

0    0 
0    0 
^  0    6A 

2  10, 
0     4j 

0    9 
0    6j 

0      K 

r    3    4 
r    0    5} 

0    0 
t     0    0 

t     0    0 

06      06] 

0    5 

\    0    5U 

Q    -,' 

1   o     »;  ' 

Do   Sheeting,  4/4,  24     , 

0    5j*7  0    5} 

0     1 

..    :.'- 

0    ? 

0    5$ 

4/4,22     ,    
Flax  Dwls.  27  in.,  3'J 
Duck  27  in.,    3<»     , 
Flax  Osnaburg,       24    

-V,     .,       .. 

Rus.  HpCotBg.  42  in    1 
l-.wWp,,    42,,   14 

Hi>  Pimento,  27  in.  1  11>.      .. 
Hj.Tw.l.  Skg.  28  in.  1  i  11.. 

iw.i.  a.;.,  -J7  in.  ii  n. 

Hesn.  Shtg.  40  inch  18por 
Do.,       40    „      1  •  
^iiul  Bafrinf?  3**  111 

0    6      0     64 
0    6      0    4 
0    5-VO    0 
0    5      0    5A 
0    4A  0    4* 
0    SUO    4^ 
0700 
0506* 
0607* 
•     08} 
06      00 
0    6      0    51 
0    41    0    0 
0    St    0    41 

0    4 
0    5 
0    5 
0     4; 
0    4, 
0    4, 
0    3, 
0    6; 
0    6, 

0      6; 

0    7. 
0    6 
0     4; 

0      4; 

0    3; 

0    0 
0     b\ 
0    0 
0    0 

V  o   o 

«,  0    0 
^0    4 
0    0 
0    6f 
0     7 
0    0 
0    0 
0    0 
0    0 
0    34 

0    4] 
0    5, 
0    6 
0    5 
0     4] 
0     4, 
0     4; 
0     6: 
0     6: 

0      6; 

0    7. 
0    Ci 
0    4j 
0    4 
0     3] 

0     4  T- 
0    6| 
0    0 
0    0 

Co   o 

0    0 
0    6f 
0    7 
0     6 
0    5 
0    4 
0    3, 

Sail  Cloth,  Com.  P.m.   \  ...  1 
Do.      Bleached,  No.  I 
Do.       Navy,         No.  1 

I      0    '.'} 
011}    0    0 
1     5}    0    0 

0     8: 
0  11 

1     -J 

0     9 
0  111 
0    0 

0    9 

•»  11.] 
1     3 

0    0 

t    0    0 
0    0 

646 


MODERN  LINEN. 


DUNDEE  PRICES  CURRENT,  FROM  20TH  TO  30TH  OCTOBER  or  EACH  YEAR- 
FROM  1801  TO  1864.—  Continued. 


1834 

1835 

1836 

1837 

FLAX. 

£     s.       £     s. 

£        £ 

£        £ 

£        £ 

RigaPTR  Ton. 

54    0      0    0 

45      49 

47      48 

43        0 

Do.  DC  

50    0      00 

43      46 

42      43 

36        0 

St  Petersburg  12-head... 

None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 

„              9-head... 

53     0      0    0 

43      45 

43      44 

36      36  10 

jibau  4  Brand  

50     0    50  10 

43       46 

40      41 

33      34 

180      00 

46      48 

37      38 

32        0 

HEMP. 

'iiga  Rhy  ne   

27     o      00 

25       26 

28      29 

32        0 

Do   Pass                 .    .. 

23     0      00 

23      24 

26      27 

28      29 

St  Petersburg  Clean  

26     0       00 

25      26 

26       27 

32        0 

Do.        Half-clean 

21     0       0     0 

19      20 

24       25 

27       28 

12     0     14     0 

13       15 

22       23 

15        0 

YARN. 

S.    D.        S.    D. 

S.    D.         S.    D. 

S.    D.         S.    D 

S.     D.      S.    D. 

2  Ibs.  Flax  Sp. 

21       23 

1  11       22 

22       24 

19       1  11 

3    ,,      do  

2527 

2427 

2427 

1  10      21 

31         TOW  .. 

24      25 

oo       94 

2123 

18      1  11 

i   ,,      do  

2     54     2*7 

A        O            £1*1 

2     44    2     6 

2426 

1  10       21 

6   ,,      do.    com  

28       2  10 

2829 

2729 

2123 

6    ,,      do.   fine  

3031 

2  11       30 

2  11       31 

2428 

7         Jute  

24       25 

2627 

2123 

LINENS. 

Osnaburg  20  pr.  Tow  Yd 

0    3*    0    0 

2     OH  3    OrV 

0303^ 

0    2J    0    2* 

24   ,    do.  com. 

0    4~*j  0    4fV 

0    4&     0    0 

040    4TV 

0     3j    0    34 

26   ,    do  

0     5^  0    54" 

0    4^  0    4f 

0    4|    0    4f£ 

0    8H  0    4T'2 

Brn  Shg.  20  p  .35  in.  Tow 

0    4*0    4 

0    4|     0    44 

0    44    0    4| 

0    3|    0    3H 

24,    36 

0    6j    0     6| 

0    5A  0    5H 

0    6      0     6J 

0    4f    0    5 

30,    36      Flax 

0     74    0     7T8, 

0     7i    0     7| 

0     7^  0     7  A 

0       5J       0       5^y 

Bid.  Shg.  28,    35      Tow 

0     7       0     7£ 

0    7       0     74 

0    74    0     7| 

0    6      0    6| 

32,    36      Flax 

0     7|    0     7§ 

0    8      0    8i 

0    8|    0    0 

0    7       0     74 

36,    38 

o   94   o   o 

0    9|    0  10 

0  10      0  10i 

0    84    0     8f 

Dowlas    26  ,   254     To\\ 

0    4|    0    0 

0    4f    0    5£ 

0    5      0    5J 

0404- 

32,    27      Flax 

0600 

0     6      0     6| 

0    64    0    6| 

0    5      0    5J 

50,    30 

0  10|    0    0 

0  10£    0    0 

o  104   o  io| 

0    84    0    8| 

Hessians  15  ,    40       

0    4f     0    0 

0    4J    0    0 

0    44     0     4i 

0    3|     0    0 

16,    60       

0     7|    0    8J 

0     7}    0    0 

0    74    0    8 

0     6      0    6| 

18,    40       

0    5      0    5J 

0    4|    0    5| 

0    4|     0     5i 

0    4      0    4| 

Cot.  Bg.  14  Ib.  42  TWp 

0     7      0    7£ 

0    7J    0    74 

07       00 

0    54    0    of 

Pimento  27  in.  1  Ib.  Hp 

0    6£    0    64 

0     64    0    0 

0     64     0     0 

0    of    0    0 

Sackg.  12por.  26  in.  To\\ 

0    4J    0    0 

o   44  o  o 

0     4|     0     44 

0    34    0    3f 

li    „  27  ,,TWp 

0700 

0     6f    0     7 

0     6|     0     7 

0     6      0     6| 

14    „    28  „    Hp 

0    8J    0    0 

0800 

0800 

0    7|    0    8 

Canvas,  Brown,      No.  ! 

o   94  o   o 

0    9£    0    94 

0     9J    0    94 

0    8      0    8| 

Com.  Boiled,    '. 

0  llf    0    0 

o  114   o   o 

o  114   i   o 

o  104    o  n 

Sup  Ny.  Flax,  1 

1     4J     1     44 

1     5|     0    0 

1600 

1400 

In  April  1835,  PTR  Flax  was  £61  a  ton,  and  in  June  1837,  £41. 
On  17th  January  1835,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  resolved  that  all  goods  should 
be  sold  by  the  yard  of  36  inches,   and  all  yards  payable.     Prior  to  that  date  a  disv 
count  of  13  yards  on  each  piece  of  about   155  yards  was  allowed  on  Osnaburgs  ;, 
and  about  8  per  cent,  discount  on  the  yards  of  brown  Sheetings  were  allowed  in 

measure.      No  discount  was  allowed  on  the  yards  of  other  goods. 

647 


l>'  NUKK  PRICKS  CURRENT,  FROM  20rn  i«.  :«ITII  OCTOBER  o»  «ACH 
FROM  1801  TO  1864.—  Continued. 


1838 

1839 

1840 

1841 

FLAX 

£      8 

£    s. 

£     8 

£    s. 

£      F 

.     £    8. 

£      8,         £      8. 

Riga  PTK       .     ..    Ton 

42     n     49.    11 

41  10    42     0 

44    0    45    0 

41     0       0     0 

Do.  DC  :*7  in    «K    n 

36    0     36  10 

38    0    39  10 

36  10    87    0 

St  Petersburg  12-head... 

None. 

None. 

45    0      0    0 

Nonu. 

y-head... 

38    0      0    0 

37    0    39    0 

40    0    43    0 

36    0    37    0 

Libau  4  Brand    . 

38    C 

)      n    n 

37     t 

i      n    n 

41     C 

)      0    0 

40    t 

)        0      0 

Archangel  4th  sort      .... 

35  10      on 

36  10    87     n 

39    0    40    0 

35     0     86     0 

HEMP. 

85    0      0    0 

40    0      00 

41    0    42    0 

41     0    42     0 

Do    Pass 

30    0      00 

35     0      00 

36    0      00 

MO      00 

St  Petersburg  Clean  

31  10      00 

88    0      0    0 

40    0      0    0 

40     0       00 

Half-clean 

26    0      0    0 

31     0    31  10 

35    0      0    0 

32    0     35    0 

JUTE  

13    ( 

)      0    0 

14    ( 

)      0    0 

16    ( 

)     17     0 

16    C 

)    17    n 

YARN. 

S.    D. 

S.    D. 

a.  D. 

8.    D. 

8.    D 

8.   D. 

8.      D.       8.       D. 

2  Ibs   Flax  Sp. 

1     9J     1  11 

1  10 

2     0 

1     9 

1    10 

1    9 

i  in 

3    „      do  

1  10      2    n 

1  10 

2     0 

2     0 

2     3 

1  10*    2     1 

34.,     Tow  

1     8 

1  10 

1  10 

1  11 

1     7       l     9 

5   ,,      do  

1     9 

1  11 

1  10 

2     1 

1  11 

2     2 

1     9 

2     1 

3   ,,      do.    com  

2     0 

0    0 

2     0 

2     1$ 

2     2 

2     4 

2     0 

2     2 

3  ,,      do.    fine  

2     2 

2     3 

2    2 

2     3 

2    2 

2     3 

2     2 

2     3 

7   „    Jute  (mixed)  

.'     1 

2     3 

2     2 

2    3 

2     2 

2     3 

2     2 

2     3 

LINKS-. 

Osuaburg20pr.To\\  V,l. 
24  ,,   do.  com. 
26       do 

0    2\ 
0    3j 
0    «J 
0    3J 
o     -,' 

•     0    24 
0    3| 
i    0    4 

r      0      8f 

0    0 

0    2. 
0    8! 
0    3, 
0    3. 
0    4 

0     2$ 
0    3ft 
0    4f 
0    3ft 
0    5 

0    2|    0    2| 
0    3      0    3| 
0    3|    0     4 
)    3j     0    38 
0    4ft     0    5 

0     2|     0    0 
0     3      0    3f 
0     3f    0    4 
0     3|     0    3ft 
0     4|     0    5 

BrnShg.  20  pr.  35  in.  Tow 
24  „  36  „    do. 

30  „  36  „  FlaxO    6 

0     6$ 

0    6 

0    6i 

0    6 

0    6& 

0     6 

0     6£ 

BldShg.28  „  35  „  Town     «; 

0    61 

0    52 

0    6 

t)     53 

0    6 

0    6j 

0     G 

32  ,   36  „  Mr 

o   7] 

0    7; 

0    71 

0    7 

0    7J 

0    7 

0     7J 

36  ,   38  „     „ 

0    8J 

0    8ft 

0    8: 

0    83 

0    8' 

0    9 

0      8; 

^    0    9 

Dowlas.                  „  Tow 

0    3, 

0    4 

0    4, 

0    4? 

0    8 

0    44 

0    3< 

0    4 

32  ,   27  „  Flax 

0    5 

0    5A 

0    5, 

0    5ft 

0    5 

0    51 

0    5 

0    5$ 

50  ,   30  „    „ 

0    8: 

0    91 

t     f>« 

0    9| 

0    8 

0    8| 

0    8 

0    81 

Hessians  15  ,,40  ,,  
16  ,,60  „  

0    3 
0    5 

0    3} 
0    6 

0    3J 

o  .-,; 

0    31 
0    5J 

0    3j 

0    5j 

r    0    3| 
f    0    0 

D    M    0    ft! 

0600 

18,,  40  „  

0    3 

0    4 

0    4 

0    31     0    41  «>     4 

0    0 

Cot.  Bg.    14  11..  4-_'  T\V|> 

0    6 

0    0 

Nominal. 

0      6; 

r    0    6AO    4 

0    41 

Pimento  27  in.  1   U».  Up. 

0    6j 

1    0    6J 

o    <;, 

i     0     7* 

0    6, 

i     0    7}|0    62     0    7J 

Sackg.  1-  i>or.  '.!»'>  m.  Tow 

0      3; 

•     °    3A 

0     3 

0    3: 

0    3 

0     3} 

0    3 

0    3} 

U   „    27  „  TW,, 
l\   „    28,,     II,. 
Canvas,    Brown, 

0    5, 

0     C: 
0    8 

[V  0    4 
\    0    0 
0    8} 

0    8 
0    8 

i     0    6| 
0    8j 

0    8i 

0     '». 
0    8] 
0    8 

r     0     0 

[    0    9* 
0    84 

»O  00  l» 

000 

\    0    0 
-    0    9* 
0    8} 

Com.  Bid.  ,,     1 

o  ioj  o  ir 

0    9*    0    10 

0    9A     0  10 

M      «J3 

L      0    10 

Sup.  Navy  Flax,        ,,     1 

1     4 

»>     0 

1     1 

i    ij  i      i    i    1$ 

1       1 

1    1} 

648 


MODERN  LINEN. 


DUNDEE  PRICES  CURRENT — FROM  20TH  TO  30TH  OCTOBER  OF  EACH  YEAR 
—FROM  1801  TO  1864.—  Continued. 


' 

1842 

1843 

1844 

1845 

£  s.        £    s. 

£    s.        £    s. 

£  s.        £    s.   £    s.        £    s. 

FLAX. 

Riga  PTR  Ton 

37     0       38     0 

34     0        00 

37  10         0     041  10      42     0 

Do.  DC  

33  10      34  10 

30    0      30  10 

34    0        0    Oi37  10      38  10 

St  Petersburg  12-head.... 

40     0        00 

34    0      34  10 

37  10       38     0            

9-head.... 

34     0      35     0 

30     0      32     0 

35     0      36    041  10      42    0 

Libau  4  Brand  

36    0        00 

32  10      33     0 

35     0       36     040     0         00 

Archangel  4th  sort  

35     0      35  10 

32  10      33     0 

35  10      36    0 

42  10       43     0 

HEMP. 

Riga  Rhyne  

41     0       42     0 

Do.  Pass  36    0        00 

St  Petersburg  Clean  !40    0        00 

36    0  0    0 

32     0        0    032     0        00 

Do.          Half-clean32     0      35     0 

27    0        00 

27     0         0     027     0         00 

19  10       20     0 

16    0       17     0 

16     0       17     0,13     0       16    0 

S.    D.        S.     D. 

S.    D.        S.      D. 

S.    D.       S.      D.       S.     D.       S.     D. 

YARN. 

21bs.  Flax  Sp. 

618 

15      16 

1       4i       1       5 

1    7i    1    gi 

8       1  10 

17       19 

1     6£    1    8 

1  11       21 

3£       Tow   ...    . 

618 

16       17 

1    5i     1     7 

19       1  11 

8       1  10 

17       19 

19       1  11£ 

2023 

6                  common  .  .  . 

10      2     0 

1  10       20 

1  11       21 

2123 

6   ,,     ,,      tine  

2224 

2122 

2     2£     2     4 

2526 

7  Ib  Jute   

2223 

21       22 

1  11       20 

1    11       20 

LINENS. 

Osnaburg  20  pr.  Tow  Yd. 

0     2T^  0     2T\ 

0     2£     0     2£ 

A       O  4      A       O5 

1       "T?   U      ZT7 

0     2£     0     2^ 

24  do.  com  
26  do.  Flax.... 
Bn.  Shg.  20  pr.  35  in.  Tow 

0     2f^  0     3 
0    3J    0    3J 
0     3A  0    3A 

0     2f     0     2f£ 
0    3™  0    3^ 

0    2f§-  0     3 
0    3AO     3J 
^     ^  *     0     ^  ^ 

03       0    3^ 
0    3A  0    3£ 
0    SJ    0    3A 

24  ,     36    ,     „    0    4T%  0    4^ 
30  ,    36      FlaxO    5^  0    b\ 

0    4      0    4J 

0    4||  0    5 

0    J|  <  0    4^ 

050    5TV 

0     4^-0     4| 
0     5^  0     5} 

Bd.  Shg.  28  ,    35    ,  Tow  0    5J    0     5^ 
32  ,    36      FlaxO    6H  0     7^ 

0    5i    0    5^ 
0     6f^  0    7^j 

0    5J    0    5/T 
0     6^0     7| 

0    5T5T  0    5^ 
0     7^V  0     1\ 

36  ,    38    ,     „ 

0     8A;  0    8^ 

0    8A  0    8^ 

0    8A  0    8A 

0    8£    0    8^ 

Dowlas  26  pr.  25£  in.  Tow 
32  „   27  ,    Flax 

0    3^  0    3f 
0    5       0    5j 

0     3^  0    3T\ 
0    5      0    5£ 

0    3^0    3f 
0    4f    0    5^ 

0    3f    0    8f£ 
0    4fi  0    5 

50  ,,   30  , 

0     7*     0     7f 

0     7£    0    7§ 

070     7T% 

0     7T\  0    7J 

Hessian  15  pr.  40  in.   ,, 

0     3£     0     3| 

0     3j    0     JjJ 

0    3i    0     3J 

0    3J    0    3J 

16   „    60  „    „ 

0    5|    0    6;- 

0    5      0    5| 

0    5       0     5£ 

0    5T\  0     5| 

18   „    40  „    ,, 

0    4j    0    4i 

0    4£    0    4} 

0    4k    0    4£ 

0     4fV  0     4j 

Cot.  Bag.  l£lb.  42  TWp 

050     5Jr 

0     5      0    5j 

05       0     5j 

05       0     5j 

Pimento  27  in.  lib.  Hp..lO     63     0     7* 

0     6|    0     7A 

0     6|'  0     7i 

0     6|     0     7} 

Sackg.  12  por.  26  in.  Tow 

03        0      3r 

0    3       0    3| 

0     3      0    3§ 

0    30    3i 

li   „    27,,  TWp 

0     5£     0     0 

0    5$     0    0 

0    5£    0    0 

0    5J    0    0 

1J   „    28,,  Hp.. 
Canvas,  Brown,  No.  1  ... 
Com.  Bid.  „  1... 

0     8j    0    9^ 
0     7f    0     8j 
0     9}    0  10 

0    8J    0    9^ 
0708 
09      0  10 

0    8f    0     9i 
0708 
09      0  10 

0    8i    0    9$ 
0     1\    0    8j 
0     9J    0  10* 

Sup.  Navy  Flax,     „  1... 

11     i    14  o  11     10 

0  11       10 

0  ll|     1     oj 

•RE  PRICKS  CURRENT— PROM  20ru  TO  30ru  OCTOBER  or  KA< n  V 
>M  1801  TO  1864.— CoHtim 


1846 

1847 

1848 

AX. 

£     8.      £     8. 

£    s.      £     s. 

£     8.      8.    D. 

Riga  PTR          ...      Ton 

42  10     43  10 

43     0    43  10 

:;<>  10      0    0 

Do    DC  

88  10    39  10 

39  10    40    0 

>)     29     0 

St  PeU-rslmt-   1 

47     0    48     0 

32  10     33     0 

9  head... 

40    0    42  10 

41    10     42     0 

30  10      00 

I  il>'iii  4  I»i"iiiil 

li;uit't'l  4tli  sort   ... 

43  10    44     0 

40  10    41  10 

33    0    34     0 

Hi 

It  I'M   Rll\ 

Do    Pass 

I'eteniburg  <  Lean... 

32    0      0    0 

37     0      0    0 

37     o'"  0     0 

Do.         Half-Clean 

23     0      00 

31     0    32     0 

31     0      0    0 

Jrrr 

18    0    20    0 

22     0    24  10 

17  10    20    0 

Yu:v 

8.     D.        S.      D. 

S.     D.        8.     D. 

S.     D.      8.     D. 

•2  llw    Fl.-ix       Sp. 

1     5J     1     6* 

1    6*    1    6ft 

314} 

3   „      do  

1     '-4     1  111 

*       vg                    3 

1920 

5       1     7* 

34  .     Tow  .. 

1    ?f  .  1    M 

1     8       1     9£ 

4}     1     6 

do 

1  11       21 

20      23 

820 

,  "     .  

:  

2     2       '2     3 

2125 

10      2     1 

.    <!<•.,  tun-  

2526 

2628 

2224 

7  11)   Jut«- 

19       1  10 

21       23 

1   11       22 

I.IN. 

Osnal.urg^tpr.  T..VV  Yd. 

0     2J    0    2^ 

0    2&  0    2f 

0    2,9T  0    2TV 

L'4  do.  rum.  ... 

030    3,V 

0     3TV  0    3j 

0    2  A  0    24 

io.  Flax.... 

0    3A  0    3TV 

0    3^  0    3| 

0303} 

Bn.  Shg.  20  pr.  2.'iii, 
24  „  36  „     „ 
30  ,. 
Bd.Shg.LN  ..   ;;:,  M  Tow 

:u  „ 

-  38  „     „ 

0    3i     0    3T4, 
0    4AO     1* 
0    fii    0    5T«, 
0    5^  0    5* 
0     7A  0     7j 
0    8*    0    8^ 

0    3TV  0     3f 
0    4j    0    4A 
0    6^0    5^ 
0    5H  0    0X 

o  6AO  eX 

0     7i      0    8 

0     3TV  0    3j 
0     3[$  0     4^ 

'•     4,",  0     6 

0    H    0   61 

0    5f    0    6,\ 

0    7j    0    7* 

Dowlas  2(>i>r.  -J.v  .in.  Tow 

.      H;tx 

0     3|     (i 
0    4T*  0    5 

0    3}     0    3f 
0    4T«V  0    4f 

0303} 
0    4i     0     ;i 

M          „ 

Hessian  15  pr.  40  in.  ,, 

0     7j    0     7A 
0    3ff    0    3| 

0     7^  0    8^ 
0    3¥    0    3| 

0    61    0     7 
0308* 

1"    „   00  „    „ 

05;       05^ 

0    &     0    5A 

050 

18   . 
Cot.  Bg.  l$lb.  42TWp. 

•_'7  in.  1  11..  H[>. 

0    3|    0    4< 
0    5       o 

0    61    0     7. 

04      0    4A 

0    5      0    6( 
0    6J    0     7 

040    4,', 
0     4f    0     5 
|     0    6| 

Sackg.  1-Jpor.  2i'.  in 

03      03, 

0    3|     0    3| 

03       0     3j{ 

1',    „    27  ..  T\\  p 

0     5i     0     0 

0    5      0    5f 

0    4f    0    5 

14  ..   88,.  lip.. 

0    81    0    95 

0    8J    0    9} 

080 

Canvas,  Bran  M.  N'>.  1  ... 

o   :}   o  sj 

0808] 

o     7f    0    8 

i  11.  T.M.  ,.   i... 

0  10}     0  lOf 

0    9J    0  10 

0     !»3     0     «•} 

Sup.  Navy  Flax    ,,    1... 

12       1    2j 

J     2       1     24 

1  li  I  if 

650 


MODERN  LINEN. 


DUNDEE  PRICES  CURRENT,  FROM  20TH  TO  30TH  OCTOBER  OF  EACH  YEAR — 
FROM  1801  TO  1864.— Continued. 


1849 

1850 

1851 

1852 

FLAX. 
Riga  PTR        Ton 

£      s.     £     s. 

30    0      0    0 
28     0    29    0 
23     0    23  10 
29     0       0     0 
32  10    33     0 
30    0     31     0 
38     0     39    0 
32    0    33     0 
27    0     28     0 
21     0    22     0 
29     0     29  10 
30    0      0    0 

32     0    33     0 
35    0    36    0 
15     0     18     0 

S.    D.        S.      D 

L     4       1     5 

1617 
19       1  11 
1  11       23 
2021 

0    2TV  0    2T\ 
0    2^  0    3 
0    3TV  0    3A 
0    4|    0    4£ 
0    3^  0    3£ 
0    3f|  0    4^ 
0     4T\  0     4H 

)    5f*  0     6^ 

0    2|    0    3 
0    3HO    4A 
05^0     5T\ 
0    2*    0    2f 
0     4      0     4| 
0     4f    0    5 
0     5|     0     6 
3436 
0     7f    0    8 
0    9|    0  10 
0  lOf    0  11| 

£      s.     £     s. 

34    0     35     0 
32    0    33    0 
24    0    25     0 
33    0    34    0 
37  10    38  10 
34  10     35  10 
41     0      0    0 
37  10    39  10 
29  10    30  10 
22  10    23  10 
32     0      0     0 
32     0      0    0 

31     0     31  10 
32     0    33     0 
13  10     17    0 

S.    D.        S.      D. 

1     5£     I     6£ 
1719 
1617 
1  10      20 
2    0£    2     3 
19       1  11 

0    2T<V  0    2^ 
0    2^-5  0    3| 
0    3^  0    3A 

£      s.     £    s. 

35  10     36    0 
33  10    34  10 
27     0    28  10 
34    0    35    0 
39    0    40    0 
35  10    36  10 
42  10      00 
40  10    41     0 
32     0     33    0 
22  10    23     0 
31     0      0    0 
33  10     34    0 

30  10    31     0 
32  10     33    0 
11  10     16     0 

S.    D.         S.      D. 

1516 
I     7J     1     9J 
1617 
18       1  10 
.922 

O  4      A       0? 

0     2^0     3g 
0    3^0     3^ 

£    s.      £    s. 

34  10    35     0 
34    0    35     0 
26     0     27     0 
34  10     35  10 
40     0     41     0 
32    0     34    0 
42     0       0     0 
39     0     40     0 
32     0    33     0 
23     0     23  10 
30  10       00 
33     0      0    0 

32     0    32  10 
33    0    34    0 
13     0     17  10 

S.      D.       8.     D. 

I     4i     1     5 
1     1\     1     9£ 
I     44     1     5 
19       1  10 
I  11       23 
1819 

0    2      0    2£ 
0     2|     0     2| 
0     2f     0     24 

DC  
RT  
HD  
St  Petersburg  12-head... 
9-head.. 
Archangel  3d  Crown  
Zabrack  
No.  1  Tow.... 
3dCodilla  
Libau  4-Brand  

Memel     do. 

HEMP. 

St  Petersburg  Clean  
Riga  Rhyne  . 

JUTE  

YARNS. 
2  Ibs   Flax                   Sp. 

do    . 

3£        Tow 

6           do. 

7           Jute 

LINENS.       Yds. 
Osnbg.  20  pr.  23  in.  Tow 
24  „    25  „    do. 
Dowls.  28  ,,    25  ,,    do. 
32   „    27  ,,  Flax 
Bn.  Shtg.  20  pr.  33  in  Tow 
24       35  ,,  do. 
30       35,,  Flax 
Bid.  Shtg  28       35,,  Tow 
32       35,,  Flax 
36       38  „  do. 
lessian    15       40  ,,  do. 
18       40  „  do. 
16       60  „  do. 
lessians  40  in  10£  oz  
Cot.  Bg.  42  in  1}  Ib  Tow 
Sacking  27  in.  1|  ,,  Jute 
29  in.  if  „  do. 
Woolpacks  10  Ibs  each... 
Canvas,  Com.  Brn.  No.  1 
Com.  Bid.  No.  1 
Nvy.  Bid.  No.  1 

0    3&  0    3^ 
0    4|    0    4fV 
0    4fJ  0    54 
0    5      0    54 
0    5|     0    5| 
0    6f    0     7 
0    2|    0     3 
0     3TV  0    8} 
0    5      0    54 
0    2£    0    2- 
0    4|     0     4f 
0    4j    0    4* 
0    44     0    5j 
3032 
7\    0     7£ 

10£    0  1)£ 

0    3^  0    3^ 
0    4J    0    4* 
0    5      0    5A 
0    5      0    5^ 
0    5g     0    5TV 
0     6|     0     7J 
0     2f     0     3 
Q    3^  0     3f 
050    5,\ 
0     2£     0     2f 
0    3|     0    3f 
3    3|     0    44 
D    4|     0    4f 
9      2  11 
7|     0    7f 
94     0     9g 
}  lOf    0  11| 

0     2f     0     3 
0     44     0     4| 
0    4|     0    5 
0    4|    0    5 
0    5f    0    5£ 
0    6|     0    64 
0    2|     0    2£ 
0    3      0    3i 
0    4|    0    4| 
Q    2\    0     2| 
0    3£    0    3| 
0    3f    0    3| 
0    4f    0    4| 
28       2  10 
3     6|     0     7 
0    8f    0    9 

o  io|   o  11$ 

SCOTCH    I 


G51 


DUNDEE  PRICIS  CURRENT,  FROM  20ra  TO  30m  OCTOBER  OF  EACH  YEAR— 
FROM  1801  TO  1864.—  Continued. 


1853 

1864 

1865 

1856 

FLAX.        Ton. 

£      8. 

£     8. 

£       8. 

£      8. 

£      8 

£      8. 

£        8. 

£     8. 

Riga  PTR  1853  then  PLCM 

47    0 

0    0 

50    0 

52     0 

46    0    48    0 

40    0 

41     0 

DC  

40  10 

41     0 

43     0 

45    0 

41     0    42    0 

34    0 

34  10 

RT 

34    0 

35    0 

37     0 

38    0 

36    0 

87     0 

L'*      0 

30    0 

H  1  > 

89  10 

40  10 

42     0 

43    0 

40    0    41     0 

:{.-{     o 

34    0 

St  Petersburg  12-head... 

46    0    48    0 

49    0 

50    0 

44     0    46    0 

38    0 

39     0 

9-head... 

40  10 

42     0 

45    0 

46    0 

39  10    40  10 

34     0 

35     0 

Archangel  3d  Crown  

48    0    48  10 

58    0 

:,i    ( 

52    0    67    0 

44     0 

45    0 

Zabrack  

45  10    46    0 

46    0 

50    0 

49    0    53     040  10    41     0 

No.  1  T. 

86  10    38    0 

43    0 

44    0 

46    0    48    035  10    36    0 

3d  Codilla 

30  10      00 

*7     0      0    0 

38  10    39    0 

29  10    30    0 

Liluiu  4-Brand 

39  10    40    0 

11     0    42     0 

39    0    40    0 

36  10     37  10 

Mcmel     do. 

38    0    39    0 

39    0    41     0 

41     0     42    0 

36     0     37     0 

HKMP. 

St  Petersburg  Clean  

38    0    39    0 

50    0    56    0 

43     0     I.',     o 

34     0      0    0 

Riga  Rhyne  . 

38     0 

3!»     t 

60    0 

r,i     o 

44    0 

45     0 

35     0 

0      0 

JUTE  

>Q    0     25     0 

19     0     24     0 

16     0     23     0 

15     0     24     0 

YARNS. 

S.     D. 

S.      D. 

8.     D. 

S.     D. 

8.    D. 

S.     D. 

S.     D. 

8.     D. 

2  Ibs.  Flax                  Sp. 

1     6J     1      7 

1     6 

1     7 

L    6i    0    6 

1     7 

0     0 

3   „      do  

1   11       1   11$ 
1718 

1    10         L'      L' 

_'     1       2     5 

1  10 

1      9 

"      I 

1  1U 
1  llj 
2     3 
2     9 

1  11       20 
1  10J     2     0 
2329 
2833 

1   1U     2     04 
1  10}     1  lli 

2     U    2     5j 
2     4}    2     9 

3*,.     Tow 

.">           tin 

»'•    ,,       do  

7         Jute 

2     li 

2    2J 

I   11 

2     1 

1   111 

r     2     1 

2     0 

2     1 

Lonors.        N  •: 

Osnbg.  -jopr.  -jr.  in.  Tcn\ 

0    2J 

•    0    2g 

o   25 

0    2| 

0     2| 

0    2( 

0    2| 

•2\    n     'jr.   ,,     do. 

0    2J 

0    340    3J 

0     3, 

0    3 

0     3: 

0      3 

0    3 

Dowls.  28  „    25  ,,    .!<>. 

0    3 

0    3k 

0    3. 

Q     .. 

0    3 

0     3i 

•J7  ,,    Klsix 

0    4j 

SO    4jj 

0    f 

0.  4; 

0      4 

>       0      4; 

0    4. 

0    4^ 

Bb.8htf.20pr.  83  in  Tow 

24  ,,  3.1  „  do. 

o  2] 

0    4; 

0    3 

0    4,1 

0    8. 

0    4j 

0    8i 
0    5 

0      3 

o     r, 

0    3; 
0    5 

0    3 
0    4, 

0    3: 
0    5 

30  „  35  „  Flax 

0     5 

0    6i 

o    :," 

0    6i 

0    5| 

0    6 

0      5; 

0    5; 

BUI  Shtg  2,s 

0    4$     0    6" 

0     4i 

0    5 

0    4 

0    5 

o   5; 

•    0    5, 

:;•_'  ..  :::.  ,,  Flax 

0    5 

0     5$ 

0    5. 

0    6| 

(i    :, 

0    5j[ 

0    6 

0    6i 

:;<;  .,  :;s  ,,  do. 

0    6 

0    6J 

(t      •;;, 

0    7] 

o    «; 

0    7 

0    6; 

0     7, 

Hessian    15  „  40  „  do. 

«»     :' 

0    3 

<>     ;; 

0     3; 

0    3 

0    3 

0    3, 

0     3, 

18  „  40  „  do. 

0    3 

0     4 

n    :> 

0    4i 

0    4 

0    4 

0    4 

n     4* 

Hi  ,,  60,,  do. 

o    :, 

0    5^ 

0    5$     0    6 

o    «; 

0    6 

o     .r>. 

0    5: 

Hessians  40  in.  10}  oz.  .. 

0    2 

0    21 

0    3 

0    31 

o    | 

|     0    3 

0      3' 

0     3. 

ft)  Ton 

Sacking  27  „  U  „  Jute 

0    4 

0      '. 

o    0 

0    5 

0    6| 

o  e| 

0    4\ 
0    4: 

0    5. 

10    *i 
0    5 
0    5f 

0    4, 

0    4< 
0    5, 

n     4 
'    0    6 
!     0    5j 

"     4 
0    5 

o    4; 

0     5 
\    0    5} 

Woolpacks  10  Ibs  each.. 

3     6 

3    8 

3    5 

3    3 

3     5    3      t 

3    6 

Canvas,  Com.  Bn 
Com.  Bid.  No.  1 

0     71     «>     7A 
09      09] 

0    74     0     73 
0    9| 

"    ; 

0    9 

0     7*0     7       07 
0     9JO     9J     0 

Nvy.  Bid  N-.  i<>  H'J 

\     1     0 

1     0 

1     04 

0  11 

1     o  o  inj     0  11 

652 


MODERN  LINEN. 


DUNDEE  PRICES  CURRENT— FROM  20TH  TO  30TH  OCTOBER  OF  EACH  YEAR 
—FROM  1801  TO  1864.—  Continued. 


1857 

1858 

1859 

1860 

FLAX. 

&    s. 

£    s. 

£    s.      £    s. 

£      8.       £      8. 

£    s 

£      8. 

Riga  PLCM  1857,  then  PK 

42     0    43     0 

50    0    52     0 

53     0    54    0 

52     0     53    0 

DC        „       „     W. 

34  10    35     0 

43    0    44    0 

46    0    47     046    0      00 

RT        „       „    D.. 

29    0    30    0 

37    0    38     0 

37     0     39     041     0     42     0 

HD  

33     C 

)     34      ft 

d.9      ft     4.2      ft 

48  10    49  1047    C 

^      ft    ft 

St  Petersburg  12-head... 

38  10    39    052     0    53     0 

50     0     51     0J47  10     48  10 

9-head... 

34    0    35    0142     0    43    0 

40     0     41     0;42     0     43     0 

Archangel  3d  Crown.  ... 

48     0    49    0 

54     0    56    0 

56    0     57     0|57    0     58     0 

Zabrack  . 

44    C 

)     4.5      ft 

50    0     51     0 

53     0     54    0*2  1< 

1     54   1ft 

No.  1  Tow.... 

38     0    39    0 

42     0    43     0 

42     0      0     0 

47    0    47  10 

3dCodilla.... 

30  10    31   10 

32     0    33     0 

30    0    31     0 

34  10     35    0 

36    C 

^      37      ft 

42     0    43    0 

-vr 

39    C 

1        ft     ft 

Memel     do            

36    0    37     0 

42     0    43    0 

"N" 

40    0      00 

HEMP. 

St  Petersburg  Clean  ... 

34    C 

I      34.    1ft 

31     0     32    0 

30    0    31     0 

31     C 

1     39      ft 

Riga  —  Rhy  ne 

33  10    34     0 

31     0    33    0 

31     0     31  10 

32     0    33     0 

21     0    29    0 

17    0    23    0 

14     0     23     0 

15     0    9.5    ft 

YARN. 

S.    D.        S.    D. 

S.    D.        S.     D. 

S.    D.         S.    D. 

S.     D. 

i.    P. 

21bs   Flax  Sp 

1     8 

ft      ft 

18       1     84, 

1     84,     1     9 

I  1U 

1     2     0 

3  „      do  

1  114.     2     1 

2021 

2223 

2     3, 

;       2      5 

34  Ib  Tow  

1  11 

1  114, 

1  104_     2     0 

191  104, 

2     1 

2     14 

5           do       

2     1 

9.      4. 

20       21 

1    11i      9.      ft 

2     3 

•          2 

2     4 

6    ,,     do. 

2     34.     2     8 

23       2     64,  21       26 

2     7i 

t    2     9 

7         Jute    .. 

23         94. 

1  10       1  11    i     fli     1     7 

1     9 

0    0 

LINENS.         Yd. 

Osnbg.  20  por.  25  in.  Tow 

0    3 

0     34 

0     2|    0    3  iO    2|     0     3 

0    24     0    3 

24    ,,   25  „    do. 

0    34    0    3l 

0    34     0    3f!0    3*    0    3| 

0    3^ 

-     0     34 

Dowls.  28    „    25  „    do. 

0    4 

.  0    41 

040    4|JO    3|     0    4 

0    4j 

I     0    4f 

32    „  27  „  Flax 

0    51     0    51 

0    4|     0    540    4§    0    54 

0    5i 

f    0    5| 

Bn.  Shtg.  20  pr.  33  in  Tow 

0     4 

0    44 

0    34     0    4 

0     3|     0    4   0     3j 

\     0    4 

24       35,,  do. 

0    5 

0    51 

0    4f    0    5 

0    4|     0    4f  0    5; 

0    5i 

30       35,,  Flax 

0    54.     0    5| 

0    5f    0    5| 

060    6}0    6 

i     0     6J 

Bd.  Shtg.  28       35,,  Tow 

0     6 

0    0 

0    5f    0    0 

0    5|     0    5fO    6 

0     6^ 

32       36,,  Flax 

0     6^ 

I    0    6| 

0     6|     0     6| 

0     6|    0    6fO     7 

0     74 

36       38,,  do. 

0    7- 

•    0     7f 

0     7g     0     7f 

0    7|    0    7|0    8; 

1    0    8| 

Sessian    15       40,,  do. 

0    3 

0     3f 

0     2|     0     3 

0    2|    0    3   0    3j 

0    3J 

18       40,,  do. 

0    4, 

0    4j 

0     3f    0     4 

0    34    0    3|0    3i 

o   34 

16       60,,  do. 

0    5 

0     6 

05      0     54.0    4|    0    510    5^ 

0    5| 

Flesns.  40  in.  104  Ib-  each 

0    3j 

0    3£ 

0    2|     0    24 

0    2|     0    2|0    2\ 

-   o   24 

Cot.  Bg.  42  in.  1£  ,,  Tow. 

0    4| 

0    44 

0     4£     0     0 

0     3|     0    0   0    3* 

o   34 

Sacking  27  in.  l|  ,,  Jute 

0    5 

0    51 

0     4£     0     4f 

0    3f    0    3|0    3^ 

'-    0     4 

29  „   14  „   do. 

0    5f    0    6" 

0     5^    0    5J 

0     44     0     4|0     4f     0     4| 

Woolpacks,  lOlb.  each... 

1     6 

3     8 

31       33 

28       2928 

2     9 

Canvas,  Com.  Brn.  No.  1 

0    7 

0    1\ 

0     74     0     7|0     7£     0     7fO     84     0     8f 

Com.  Bid.  No.  1 

0     9^ 

i     0     94, 

0    91    0    9|0    91    0     9fO  lOf    0  11| 

Navy  Bid.  No.  1 

0  10J 

r     0  ll|0  lOf     0  llf  0  11J     1     0    1      1 

1     1J 

1 

DUNDEE  PRICES  CURRENT— FROM  20rn  TO  30rn  OCTOBER  OF  EACH  Y 
—FROM  1801  TO  1863,  AND  26TH  APRIL  1864.  — ('<•///; 


1861 

1862 

1863 

1864 

AX. 

£      8. 

£      8. 

£     s. 

£      8. 

£      8. 

£      8. 

£    s.      £    ». 

RigaPK            Ton 

48     0    49    0 

57    0      0    0 

56    0    57    0 

55    0    56    0 

\\ 

43    C 

>    44    0 

49    0 

>    50    0 

52     C 

I    53    0 

50    0    .11     o 

D 

42     0     44     0 

III) 

44    0    -H   10 

48  10     40  10 

50    0 

51     0 

rsburg  12-head.  . 

45     0     46  1050     0     52     0 

51     0    53    0 

44    0    48     0 

!»  lu-a.l.  . 

38    0    39    045    0    46    0 

44    0    47    0 

:17     0     11     o 

Arcli.-xngel  3<1  Cr<»\\  n  .  .  . 

-,!   i«>    65  lo 

62     0     63     0 

67    0      0    0 

70    0    71     0 

Zabrack  

48    0    50    0 

r»6     0     57     0 

56    0    59    0 

T>5     0    58    0 

No.  1  T. 

43    0    44    0 

51     0    52     0 

57    0    68    0 

50    0    53    0 

3d  Codilla.  .  . 

31     0    31  10 

38    0    39     0 

37    0    38    0 

37     0    88    0 

Lil»:iu  4-  Brand. 

39    C 

)     40     0 

44     C 

)     4fi     0 

Nominal. 

Memel    do 

40    0    41     n 

45    0      o    o 

47    0    4ft    O 

47     0    48    0 

HEMP. 

St  Petersburg  Clean  

31     0      0    0 

38    0      0    0 

39    0      00 

37    0      0    0 

Rica—  Rhyne 

32   1C 

)      33    1O 

39    C 

»     40     0 

41     C 

)       0     0 

39    0      00 

JUTB 

15     0    *>z    n 

20    0    3O    o 

23  10    M  10 

19    0    33  Kl 

YARN. 

8.     D. 

8.     D. 

8.     D. 

8.     D. 

S.     D. 

8.    J> 

8.     D.       8.     D. 

Yarn—  2  Ib.  Flax....  Sp. 

1     9 

1     9* 

2    2 

2     2$ 

2    8 

2    8| 

2     61 

2    7 

3  „      do  

2     1 

2     2 

2     7 

2     8 

3    4 

3     5 

3     11 

0    0 

34  Ib  Tow  

1  11 

1  111 

2     4J 

t     2     fi 

3     1J 

3     2 

3     0< 

3     1 

5    „     do  
6    „     do  

2    2 

2     5J 

2     212     930 
2     812  11       32 

3     l' 
3     3 

3     \.\ 
3     61 

3     li 
3    3, 

3     2 
3     6 

7    „  Jute  

1     7j 

1     8  12     4 

2     5 

3     1*    3    2l 

3233 

Yd. 

Osnbg.  20  por.  25  in.  Tow 

0    2j 

0    3   0    31 

0    3JO    4*    0    4g 

0    4 

0    4J 

24    „  25  ,,    <!•'. 

0    3{ 

0    3*0     31 

0     4 

o  54 

)     I 

0    5 

Dowls.  28    ,,   •_'.->  ..    do, 

0       4; 

•    0    4| 

0     4j 

t    0    6  |0    7 

o  74 

0     6 

0    6f 

32    „   27 

0      5; 

•     0     51 

0     6 

o     i', 

0    8j 

'    0    8| 

>     7 

0    8A 

Bn.8htg.20pr.S3iaTon 

0    8 

0    3f 

0    4 

0    4j 

0     6i 

r   o    6 

)     0 

0     6$ 

24  „  35,,  do. 

0    6 

o  54 

0    5: 

0    5, 

0    81 

t    0    8 

0    7, 

0     7| 

30  „  35,,  Flax 

0    5t 

\    0    6 

0    6 

0    6, 

0     Hi 

\    0    9 

0      8^ 

0    8j 

Bd.Shtg.28  „  35,,  Tow 
32  „  36,,  Flax 

0    55    0    6 
0    6J     0    7 

0      6; 

0    7, 

0    6, 

0    7 

<•   i* 

0    10 

0    9 
0  10 

it      *r 

0    9 

0    8 
0    91 

.,  38,,  do. 

0    8J     0    83 

0    9 

0  10 

1    (t 

1     ] 

1010} 

Hessian    15  „  40,,  do. 

0    8 

0    U 

0    3 

0    3f 

0    6 

0      5; 

0    4f    0     5 

18  „  40,,  da 

0    3j 

0    3J 

0       4; 

0    4 

0    6 

0    6 

0    5f    0     6 

16  „  60,,  do. 

0    5 

0    6* 

u    »; 

0    6* 

I)      S 

0    9 

0    8      0    81 

Hesns.  40  in.  10(  Ib.  each  0    2, 
Cot.  Bg.42in.  1}  ,,Tmv.  0    :; 
Sacking  27  in.  1  1  „  JutdO     8 
29  „  14,,   do.  |0    4 
Woolpacks,  10  Ib.  each  .  .  2    6 

0    3 
0    8j 
0    8} 

0    4j 
2    8 

0    3 
0    4 
0    4 

0      5; 

3    4 

0    3$ 
0    6 

o  54 

0    5J 
3    6 

0    6 

o    <; 
o    r, 
0    7 
4     '.i 

0    5f 
0    6J 
0    7 
0    71 
4  11 

0      4; 

0    5 

0      5; 

0    6 
4     1, 

0    6 
0    6| 
4     21 

Canvas,  Com.  Brn    N-    1  "     s 

0    8J 

0    8 

0    9 

0    9J 

!0  10 

0  10      0  11* 

Com.  P.M.  N...  1 
Navy  Bid.  No.  1 

,.     •> 
1     u 

i  ?  '?i 

0  10 
1     2 

o  14 

1     3 

:•;! 

13 

1011 
1415 

In  October  1S62  the  quotations  for  Jute  were  nominally  as  stated,  no  actual 
business  being  then  done  at  £30  a  ton. 

654 


SCOTCH  LINEN. 


TABLE  OF  THE  HORSE-POWER,  SPINDLES,  POWER-LOOMS,  AND  HANDS  EMPLOYED 
IN  SPINNING  AND  POWER-LOOM  WEAVING  ESTABLISHMENTS  IN  THE  UNDER- 
NOTED  TOWNS,  IN  APRIL,  1864.  COMPILED  PROM  RETURNS,  EXCEPTING  IN  A 
VERT  FEW  CASES,  SUPPLIED  BY  THE  PROPRIETORS. 

ARBROATH. 


Engines. 

Horse- 
Power. 

Spindles. 

Power- 
Looms. 

Hands 
Employed. 

1.  Balf  our  &  Camming.... 

1 
3 

10 

50 

1  908 

34 

80 

60 
440 

3.  David  Corsar  &  Son.... 
4.  William  Curr  &  Co  
5.  Douglas  Fraser  &  Son.. 

5 

1 
5 
1 

90 
12 
93 
25 

2,502 
616 

3,384 
584 

140 
110 

560 
70 
640 
55 

1 

12 

750 

80 

8.  G.  &  A.  Gordon  
9    James  P  Kyd  

4 
1 

110 

20 

7,030 

32 

104 

620 
180 

10.  Andrew  Lowson  
11    Robert  Lumgair.  

8 
1 

225 

8 

10,004 
400 

120 

1,230 
45 

12.  Alexander  JSicoll  &  Co 
13.  John  Ogilvy  &  Co  
14.  Wm.    Salmond  &    Co 
(water  and  steam)... 
15.  John  Smith  
16.  John  Walker  &  Co  
17.  F.  &  W.  Webster  

2 
1 

2 
1 
1 
1 

39 

22 

20 

50 
10 
10 
25 

792 

904 
900 

1,360 
30,342 

16 

50 
40 
30 
50 

836 

110 
90 

240 
65 
55 
80 

4,620 

BLAIRGOWRIE. 


1.  John  A.damson,  Ericht  Works,  Steam,  30;  Water,  50 

2.  John  Baxter,  Ashbank  Mill,  .  Water, 

3.  David  Grimond,   Lornty,    Brooklin,  and 

Oakbank  Mills,         ... 

4.  Matthew  Low,  Keithbank  Mill,*      .  „ 

5.  John  Moncur,  Westfield  Mill,  .  „ 

6.  James  Morrice,  East  and  West  Mills,  „ 

7.  George  Saunders  &  Sons,  Craig,  and  Bram- 

blebank  Mills, 


FORFAR. 


50 
12 
65 
36 


2,160 

660 

2,540 

1,500 


58      2,340 


290 
40 

160 
90 

200 


E 

Ingines. 

Horse 
Power. 

J.  &  H.  Oaik  &  Co., 

1 

30 

Laird  &  Co.  

1 

10 

John  Lowson,  jun., 

1 

25 

John  Lowson  &  Son, 

1 

12 

319    13,200  250  1,650 


Power          Hands 
Looms.       Employed. 


180 
100 
150 
108 


230 
130 
200 
140 


77 


538 


700 


*  To  be  supplanted  by  a  new  mill,  now  in  course  of  erection,  of  more  than  double  the 
size  of  the  present  work. 


KlNCliORN. 


Bom 

I'oWrr. 


Swan  Brotheri,  St  Leonard's  . 
Mid  Mill,       . 


Spindles. 

3,4,12 
1.172 


Hands 


260 
150 


IL'S 


400 


KIRKCALDY. 


Horse   Q_I_JIM     Power      Hands 
Power.  sPindles-    Looms.  Employed 


R.  &  A.  Aytoun, 

. 

60 

1,600 

Andrew  Blair  &  Co  , 

, 

16 



Louis  Cheffelle, 

8 



J.  &  W.  Hendry, 

60 

4,038 

John  Jeffrey, 

20 



Archibald  Macdonald, 

. 

24 

850 

A.  G.  Malcolm, 

. 

40 

1,688 

Swan  Bros.,  Coal  Wynd, 

36 

1738    120 

Park  Mill, 

28 

1400    100 

Linktown, 

16 

600    80 

60 

3,738 

B.  Wemyss, 

. 

30 

338 

11,914 

40 
38 

200 


120 


150 

n 

40 

350 

250 

70 

140 


300 
120 


398       1,470 


Aberdein,  Gordon  &  Co.  Montrose 
G.  &  A.  Gordon,  do., 
J.  &.  G.  Paton,  do.,     . 
Richards  &  Co.,  do.,     . 

Do.,          do.,     . 

Do ,          Craigo, 


MONTROSE. 

Horse 
Power. 

SO 

25 

120 


26 

34 


Spindles. 

8,000 

1,500 

12,000 

6,000 

1,800 


Power 
Looms. 


122 


Hands 
Employed. 

580 
120 
800 
360 
240 
150 


29,300 


122 


2,250 


AUSTKACT. 


Arbroath, 

Forfar, 

Montrose, 


Blairgowrie, 

Kirkcaldy, 

Kinghorn, 


Horse 
Power. 

Spindles. 

Power 
Looms. 

Hands 
Employed. 

792 

30,342 

836 

4,620 

77 

... 

:>;}* 

700 

365 

29,300 

122 

2,250 

1,496 
250 


7,570 

1,650 

1,470 

400 


2,019 


89,360 


2,144 


11,090 


656 


MODERN  LINEN. 


la 
*  § 
If* 

0   tti 


T3  >»   I   lOCOOC<llOiOTPOlCC<I7CC<JOOOOOCCiCOOOOOC5OCCOOmO?O3<l 


Power 
Looms 


Horse 
ower. 


II 


si 

W    ^ 

P   PS 

II 


l 


«" 

' 


« 

J2  o    ~ 


1 

1 

j 


Carry  F 


s 

B   so 

h  S 

I 


ft  OTOB   I 


=  £  § 


-; 


»  .=  2  =  ,3  ,3 

ipH««»ft^.-< 


.:S88«8  .  .5S2S2  ,S3 

^-      ci  — •    :    :  •— i     m  .      r-4 


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r  ^^    **  ^         *^    ^    "  '         *^ 

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TT 


658  .MODERN  LINEN. 

CHAPTER  IV. 
UNITED    KINGDOM. 

IT  is  of  high  importance  for  those  engaged  in  any  branch  of 
trade  or  manufacture  to  be  furnished  with  reliable  statistical  in- 
formation regarding  the  recent  progress  and  present  extent  and 
condition  of  the  same.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  details  are 
made  up  periodically  of  the  regular  production  of  any  of  the 
great  staples  of  the  country.  This  might  be  done  by  Govern- 
ment at  no  great  cost,  and  its  value  not  only  to  the  individual 
trade,  but  to  the  nation  at  large,  would  be  inestimable. 

No  means  exist  for  ascertaining,  with  any  degree  of  accuracy, 
the  quantity  of  Linen  manufactured  yearly,  either  in  England, 
Ireland,  or  Scotland.  The  only  details  made  up  by  Government, 
bearing  on  the  subject,  are  the  importation  into  the  United  King- 
dom of  the  raw  material,  &c.,  and  the  exportation  of  yarn  and 
Linen,  &c.,  to  foreign  countries.  These,  so  far  as  they  go,  are 
highly  interesting,  and  their  value  is  seen  in  the  avidity  with 
which  the  periodical  returns  are  examined,  as  they  are  issued  by 
the  Board  of  Trade.  These  tables  give  no  information  regard- 
ing the  consumption  of  Linens  in  the  United  Kingdom,  of  the 
real  extent  of  which,  and  whether  on  the  increase  or  decrease, 
little  is  absolutely  known.  Estimates  of  the  production  in  the 
different  localities  may  be  formed,  but  at  best  they  are  only  a 
guess,  and  as  likely  to  be  wide  of  the  truth  as  near  it ;  and  any 
assumption  of  the  yards,  or  value  of  the  Linen  made  in  the 
United  Kingdom  must  be  vague,  and  cannot  be  relied  upon. 
Some  details  of  the  quantities  of  Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  &c.,  im- 
ported into  the  United  Kingdom  have  been  given  in  the  section 
on  fibres. 

The  following  is  the  importation  into  Great  Britain  of  the 
articles  mentioned  for  the  years  specified  : — 

Flax.  Hemp.  Linen  Yarn. 

1788             Tons,  12,997  Tons,  18,455  Tons,  4,188 

1790                „       6,490  „     22,681  „     4,203 

1799                       19,269  „     31,335  „     4,120 


I  KI)  KINGDOM. 


G59 


IITY  AND  VAI.UK  OF   FLAX  AND  HEMP,  AND   THE  PRODUCE  THEREOF,  IM- 
PORTED INTO  GREAT  UJUT.UN  IN   HIE  YEAH  ENDING  5m  JANUARY  1808.-  ( 
dte  Advertiser,  17th  June  1808.) 


FLAX  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.                           Quantities. 
Fla*.        Cwts.  420,769  2  17 
Canvas,             „        8,980  I    3 
Drillings  Cwts.        621  1  19 
German  Plain  Linen,       ....              „      23,187  0  12 
Russian      do.       do  ,,      32,590  3    0 
lie,          Pieces,  18,729 

Value. 
£1,263,412  14 

;:>9  11 

5,281  19 
142,981  18 
202,707    9 
66,187    0 

1 
1 
1 

10 
3 

0 

Damask  and  Diaper,  TaMingand  Napkining,     Yards,        49,806 
Irish  Plain  Linen,            „    40,870,283 
Holland,  Flanders,  and  French  Linen,   .        .          Ells,  143,622 
Silesia  Lawns,           Pieces,  12,511 
Linen  unrated,  checked,  striped,  &c.,  Pieces  3310,     E1U,  155,861 
Thread,  viz.  sisters,  wheeled,  brown,  and  Bruges,      Lbs.,     6,261 
Yarn,  Tic.  Linen  raw,  total  value  of                                      

14,200    8 
3,405,856  18 
28,724    8 
8,132    3 
8,044  13 
15,620  19 
525,883    4 

8 
4 
0 
0 
5 

0 

3 

Total  value  of  Flax  and  the  produce  thereof, 


HEMF  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS. 


Hemp. 

Tow, 

Cordage, 

Sailcloth, 

Sails, 


Quantities. 

Cwts.  756,430  1  27 

,.        9,722  2  22 

4,800  1  10 

334  1  14 


Tutdl  value  of  Hemp  and  the  produce  thereof, 

Total  Flax £5,719,693    8  0 

Total  Hemp 1,952,087  17  9 

Grand  Total £7,671,781    5  9 


£5,719,693    8  0 

Value. 

£1,891,076    4  4 

19,445    7  10 

9,600  13  6 

4,012    «  0 

27,953    4  1 

£1,952,087  17  » 


The  value  of  the  articles  enumerated  imported  into  Great 
Britain  from  foreign  countries  in  1814  and  1815,  was — 

1814  1815 

Flax,  rough £949,981  £633,040 

Hemp,  do.       ...  ...  ...  463,573 


Linens, 

Linen  Yarns,  raw, 


216,649 
272,502 


621,822 
136,933 
250,757 


£1,902,705  £1,642,552 

The  value  of  the  exports  of  British  and  Irish  Linen  manufac- 
tures for  same  years,  was — 


Linen  manufactures, 
Linen  Yarn    do. 

TT2 


1814 
£1,543,436 
None  enumerated. 


1815 
£1,618,575 


660  MODERN    LINEN. 

The  value  of  foreign  goods  re-exported  from  Britain  in  same 
years  was  as  follows : — 

1814  1815 

Flax,  rough, £93,280  £40,032 

Hemp,   do 40,752  42,083 

Linens,             177,342  103,501 

£314,374  £185,616 


Total  value  of  Linen  Exports,     ...         £1,857,810  £1,804,191 

The  revenue  paid  to  Government  on  the  importation  into 
England  and  Scotland  of  the  goods  enumerated,  for  the  year 
ending  5th  January  1816,  was — 

England.                  Scotland.  Total. 

Flax,       £4,168  14    1        £2,594    4  11  £6,762  19    0 

Hemp,     274,677    5    3        44,159    7    0  318,836  12    3 

Linens, 77,336    8    1          2,938  17    7  80,275    5    8 


£356,182    7    5     £49,692    9    6    £405,874  16  11 

A  statement  of  the  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute  imported  yearly 
during  the  century,  up  to  1862,  is  given  in  page  111.  In  that 
year  the  details  of  the  Importation  of  Flax,  Tow,  &c.,  was  as 
follows : — 

From                   Tons.         Total  Tons.  Computed  Value.  Total  Value 

Flax,  &c.,    Russia,                    61,728             £3,381,818             

Other  Countries,     28,190             1,824,174             

89,918  £5,205,992 

Hemp,  &c.,  Russia,                    30,450             £1,114,548             

Other  Countries,    18,638             590,326 

49,088  1,704,874 

Jute,  &c.,     India,                     47,067             £906,834 

Other  Countries,      1,122             23,800 

48,189  930,634 

Other  Vegetable  Materials 128  4,610 


Tons,  187,323  £7,846,110 

The  rate  at  which  Jute  is  calculated  is  1 9s  4d  per  cwt. 

The  importation  in  1863  included  72,948  tons  of  Flax,  &c. 
51,908  of  Hemp,  &c.,  and  62,939  of  Jute,  &c.— total,  187,495 
tons  ;  and  for  the  first  four  months  of  1864  it  was — Flax,  &c., 


I  Nl  i  .'  .  :  MM. 

tons,  ETemp,  Ac.,  7.s:>7,  .lute,  etc..  81,308,      i 

.  HJI  fens.  a-;iin>!  •__".». 1'J'.'  t. .us  in  same  period  in  1863. 

An  account  of  tin-  Lhn-n  yarn  ami  Linens  exported  from  the 
for  several  years  has  l>ecn  extracted  ti<.ni  the  ''Blue 
pul.lMied  periodically  l>y  the  l><>ard  of  Trade,  showing 
the  yards  and  value  shipped  to  each  country.  In  the  monthly 
ami  ywiy  alMtaeb  of  (la-  Kxp«.rts  which  are  published.  onK 
M.me  of  the  countries  taking  large  quantities  oi'  these  arti 

are  enumerated,   the  balance    l.ein^  put  down  to  M0( 
countries."      This  head  has   been   sub-divided  as    far   as   e.m 
l.e   d«.ne   from    the    Blue   Books,   but,   owing   to   the   way   in 
which  they  are  made  up,  it  is  impossible  to  give  the  pr- 
value  sent   lu  several  of  the  countries  of  the   world.      T! 
T;  i  hies  shew  the  relative  importance  of  each  country  as  custom - 
dn  of  the  Linen  manufacturers  of  the  kingdom.     The  abstract 
only  is  li'iven  for  1863,  and  the  first  four  months  of  1864,  as  the 
full  details  are  not  yet  published. 

JSir  F.  M.  Eden  estimated  the  entire  value  of  the  Linen  manu- 
facture in  1800  at  £2,000,000.  The  annual  value  of  the  Linen 
manufacture  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  number  of  people  em- 
ployed in  the  trade,  chiefly  founded  on  official  returns  published 
in  1800;  was— 

Manufactures  of  Flax,  value  £3,000,000  Peoplw  employed,  95,000 

Do.          of  Hemp,  „         1,000,000  Do.  35,000 


Together,         £4,000,000  Tot.l,         130,000 

Being  about  six  per  cent,  of  the  total  manufactures  of  the  coun- 
try, and  seven  and  one-tolf  per  cent,  of  the  total  people  then 
employed  in  them.  In  1843  the  value  of  the  Linen  manufac- 
ture was  estimated  at  £10,000,000.  Setting  aside  one-third  for 
raw  material,  and  another  third  for  profits,  wages  of  superin- 
tendence, tear  and  wear  of  buildings  and  machinery,  coals,  &c.t 
it  leaves  the  remaining  third,  or  three  and  one-third  in  ill! 
to  be  divided  as  wages.  Supposing  each  individual  to  earn  on 
an  average  4' 18  per  annum,  the  total  number  employed  would 
be  150,000. 

A  few  years  ago  it  WBfl  intimated  that  the  entire  value  of  the 
Linen  manufactures  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  upwards  of 
£12,000,000,  of  which  about  one-half  \v;is  exported.  The  quati- 


662  MODERN  LINEN. 

tity  exported  in  1863  was,  Linen  yarn,  £2,535,728,  Linen, 
£5,921,308  ;  together,  £8,457,036.  If  the  quantity  exported 
be  about  half  the  quantity  made,  this  would  show  the  total 
value  of  the  Linen  manufactures  for  1863  to  be  about 
£17,000,000  sterling.  The  value  of  the  Flax  and  Jute  im- 
ported, of  the  Hemp  imported  which  is  used  in  the  Linen 
manufacture,  and  of  the  Flax  grown  in  Ireland  and  other  divi- 
sions of  the  Kingdom,  in  1863,  will  not  be  over-stated  at 
£10,000,000.  If  the  raw  material,  as  was  estimated  in  1843, 
forms  only  one-third  part  of  the  value  of  the  Linen  manufac- 
tures of  the  country,  this  would  make  their  total  value  in  1863 
£30,000,000.  This,  however,  is  probably  greatly  beyond  the 
real  value,  and  a  medium  amount  between  the  sums,  as  esti- 
mated by  these  two  modes,  or,  say  £25,000,000,  may  approxi- 
mate to  the  true  value.  In  any  event,  the  Linen  Manufacture 
forms  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the  trade  of  the 
country.  Its  extension  has  of  late  years  been  marvellously 
rapid,  and  its  elasticity  is  commensurate  with  its  importance. 

According  to  the  Report  of  the  Inspector  of  Factories,  the  num- 
ber of  power-looms  employed  on  Flax  manufactures  in  1835 
were  as  follows  : — In  England  41  looms,  Ireland  100,  and 
Scotland  168,  being  a  total  of  309  looms.  In  1850  the  num- 
ber had  increased  to  3,670 ;  and  in  1862,  as  shewn  by  the  Ee- 
turn  made  up  by  the  Inspector  of  Factories,  and  given  in  to  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1862,  the  numbers  had  increased  to 
15,347.  According  to  the  same  return  the  spindles  employed 
in  the  Flax  manufacture  were  1,252,236. 

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  spinning-mills  and 
power-loom  factories  engaged  in  the  Linen  trade  in  the  different 
portions  of  the  kingdom  in  1839  and  1862  were  as  follows : — 

1839                 1862.  Increase. 

England  and  Wales,        .        ,         .        16,882  20,305  3,423 

Scotland, 17,587  33,599  16,012 

Ireland, 9,017  33,525  24,508 


43,486  87,429  43,943 

The  distribution  of  the  spindles,  power-looms,  and  operatives 
employed  in  the  several  countries,  forming  the  three  grand  divi- 
sions of  the  Kingdom,  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  Returns, 


LINES     B  o  i;  N  i  v. 

THE  very  limited  extent,  and  the  purely  domestic  character 
he  Linen  manufacture  in  Scotland  in  the  beginning  of 
last  century,  may  be  learned  by  considering  the  conditi" 
the  country  at  that  date.  The  turbulent  character  of  the 
people,  the  imperious  and  avaricious  spirit  of  the  nobles  and 
feudal  superiors,  and  the  despotic  sway  of  the  King,  all  tended 
to  make  property  insecure,  and  to  stifle,  if  not  to  extinguish, 
manufacturing  industry.  After  the  union  of  Scotland  and 
England,  a  more  peaceful  day  dawned  upon  the  former  coun- 
try. The  Government,  anxious  to  conciliate  the  inhabitants 
and  elevate  their  social  position,  sought  to  do  so  by  extending 
the  manufactures  of  the  country.  The  Linen  Trade  was  pecu- 
liarly a  national  one  in  Scotland,  with  the  germs  of  prosperity 
already  in  it,  and  it  was  supposed  that  it  only  required  to  be 
fostered  and  encouraged  to  make  it  really  beneficial  to  the 
country  at  large.  The  sagacity  and  wisdom  of  such  an  idea  is 
undeniable,  however  much  the  mode  adopted  to  carry  it  into 
practice  may  be  questioned. 

With  the  view  of  working  out  so  desirable  an  object,  laws 
were  from  time  to  time  passed  for  the  encouragement  of  the 
trade.  The  first  of  the  Linen  Acts,  passed  in  1727,  was,  after 
trial,  found  not  to  be  sufficient  to  answer  the  purpose  intended, 
and  it  was  thought  that  the  trade  of  the  Kingdom  might  be 
stimulated,  and  perhaps  rendered  permanently  progressive,  by 
granting  a  bounty  on  the  Linens  exported  to  foreign  countries. 
An  Act  having  this  ol.ject  was  accordingly  passed  in  1742,  and 
the  payment  of  a  bounty  on  Linen  exports  from  Great  Britain 
was  continued,  with  some  interruptions,  until  it  finally  ceased 
in  1832. 

In  the  early  part  of  last  century  there  was  little  energy  in  the 
country,  especially  among  those  engaged  in  its  trade,  manufac- 
tures, or  commerce,  and  it  was  supposed  that  without  Govern- 
ment support  no  progress  could  be  made.  The  spirit  of  self- 


f)G4  MODERN  LINEN. 

reliance  was  then  little  understood,  and  seldom  acted  upon,  and 
without  adventitious  aid  manufactures  would  perhaps  have  re- 
mained stationary,  or  even  retrograded.  If  pecuniary  assistance 
from  Government  to  aid  in  the  establishment  of  any  trade  be 
defensible,  it  is  so  in  this  instance,  because,  at  such  a  dormant 
period,  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  trade  would  otherwise  have 
taken  root  and  made  progress.  Tt  is  certain  that,  without  the 
patronising  and  subsidizing  hand  of  Government,  the  progress 
of  the  Linen  trade  would,  at  best,  have  been  very  slow.  To 
many,  therefore,  the  encouragement  so  afforded  seems  right 
and  proper,  as  the  end,  they  say,  in  such  a  case,  justifies  the 
means. 

The  principle  of  bounties  cannot,  however,  be  defended,  as  it 
is  unfair  to  tax  the  nation  ut  large  for  the  benefit  of  a  section  of 
it ;  or  rather  to  supply  the  foreign  customer  with  goods  below 
prime  cost.  This  is  virtually  what  the  payment  of  all  bounties 
on  the  exportation  of  home  manufactures  shipped  foreign  really 
do,  and  the  case  of  Linen  has  no  special  peculiarity  in  its 
favour.  The  best  aid  the  Government  can  give  to  any  manu- 
facture is  to  repeal  all  import  duties  on  the  raw  material,  and 
let  it  reach  the  manufacturer  at  the  lowest  possible  rate  ;  to 
remove  restrictions  of  every  kind  from  all  the  processes  of  the 
manufacture ;  and  to  permit  the  exportation  of  the  manufactured 
article  free  of  duty  and  other  national  imposts.  If  the  mode  of 
manufacture,  in  all  its  operations,  be  left  to  the  ingenuity, 
energy,  and  cupidity  of  the  manufacturer,  these  will  be  sufficient 
to  stimulate  his  exertions  without  public  aid.  The  fears  which 
were  expressed  by  many  that  the  withdrawal  of  a  bounty  on  the 
exportation  of  Linen  would  ruin  the  Linen  manufacture  of  the 
country  have,  happily,  not  been  realized.  Bounties  are  now  a 
thing  of  the  past,  but  the  Linen  trade  still  lives,  and  at  the 
present  time  it  flourishes  more  vigorously  than  ever  it  did 
before.  Experience  has  proved  that  this  manufacture,  in  com- 
mon with  all  others,  prospers  best  when  left  to  the  superior 
skill,  enterprise  and  industry  of  those  engaged  in  it,  and  the 
history  of  all  businesses,  carried  on  in  this  country  by  the  aid  of 
bounties,  proves  that  they  are  neither  advantageous  to  those 
engaged  in  them,  nor  to  the  nation. 

In  1742  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  (15  and  16  Geo. 


II  .  c.  l^h,  l;iyii!<:  an  additional  duty  on  ti>i.  Uric  of  1 

for  every  lialf-pinv    and 'Js    1  ( 'd  |i  •  vhole  |>i«  «v  iinjn.rt.-d 

nnd  f..r  allowing  thrrcont  a  bounty  of  Jd  j"  r  yard  <»n  I'.riti.^h 
and  Iri-h  I.im-n  under  the  value  of  <M  j  '.and  Id  pet 

yard  on  thn>«-  ot'  the  value  of  (>d  and  not  cx<v.  din^  IK  j..-r  yard. 
which  should  be  exported  to  Africa,  America,  Spain,  and  Por- 
tugal 

A  statute  \\as  na>sed  in    17-i.\  to  prevent  frauds  from  !•• 
eoinmitted    in   counterfeiting    the   stamps  put  on   British  and 
Irish   Linen,  in  order  to  reo-ive  the  bounty  allowed  on  their 
exportation,   and   for  effectually  preventing  the  exportation  of 

:icn  Linen  under  the  denomination  of  British  or  Irish. 
Same  year  another  Act  was  pa>sed,  increasing  the  bounties 
on  exportation  of  British  and  Irish  Linen  to  the  colonies  or 
i;n   countries.      The   new  rates,  payable   at   the  Custom- 
houses on  duly  cert  i tied  invoices,  were  as  follows  : — 

Linen  of  value  under  5d  per  yard  a  bounty  of  $d  per  ynrd, 
I'o.      5.1,  ami  un.lor  M         „  ,,  Id         „ 

Do.     6d,  »nd  under  IB  6d    „  „  l^d      „ 

A\  iih  sundry  regulations  for  preventing  frauds. 

In  1749  an  Act  was  passed  continuing  the  bounty  on  low- 
priced  Linen  for  three  years  longer.  On  6th  April  1754  the 
bounties  ceased.'  In  1756  they  were  renewed.  From  the 
accounts  laid  before  Parliament  when  the  renewal  of  the  bounty 
was  under  consideration,  it  appears  that  the 

Yard*.  Yards. 

Annunl  consumption  of  Linen  in  Great  Britain  and  the  colonies  at 

that  period  wa«  ...  ...  .       80,000,000 

Of  which  imi>ortr«l  from  ;.!•:  '",767 

But  re-exported  to  foreign  countries, 

30,000,000 

Imported  from  Ireland,  0,767 

Manufactured  in  So.  Hand,  0,000 

Manufactured  in  England, 

80,000,000 


In  1770  anew  Act  was  passed    regulating  the  bounties  on 

Linen  exported. 


666  MODERN    LTNEN. 

TOTAL  QUANTITY  OF  BRITISH  AND  IRISH  LINENS  EXPORTED  in  the  Team  specified 
from  1743,  when  Bounties  began,  up  to  1773  ;  with  Bounty  paid  on  same. 
British.  Irish.  Bounty  paid. 

Yds.  Yds. 

1743  52,779  40,907  £383  10    8 

1745*  56,240  101,928  747  17    6 

1746  175,928  695.002  4,188  10    9 

1750  588,874  742,032  8,308  16    8 

1754  1,382,796  843,973  13,905    7  11 

1760  1,413,602  2,352,585  23,538  13    1 

1765  2,095.933  1,663,670  23,497  10    4 

1770f  3,216,506  2,707,482  36,972  18    4 

1771J  4,411,040  3,450,224  44,738    8  10 

1773  3,279,808  2,832,246 

In  1778  the  bounties  determined,  but  were  renewed.  For  a 
long  time  subsequent  to  this  date  the  bounty  on  Linen  exported, 
both  British  and  Irish,  continued  to  be  paid,  without  much 
complaint  from  the  nation,  but  early  in  this  century  the  injustice 
of  such  payments  began  to  be  animadverted  upon,  and  their 
continuance  condemned.  This  condemnation  sealed  their  doom, 
and  they  were  at  last,  but  not  without  much  opposition,  withdrawn 
in  Scotland,  as  the  following  notes  taken  from  the  minutes  of 
the  Board  of  Trustees  shew  :  — 

15th  June,  1819. — The  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Dundee, 
petitioned  the  Privy  Council  that  the  bounty  on  exportation  of 
sail-cloth  be  continued,  even  although  it  was  said,  "  it  is  and 
has  long  been  the  practice  to  make  the  cloth  not  in  conformity 
with  law,  i.e.,  without  the  triple  threads  directed  (by  the  Act  9, 
Geo.  II.,  cap.  37)  to  be  put  at  the  distance  of  every  two  feet  in 
each  bolt  of  the  first  four  numbers/'  A  copy  of  the  petition  was 
sent  to  the  Board  of  Trustees,  asking  their  support.  Board 
agree  to  recommend  petition  to  their  Lordships. 

llth  January,  1820. — Letter  from  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
Dundee,  to  the  Board  of  Trustees,  asking  their  support  of  a  bill 
which  Mr  Maberly  proposes  introducing  into  House  of  Commons 
for  renewing  bounty  on  the  exportation  of  Linens. 

8th  February,  1 820. — Petition  by  manufacturers  and  others 
in  Aberdeen,  praying  the  Board  to  lend  their  aid  to  have  the 

•  This  year  Bounty  extended  to  all  Linens  from  5d  to  Is  6d  per  yard.  The  rates  are 
given  in  page  665. 

t  The  Bounty  of  l$d  now  extended  to  Sheetings  and  Table  Linens,  and  a  new  Bounty  of 
lAd  per  yard  allowed  on  British  checks  and  stripes  from  7d  to  Is  6d  per  yard. 

t  No  similar  record  from  Scotland  this  year,  but  Gibson's  History  of  Glasgow  says  that 
from  that  port  alone  there  was  exported  2,668,000  yards  of  Scotch,  and  731,000  yards  of 
Iriah  Linens,  in  1771. 


bounty  on  exportation  of  Briti>h  and  Iri.-h  Linen,  which  expires 
un  LV>th  March,  1821,  renewal.  The  Board  are  of  opinion  that 
it' the  aforesaid  bounty  bo  withdrawn,  it  would  bo  impossible  for 
tho  manufacturers  in  Scotland  to  compete  with  the  foreign  manu- 
facturers of  the  Continent.  0(«  the  -upi-rior  advantages 
which  the  latter  enjoy  in  the  lightness  of  taxation,  and  cheapness 
both  of  labour  and  of  tho  raw  material.  That,  therefore,  the 
continuance  nf  the  bounty  seems  to  the  Board  to  be  of  vital  im- 
portance to  the  preservation  of  the  manufacture,  and  to  the  many 
thousand  persons  employed  in  its  various  branches,  as  well  as  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  country  at  large.  Resolve,  therefore,  that 
the  application  of  the  manufacturers  bo  recommended  to  the 
particular  attention  of  the  Lord  Advocate. 

1st  March,  1821. — Letter  from  John  Baxter,  chairman  of  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  Dundee,  praying  the  Board  to  urge 
continuance  of  bounties.  Board  agree  to  do  so,  and  prepare  a 
letter  accordingly  to  the  Board  of  Trade. 

A  letter  to  the  same  effect  was  sent  to  the  Board  by  the  manu- 
facturers of  Kirkcaldy,  and  the  Board  resolved  to  write  the  Lords 
of  the  Treasury,  asking  renewal  of  the  bounty  on  Linen.  The 
bounty  was  again  renewed. 

In  1823  Government  proposed  to  abolish  the  bounty  on  all 
Linen  under  7d  a  yard  at  once,  and  all  above  7d  at  the  rate  of  10 
per  cent,  per  annum.  This  would  have  excluded  Osnaburgs, 
brown  sheetings,  sackings,  <fec.,  which  were  under  7d  a  yard.  It 
was  represented  to  Government  that,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, it  was  impolitic  to  direct  the  national  wealth  of  the 
country  in  particular  channels  by  means  of  bounties  and  duties, 
yet  great  good  had  resulted  from  the  departure  from  this  sound 
principle  in  the  manufacture  of  Linen.  A  periodical  reduction 
of  bounty  on  all  qualities  was  asked.  In  1824,  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  agreed  to  make  the  reduction  of  these  bounties 
applicable,  by  a  per  centage,  to  every  class  of  Linens. 

Great  complaints  were  made  at  various  times  about  the  ex- 
porters having  taken  advantage  of  Government,  by  misrepresenta- 
tions  re^ardiiiLC  the  value  of  their  goods,  and  in  some  cases  the 
complaints  were  not  without  sufficient  cause. 

In  May,  1824,  a  letter  from  Liverpool  was  laid  before  a  meet- 
ing of  the  Forfarshire  <  'hamber  of  Commerce  nnd  Manufactures. 


MODERN  LINEN. 

mentioning  that,  as  reported  in  a  letter  received  from  Scotland, 
Osnaburgs  of  Flax  tow,  25  inches  wide,  value  only  5Jd  a  yard, 
made  at  Dundee,  had  been  exported  from  Liverpool,  claiming 
and  receiving  the  bounty  of  IJd  a  yard,  which  had  been  in- 
voiced at  only  Sjd.  The  Chamber  thought  that  it  reflected 
great  disgrace  on  some  exporters  of  Dundee  Linens,  and  offered 
to  give  all  information  to  the  Collectors  of  Customs  at  Liver- 
pool, to  prevent  all  such  frauds  thereafter. 

In  June  1826,  the  searchers  in  the  Custom-House  of  London 
stopped  shipments  of  large  parcels  of  coarse  Linens,  on  the  plea 
that  the  exporters  put  a  false  value  on  their  goods.  Goods 
valued  from  6d  to  Is  6d  a  yard  were  entitled  to  a  bounty  of  l^d 
a  yard,  and  by  the  usage  of  the  trade  the  goods  in  question 
were  entitled  to  this  bounty,  but  the  searcher  said  that  "  through 
the  depression  of  trade,  though  nominally  worth  8d,  yet  in  the 
present  distress  they  might  be  bought  for  less  than  6d,  and  so 
were  entitled  to  a  smaller  rate  of  bounty."  The  exporters  took 
their  ground  on  the  usage  of  the  trade,  and  contended  that  the 
searcher  was  exceeding  his  authority,  and  putting  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  the  trade,  uncalled  for  and  unjust. 

In  a  letter  from  London  in  August  1826,  it  was  said  that 
Osnaburgs  had  fallen  from  6d  to  4d  a  yard,  which  would  have 
reduced  the  bounty  from  Id  to  Jd  a  yard,  less  20  per  cent, 
which  had  been  taken  off  the  bounty  ;  but  by  making  them  into 
No.  10  canvas  prior  to  5th  July,  they  were  all  shipped  at  2d  per 
ell,  free  of  any  deduction.  A  kind  of  packsheet  called  hessians, 
worth  from  4Jd  to  4|d  a  yard,  were  also  shipped  as  canvas, 
and  the  shippers  drew  2d  an  ell  of  bounty  on  them  also. 

The  Linen  manufacture  had,  for  about  eighty  years,  been 
propped  up  by  a  bounty  of  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  on  the  value 
of  the  articles  exported,  but  the  time  had  now  come  when  these 
were  to  be  abolished.  In  Ireland,  the  withdrawal  of  the  bounty 
began  on  5th  January  1825,  and  it  finally  ceased  on  5th  January 
1830.  In  Britain  they  also  began  to  be  withdrawn  in  1825, 
but  they  did  not  wholly  determine  till  5th  January  1832. 

The  rates  of  bounty  on  Irish  Linens  exported  to  foreign 
parts,  from  the  year  1780  to  5th  July  1805,  were— 

Plain  Linen,  of  the  breadth  of  25  inches  or  more,  and  under 

the  value  of  4^d  per  yard,  O/^d  per  yard. 


I  si  ;  .  DOM. 

,  i,  1  per  yard. 

Of  tin-  \;ilu.  -,.!'  M,   .-lli.l  Mot  i-M-iTdiili,'  Is  lid  JMT  J 

xcoeding  la  Cd,  ami  not  mid.  i 

(  and  other   l.iM.-n  uj.  \\.-inls  of  one  yard  in 
ith.  and  not  exceeding  Is  6d  the  square  yard  in 

v;il  ....  .  liVl 

Sail-cloth,  2d  per  .11 

From  5th  Jul\   1*«V>  t«.  .".th  January  1825— 


!>  of  -j:>  inches  or  more,  and  under 

OJd  per  \ 

Of  the  value  of  5d  and  under  ti.l  pi-r  yard,  Id  ,, 

Of  the  value  of  »id  and  nut  exceeding  Is  6d  per  yard,  .          l£d 

Checked  or  Striped  Linen  not  exceeding  Is  6d,  and  not  under 

6A<1  per  yard,        .  OJd 

Diaper,  Sheeting,  and  otlier  Linen,  upwards  of  one  yard  in 
breadth,  and  not  exceeding  Is  6d  the  square  yard  in 
value,  .         .         .         ,         •         •         •         •         •         l$d         ,, 

.th.  .......  .         2d  per  ell. 

From  Jan.  5,  1825,  to  Jan.  5,  1826  —  9-10ths  of  the  rates  immediately  preceding. 

1826,  ,,         1827-8-10ths  of  same. 

1827,  ,,         1828—  7-lOths 

1828,  ,,         1829-  6-10ths 

1829,  ,,         1830—  5-10ths 

The  bounty  then  ceased  entirely 

The  bounties  paid  on  British  Linen  exported  prior  to  1  E 
were  the  same  as  on  Irish  from  1805  to  1825.  In  1825,  two- 
tenths  or  20  per  cent,  of  the  amount  was  withdrawn.  There- 
after one  -tenth,  or  10  per  cent,  of  the  amount,  ceased  on  5th 
January  each  yi-ar.  until  5th  January  1832,  when  the  whole 
Rinui'iing  bounty  was  withdrawn,  and  the  adventitious  aid 
which  had  been  afforded  to  the  manufacture  for  ninety  VCMI- 
finally  i\ 

The  amount  of  bounty  paid  on  British  Linens  exported  in 
1824  was  £209,516  6s  ll^d,  being  a  seventh  part  of  the  entire 
value  of  the  exports,  which  was  £1,301>,616.  The  bounty  on 
Irish  Linen  exported  name  year  was  £87,549  16s  3|d,  being 
about  a  tenth  part  of  the  value  of  the  exports,  which  amounted 
to  £918,385.  This  is  one  of  the  most  glaring  instances  of  the 
in  of  bounties,  and  it  wn<  surely  high  time  that  so  costly  a 
mode  of  upholding  any  iiianutaeture  came  to  a  close. 


670  MODERN  LINFN. 

By  1828  the  amount  paid  in  bounties  on  Linens  exported 
was  much  reduced,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  statement 
of  the  imports  and  exports  for  the  year  ending  5th  January 

1829  :— 

IMPORTS. 

Flax,  &c.,        .        .        Tons,  43,809  Official  Value,  £1,781,797 

Hemp,  &c ,25,206  do.,  424,110 

Linen  Yarn,     .        .  „       1,531  do.,  195,272 

EXPORTS. 

Total  Quantity,        .  Yards,  48,258,333  Yards,  12,029,481 

Official  Value,          .  £2,457,815  £648,047 

Declared  Value,      .  2,456,385  663,891 

Bounty  Paid  upon  Yards,  46,235,012  Yards,  9,905,639$ 

Amount  of  Bounty,  £166,038  7s  9d  £36,696  17s  8£d 

Simultaneously  with  the  abolition  of  the  bounties,  Government 
began  the  reduction  of  duties  on  Linens  imported,  and  they 
were  extinguished  nearly  at  the  same  time. 

On  27th  July  1832,  Lord  Althorpe  said  the  abolition  of  the 
Linen  bounties  was  a  saving  to  the  country  of  £100,000  a  year. 


FACTORY    LAWS. 

THE  introduction  of  what  is  called  the  Factory  system  effected 
a  vast  change  in  the  social  condition  and  position  of  many  of  the 
operatives  employed  in  mills  and  manufactories  throughout  the 
country.  Before  that  period  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics 
of  every  description  continued  to  be  of  a  domestic  nature.  The 
yarn  was  spun  and  the  cloth  weaved  in  the  dwellings  of  the 
operatives,  or  in  small  rooms  adjoining,  where  at  most  but  a  few 
persons  were  congregated  together  for  this  purpose.  Generally 
these  parties  had  their  time  very  much  at  their  own  disposal,  and, 
therefore,  Legislative  enactments  to  regulate  their  hours  of 
labour  were  altogether  unnecessary.  The  factory  system  drew 
the  women  and  children  from  the  homes  of  their  fathers,  and 


KM 

assembled  them  in  larire  numbers  within  t  \t< n-iv.-  buildings 
ially  built  for  the  new  trade.  In  them  these  people  were 
tin-  cunt  ml  of  their  natural  guardians,  and  under  th<-' 
<>t'  men  \vhuM-  interest  it  was  to  t;ike  the  greatest  profit 
out  of  their  labour.  This,  as  ini^ht  naturally  In-  supposed, 
speedily  led  to  great  abuses,  and  the  Act  of  the  first  Sir  Robert 
1Y.1  (42,  Gta,  III.,  c;ip.  73,  passed  22d  June,  lsoi>,)  checked 
some  of  the  evils,  but  it  made  no  provision  against  many  ot! 
At  that  period  factory  labour  was  little  developed,  and  as  the 
system  extended  itself,  this  act  was  so  regularly  and  systematically 
evaded,  that  it  became  alto«Mher  inoperative  with  respect  to  its 
legitimate  objects.  Indeed  so  much  was  this  the  case  that  until 
within  a  period  of  about  thirty  years,  it  may  be  said  there  were 
no  laws  in  the  United  Kingdom  to  regulate  the  hours  of  labour 
of  women  and  children  employed  in  factories. 

The  next  law  on  the  subject,  called  The  Factory  Act,  was 
3  and  4,  William  IV.,  cap.  103,  passed  29th  August,  1833. 
Until  then,  notwithstanding  the  Act  of  1802,  the  hours  of  labour 
in  factories  were  left  to  the  private  arrangement  of  the  employer 
and  the  employed,  and  the  latter,  being  the  weaker  power,  had 
frequently  to  submit  to  extremely  long  hours.  The  working 
hours  in  the  various  factories  were  not  then  uniform,  nor  were 
regular  hours  kept  from  day  to  day  at  many  of  the  works,  some 
of  them  being  worked  beyond  the  stated  hours,  until  a  certain 
amount  of  work  was  performed,  and  this  at  the  discretion,  and 
not  unfrequently  according  to  the  caprice,  of  the  employer  or 
his  manager.  In  some  country  districts  the  evil  became  so 
clamant  that  the  interference  of  the  Legislature  was  a  positive 
necessity,  young  people  having  been  continuously  employed  for 
15  or  16  hours  a  day,  with  scarcely  an  interval  for  meals.  In 
towns  the  hours,  although  not  so  long  as  in  the  country  mills, 
were  so  continuous  as  to  !><•  highly  detrimental  to  health,  and 
they  were  very  irregular,  and  far  from  uniform. 

^ince  the  passing  of  the  Factory  Act,  the  Factory  Amend- 
ment Act,  4  and  5  William  IV.,  cap.  1  (20th  February,  1834), 
the  Factories'  Regulation  Act,  7  and  8,  Viet.,  cap.  15  (6th  June. 
1844),  the  Rope  Works  Exemption  Act,  9  and  10  Vic.,  cap.  40 
(3d  August,  1846),  the  Factory  Labour  Limitation  Act,  com- 
monly called  the  Ten  Hours  Act,  10  and  11  Viet.,  cap.  29  (8th 


672  MODERN  LINEN, 

June,  1847),  the  Children's  Labour  Act,  16  and  17  Viet.,  cap. 
104  (20th  August,  1853),  the  Factory  Act,  19  and  20  Viet., 
cap.  38  ^30th  June,  1856),  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Works  Act, 
23  and  24  Viet.,  cap.  78  (6th  August,  1860),  and  other  Acts 
have  been  passed  for  the  protection  of  women  and  children  em- 
ployed in  factories,  bleaching  and  dyeing  works,  calenders,  &c., 
and  for  the  regulation  of  the  hours  of  labour  in  these  works. 

The  law  as  it  presently  stands  provides  that  the  word 
"  Factory "  shall  include  all  premises  within  which  any  me- 
chanical power  shall  be  used  to  work  any  machinery  employed 
in  any  process  incidental  to  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  wool,  hair, 
silk,  Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  or  tow,  either  separately  or  mixed 
together.  That  no  child  under  8  years  of  age  shall  be  admitted 
into  textile  factories  ;  that  from  8  to  13  they  shall  work  only  6J 
hours  a  day,  and  shall  receive  educational  instruction  at  pre- 
scribed hours,  for  three  hours  daily  at  the  least.  That  no  young 
person  under  the  age  of  18,  and  no  female  above  the  age  of  18, 
shall  be  employed  in  any  factory  more  than  10  hours  in  any  one 
day,  nor  more  than  60  hours  in  any  one  week  ;  nor  be  employed 
before  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  nor  after  six  in  the  evening, 
excepting  to  recover  lost  time  in  country  mills  driven  by  water- 
power,  and  then  not  later  than  seven  in  the  evening.  The  laws 
also  regulate  the  meal  hours,  make  provision  for  the  sanitary 
condition  of  the  works,  and  compel  employers  to  give  at  least 
six  holidays  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

By  these  laws  provision  is  also  made  for  the  safety  of  the 
persons  employed  in  factories,  by  making  it  imperative  on  em- 
ployers to  fence  in  a  sufficient  manner  all  dangerous  machinery. 
Penalties  are  imposed  for  all  breaches  of  the  Factory  Acts,  and 
Inspectors  are  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  regularly  visiting  the 
works  to  see  that  the  requirements  of  the  laws  are  fully  complied 
with. 

Enactments  have  of  late  years  been  made  for  the  regulation 
of  the  labour  of  females  and  young  persons  in  bleaching  and 
dyeing  works,  but  excluding  those  works  where  the  open-air 
system  of  bleaching  is  practised  as  is  the  case  in  Linen  yarn 
bleachworks.  Two  years  ago  an  act  was  passed  prohibiting  the 
labour  of  women  and  young  persons  in  such  works  between  the 
hours  of  eight  o'clock  evening,  and  six  in  the  morning,  and  last 


UNITKD   i 


year  calen<ler  works  employing  women,  children,  and  young 
per.Mins,  have  been  placed  umU-r  the-  Factory  Act,  26  and  L'T 
Vi.-i  8  ('J9tli  Jun.-.  1SG3). 

There  cannot  !>«•  a  d«»uhl  that  the  Factory  Laws  have  not  only 
prevented  many  abuses,  hut  th<-y  have  also  been  productive  of 
much  good  to  the  health  and  ci.mturt  ot'  the  operatives  employed 
in  Factories,  and  that  without  doing  serious  injury  to  the  mill- 
owners.  At  same  time  the  Le-i>lature  ought  to  interfere  as 
little  as  possible  between  master  and  servant  in  healthful  em- 
ployments, unless  the  necessity  for  such  interference  be  very 
clearly  proved. 


TABULAR    STATEMENTS. 

MANUFACTURES,  YARNS,  AND  FLAX  EXPORTED  FROM  THE  UNITED 
KINGDOM  FROM  1831  TO  1863. 


Tears 

1  MANUFACTI 

Thread,  Tapei 
and  Small 
W;.re8. 

LINES  YARN. 

Entered  by  the  Yard 

Yards. 

Declnl.  Value 

Declrd.  Value 

Lbs. 

Declrd.  Value 

69,283,892 

£2,400,043 

£61,661 



... 

0,057 

1,716,084 

58,<>43 

110,188 

£8,7 

L>,n<.»7,273 

69,751 

935,682 

72,006 

1884 

67,fc<  i 

2,387,901 

8.V 

1,533.325 

].;-.:>  12 

1835 

77,977,089 

2.893.  i::(.» 

:-.».004 

2,611,215 

216.635 

1888 

82,088,760 

3,238,031 

•J94 

4,574,504 

318,772 

ia-*7 

2,063,425 

64.020 

MOO 

479,307 

1888 

2,717,979 

10L' 

14,928,829 

746,163 

18:'.'» 

',220 

122,747 

Ki.314,615 

818,485 

1840 

111,261 

822,876 

1841 

90,321.7'.! 

147,088 

972,466 

1842 

2,217 

129,376 

29,490,987 

1,025.551 

1843 

84,172,686 

187,657 

s,352 

898,829 

1844 

2,801,609 

223,191 

•_'.-.  '.'70,569 

1,050,676 

1845 

88,401,670 

2,83<>,7-t 

205,586 

S725 

1,0801*86 

1846 

84*7981888 

198,999 

i,2as 

876.405 

1847 

2,759,094 

199,757 

12,688,915 

649,893 

18-M 

205,216 

11,722,182 

449 

184I» 

111,  209,183 

284,290 

732,065 

18.-0 

Lg!220.888 

881. 

1-J'.»  I  Oi 

284,461 

18,841,326 

951,426 

L86S 

359.295 

88^988,688 

1.140,565 

18.-,:* 

412.- 

8t,888»886 

1,154,977 

18:.  4 

111,648,667 

.149 

17,898,887 

944,502 

1866 

1  322 

932,981 

1856 

140.410.188 

.''.70 

1,368,886 

1857 

138 

28,847,811 

1,  f.47,963 

1868 

122,501.  7  H 

143 

82,047, 

1.7J'  . 

1888 

'.026 

290,' 

27,290,:»7 

1,674,602 

1880 

8H 

31,210,612 

1,801,272 

1861 

116,32 

•V«7  1,131 

'.042 

1,622,216 

1862 

15687 

482,834 

K076 

1,854,866 

18G3 

180,886,987 

5,921,308 

526,818 

38,553,643 

2,535,728 

i 

u  u 


674 


MODERN  LINEN. 


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co  o  oo  ri 


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o    :  c^  :  ^ 

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<M  t^  •*  CO       -<^I-H 


I  ^  O  t~  GO      •  (N      'O      *      •  i—  I 

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»Oi-!OCCCO  :COr-H^l  •  rCCCTH 

COCO«Or-l<M  :<N<Ort<  :  :  C<I  to  Tf  » 

<N~<N~     ^c^  -co      TfT  I  ifN'W 


rn"         c<f 


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COt^lC- 

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MODERN  LINKN. 


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CO  !>•_    -(N5O,    •»«_    •  «O_    •      ;O»a^»O»lO^    •      -CCOi     'CCCC(M 

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G^  O  1O  t>»  CC  l>«  rH 

CCOOCC»OI<*ii—  IO5 
COr-<t»b-^Tt<C^ 


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r^r^^^S      -g      -g      -      .S      .^^S      •      •      .§J     .S      -rH 

^  sfs  i«"  irf ;  i   ;     H  i : :   ;~  •:-* 


cs^i55§gsis? 

co*  co*  cTt-Tt- ^<M  oo"~*>i— ' 

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coco'cc^ic  icfco  TtTcfis^r-rb-roo'' 

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t>-  CO  1C  CS  T— I  «r^  •  ^  '»O  «b-rHrH  •      •      -CO  •  ^  •  i 

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678 


MODERN  LINEN. 


LINEN  YARNS  AND  MANUFACTURES  EXPORTED  FROM  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  TO 
VARIOUS  COUNTRIES  FOR  1863,  AND  FOR  FOUR  MONTHS  ENDING  30ra  APRIL 
1863  AND  1864. 


LINEN    MANUFACTURES 

(Piece  Goods  of  all  kinds.) 

For  the   2 
Months  ending 
31st  December. 

For  the  4  Months  end- 
ing 30th  April. 

1863 

1863 

1864 

To  Russia,        

Yards. 
438,190 
897,960 
9,283,967 
1,173,515 
3,175,162 
1,749,826 
1,965,537 
1,402,206 
1,265,683 
2,412,608 
73,088,420 
12,388,346 
3,678,803 
4,282,358 
7,910,769 
2,957,995 
3,344,878 
6,129.275 
3,079,999 
5,642,097 
34,128,373 

Yards. 
44,390 
230,341 
2,605,127 
391,234 
1,007,261 
470,601 
558,023 
480,021 
528,558 
763,487 
28,270,048 
3,931,851 
818,699 
765.754 
3,734,705 
902,889 
828,924 
1,276,771 
733,365 
1,308,747 
8,273,571 

Y;,rds 
14,170 
95,392 
2,151,467 
332,092 
946,765 
580,582 
867,931 
391,189 
365,323 
1,267,675 
33,969,426 
4,162,232 
406,300 
800,228 
2,294,312 
654,214 
883,388 
1,960,914 
1,413,622 
1,453,105 
12,621,101 

Hanse  Towns,     . 
Holland,     

Portugal,  Azores,  and  Madeira, 
Spain  and  Canaries,    .... 
Italy  —Sardinia,          .... 

„      Naples  and  Sicily,    . 
United  States,    
Cuba,           

St  Thomas,         
Hayti,         .... 

Brazil,         

Chili 

Peru,           .        .                 ... 
British  West  Indies, 
India, 
Australia,            .                 ... 
Other  Countries, 
Total  of  all  kinds,            .... 
DECLARED  VALUE 
Of  White  and  Plain, 
„     Checked  Printed  or  Dyed,      . 
„     Cambrics  and  Lawns,     . 
,,     Damask  and  Diaper, 
„     of  Sail-Cloth,          .... 

Total  Declared  Value,      .... 

180,395.967     j  57,924,367 

67,631,428 

£4,994,169 
264,269 
250,937 
83,995 
327,938 

1,500,211 
80,695 
78,049 
25,222 
95,919 

2,091,092 
154,279 
77,508 
38,278 
113,279 

£  5,921,308 

£1,780,096 

£2,474,436 

LINEN     YARN. 

For  the  12 
Months  ending 
31st  December. 

For  the  4  Months  end- 
ing 30th  April. 

1863 

1863 

1864 

To  Hanse  Towns,     

Lbs. 
6,411,675 
3,812,507 
1,173,507 
1,540,111 
13,443,448 
2,851,567 
9,320,828 

Lbs. 
1,641,256 
1,076,985 
186,939 
399,310 
4,215,843 
818,914 
2,343,290 

Lbs. 
2,215,268 
1,263,528 
147,463 
267,720 
4,631,510 
1,145,014 
3,046,883 

Holland,               

Spain  and  Canaries,    .... 
Gibraltar  
Other  Countries,         .... 

Total,    

38,553,643 
£2,535,728 

10,682,537 
£693,799 

12,717,386 
£914,981 

Declared  Value,      .... 

JUTE. 

For  the  12 
Months  ending 
31st  December. 

For  the  4  Months  end- 
ing 30th  April 

1863 

1863 

1864 

Manufactures  not  made  up, 
.,               made  up, 

Yarn,        .... 

Yards. 
11,006,434 

Lbs.' 
7,491,327 
£399,267 

Yards. 
3,241,397 
£3,846 
Lbs. 
2,725,647 
£110,562 

Yards. 
3,929,033 
£18,206 
Lbs. 
1,338,782 
£139,283 

Total  declared  value  Manufrs.  and  Yarn, 

'    Ml 


I  1 


2       - 

=  1 1 

!  ft 

C     i    I 


:i «  O'eo"  •* 


m  .is    a  i    igu 

281  'S3  :  ••*'-'•  '"°*** 


iI5s.l  .Si  .IS.  .1111 

S2:  '3  •  ••  '*  •  -S*S 


.  ..  .. 

S  'SSS    S3  ' '•*         -«8  'S 


680 


MODERN  LINEN. 


KKTURX  OF  THE  NUMBER  OF  FLAX,  HEMP,  AND  JUTE  FACTORIES,  SUBJECT  TO 
THE  FACTORY  ACTS,  IN  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM,  PRESENTED  TO  THE  HOUSE 
OF  COMMONS,  HTH  FEBRUARY  1862. 

ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 

FLAX  FACTORIES. 


No  of 
Factories. 

No.  of 
Spindles. 

"8  o 

« 

ft 

Amount  of 
Moving  Power 

Number 
Employed. 

M.  and  F. 

1,325 
93 
72 
634 
69 
154 
133 
3,381 
130 
26 
59 
656 
708 
303 
12,562 

Steam. 

Water. 

Cumberland, 
Derby, 
Devon, 
Dorset, 

9 
1 
1 
14 

2 
2 
2 
13 
2 
1 
2 
1 
13 
3 
70 

27,442 
2,230 
376 
6,946 

'i',540 
1,096 
117,412 
200 

'4,280 

5,870 
4,644 
172,272 

9 

"io 

40 

"22 

489 
70 
12 

105 
1,403 

420 

.208 
26 
94 

1,736 
48 
10 
26 
300 
278 
70 
5,289 

180 
30 
40 
176 

"36 
60 
20 

126 
33 
275 

Gloucester,    . 
Hants, 
Lancaster, 
Norfolk, 
Northumberlan  d, 
Middlesex,     . 
Salop, 
Somerset, 
Westmoreland, 
York, 

Total, 

136 

344,308 

2,160    8,505 

976 

20,305 

] 

Middlesex, 
Somerset, 
Surrey,         .... 

Total, 

lEMPl 

1 
1 
1 

ACTORIE6 
150 

14 

100 

. 

3 

6 
30 

5 
6 
51 

3 

264 

39 

62 

Dorset,             .... 

JUTEF 

1 
1 

1 
1 

ACTORIES 
320 

60 
240 

12 
20 
18 
12 

... 

33 
31 
27 
16 

Middlesex,       .... 
Sui-rey,             .... 

Total, 

4 

620 

62 

107 

295 

785 
180 
1,579 
8,736 
520 
20 
77 
320 

"30 
452 
152 

"52 
268 
40 

797 
2,175 
501 
5,948 
21,174 
841 
94 
1,477 
592 

SCOT 
FLAXF 
Ayr,       3 

LAND. 

ACTORIES 

5,852 
16,814 
2,184 
54,383 
160,090 
20,152 
2,290 
10,652 
6,968 

428 
105 
1,823 
5,108 

502 

Aberdeen,      .... 
Edinburgh,    .... 
Fife,       
Forfar,   

1 
5 
46 
85 

5 
15 
2 

Kincardine,    .... 
Perth,    

Total, 

163 

279,385 

7,966 

12512 

994 

33,599 

UNITI  i> 


681 


or  Ki  AX,  HEMP,  AND  JUT«  FACTORIES    Continued. 
SCOTLA  N  D-  Continmd. 
HEMP  FACTORIES. 


*! 

N...  of 

•J 

Amount  of 
Moving  Power. 

Number 

^  2 

/.  • 

£ 

£     Stoam.   Water.  M.  and  F. 

Edinburgh,      .... 
Lanark,             .... 

i 

i 

2,116 
200 

... 

80 
8 

542 
3 

Total, 

2 

2,136 

88 

545 

JUTE  FACTORIES. 

Forfar  24 

28,094 

406 

1,494         20        4 

Lunaik,           .... 

2 

1,000 

ft) 

153 

216 

Renfrew,         .... 

1 

1J444 

100 

90 

40 

374 

Total, 

27 

30,538 

554 

1,737 

60 

5,418 

IRELAND. 

FLAX  FACTORIES. 

Antrim,          .... 
Armagh,         .... 
Clare,              .... 

47 
15 

1 

360,592    2,854 
29,318    l.oiu 
4,500      150 

6,808 
913 
75 

668      19,026 
281        3,582 
497 

Donegal,         .... 
Down,            .... 
Dublin,           .... 

1 
15 
3 

7,869 
109,690 
8,868 

128 
54 

130 
1,730 
880 

120           310 
545       5,162 

Jl"          810 

KiUUre  3 

150 

55 

95          704 

Londonderry,          ...              1 
Lou                 ....             3 

8,4*0 

'204 

n 

545 

20          158 
1.348 

Meath,           .... 

1 

8tOQO 

20 

40 

177 

Monaghan,      .... 
Tyrone,           .... 

3 

7 

84,171 

103 

10 
154 

n 

258 
1,487 

ToUl, 

100 

592,981    4,666 

10,710 

2,384 

33,525 

JCTE  FACTORIES, 

Antrim, 
Down,            .... 

3 
2 

1,824 

::: 

194 
55 

... 

385 
57 

Total, 

5 

1,824 

249 

442 

(JS2  MODERN  LINEN. 

RETURN  OF  FLAX,  HEMP,  AND  JUTE  FACTORIES.— Continued. 

SUMMARY  OF  THESE  RETURNS. 

FLAX  FACTORIES. 


No.  of 

Factories. 

Spindles. 

Power- 
Looms. 

Amount  of  Power. 

Total. 

Number 
Employed. 

Steam. 

Water. 

In  England,  
In  Scotland,  
In  Ireland,  

Total,... 

136 
163 
100 

344,308 
279,385 
592,981 

2,160 
7,966 
4,666 

8,505 
12,512 
10,710 

976 
994 
2,384 

9,481 
13,506 
13,094 

20,305 
33,599 
33,525 

399 

1,216,674 

14,792 

31,727 

4,354 

36,081 

87,429 

In  England  
In  Scotland  
In  Ireland  

Total... 

4 

27 
5 

JUTE 

620 
30,538 

1,824 

FACTORI 
554 

ES. 

62 
1,737 
249 

60 

62 
1,797 
249 

107 
5,418 
442 

36 

32,982 

554 

2,048 

60 

2,108 

5,967 

In  England  
In  Scotland  

Total... 

3 
2 

HEMI 

264 
2,316 

3  FACTOB 
1 

IES. 

39 

88 

... 

39 

88 

62 
545 

5 

2,580 

1 

127 

127 

607 

Flax 

136 
4 
3 

FACTORI] 

344,308 
620 
264 

:s  IN  EN 
2,160 
"*1 

SLAND. 

8,505 
62 
39 

976 

9,481 
62 
39 

20,305 
107 
62 

Jute 

Hemp        . 

Total... 

143 

345,192 

2,161 

8,606 

976 

9,582 

20,474 

Flax  
Jute  

163 
27 
2 

FACTORI 

279,385 
30,538 
2,316 

ES  IN  SC( 

7,966 
554 

)TLAND. 
12,512 

1,737 
88 

994 
60 

13,506 
1,797 
88 

33,599 
5,418 
545 

Total... 

192         312,239 

8,520 

14,337 

1,054 

15,391 

39,562 

Flax  
Jute  .- 

100 
5 

FACTOR] 

592,981 
1,824 

ES  IN  IB 

4,666 

ELAND. 

10,710 
249 

2,384 

13,094 
249 

33,525 
442 

Total... 
Grand  Total.. 

105 

594,805 

4,666 

10,959 

2,384 

11,343 

33,967 
94,003 

440 

1,252,236 

15,347 

33,902 

4,414 

38,316 

I\V,   n|-|   I;  \  I  l< 


SECTION    V. 

MANUFACTURING  OPERATION^ 

HAYINI,  traced  the  Linen  Trade  I 'mm  its  origin  in  aiiri.-iit 
times,  nnd  slmwn  (he  important  place  it  holds  among  the  manu- 
facture of  the.  \\nrld  at  tin-  present  clay,  this  section  will  1»- 

d  to  an  account  of  the  modes  by  which  Flax  was  and  is 
transformed  into  Linen.  It  is  foreign  to  the  intention  of  this 
volume  to  make  it  a  hand-book  to  practical  manufacturers; 
aifcl  it  is  not  possible,  without  drawings,  to  give  non-practical 
le  an  intelligible  description  of  complicated  mechanical 
operations.  A  short  popular  account  of  spinning,  weaving,  and 
bleaching  is  therefore  all  that  will  be  attempted. 


CHAPTER  I. 
FLA  x-S  PINNING. 

Kach  fibre  of  Flax  is,  on  minute  examination,  found  to  be 
made  up  of  a  number  of  small  parallel  filaments,  bound  together, 
the  separation  of  which  to  a  considerable  extent  is  necessary  in 
successful  Flax-spinning.  To  effect  this  to  a  partial  extent,  and 
to  separate  the  to\v,  it  is  heckled.  In  heckling,  the  operator 
takes  a  stripe  of  Flax  in  his  hand  by  the  one  end,  thn.ws  the 
«>ther  en  I  out  over  the  heckle,  or  many  steel-toothed 

comb,  and  draws  the  stripe  towards  him,  repeating  the  process 
so  long  as  necessary;  after  which  the  other  cud  of  the  M 
undergni-s  the  same  operation.  Tiiis  proces>  removes  the  coarser 
til -res  of  the  tow,  and  partially  subdivides  the  filaments  of  the 
Flax.  The  ^ame  opcrat i«.n  is  then  repeated  on  a  finer  heckle, 
the  teeth  of  which  are  smaller  and  closer  set  ;  and  if  the  fibre  of 
the  Flax  is  required  to  he  very  tine,  as  it  must  be  if  intended  to 
be  spun  into  yarn  for  cambric,  lawn,  etc.,  the  same  process  is  re- 
peated over  still  finer  heckles.  These  operations  thoroughly 


G84  MODERN  LINEN. 

remove  the  tow,  and  split  up  the  fibre  of  the  Flax  into  very 
minute  hairs ;  but  where  very  small  yarn  is  wanted,  Flax  of  a 
fine,  soft,  silky  fibre  must  be  used,  as  a  coarse  strong  quality 
cannot  be  sufficiently  broken  down,  and  yet  retain  sufficient 
strength  to  bear  spinning,  weaving,  &c.  Machine  heckling  is 
now  practised  extensively,  and  recent  improvements  have  so  far 
perfected  the  machines  that  the  Flax  can  be  heckled  to  a  medium 
degree,  both  cheaply  and  well.  Various  machines  have  from 
time  to  time  been  patented,  one  of  the  most  recent  being  that  of 
Combe  &  Co.,  of  Belfast,  which  is  well  approved  by  spinners ; 
but  although  the  construction  of  the  machines  by  different 
makers  varies  considerably,  the  Flax  in  all,  as  in  hand  heckling, 
is  drawn  over  toothed  combs,  or  else  the  combs  are  drawn 
through  the  Flax,  the  object  being  to  produce  the  largest  yield 
and  finest  fibre  of  dressed  Flax,  and  at  same  time  to  give  the 
tow  thrown  oflf  good  spinning  properties. 

After  the  Flax  has  been  heckled  to  the  desired  fineness,  the 
fibres  require  to  be  united  into  a  continuous  line  or  thread,  be- 
fore they  are  adapted  for  being  woven  into  cloth.  In  the  case 
of  China  grass  and  some  other  Indian  fibres,  this  is  done  by 
gumming  the  end  of  one  fibre  to  that  of  another,  and  operators 
by  long  practice  do  this  with  a  celerity  truly  astonishing.  Flax 
is  not  well  adapted  for  such  a  process,  the  fibres  being  soft,  and 
so  short  that  the  joinings  would  necessarily  be  too  frequent  and 
the  threads  irregular  in  size.  Such  a  mode  of  joining  fibres 
together  can  never  make  either  a  very  even,  or  a  very  strong 
thread,  and  it  is  never  practised  excepting  with  long  and  strong 
substances. 

From  the  most  remote  periods  the  fibres  of  Flax  have  been 
drawn  out  and  twisted  or  spun  into  yarn  or  thread  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  made  into  a  woven  fabric.  The  earliest  appliance 
for  that  purpose  of  which  mention  is  made  in  either  sacred  or 
profane  history  is  the  spindle  Drawings  of  these  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  the  paintings  of  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  and  in  other  places 
in  Egypt,  and  several  of  the  spindles  have  been  found  there,  and 
are  now  deposited  in  the  various  museums  of  Europe.  One 
found  by  Sir  J.  Wilkinson  at  Thebes,  and  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  had  some  of  the  Linen  thread  upon  it,  thus  putting  its 
use  beyond  a  doubt. 


MA  SI  1   \  »)S."> 

The   Kgyplian  spindles   \\vre  about   tilt<-«-n  inches   in    1- 

wood,  with  tin- circular  lirad  of  gypsum  or  (••imposi- 
tion, in  order  t«.  increase  their  impetus  in  turning.  Some  were 
of  light  plaited  \\urk,  made  of  rush-  s  <>r  palm  l«a\,s.  stained  nf 
various  colours,  and  furnished  with  a  l<...p  ul'  (lie  same  material- 
for  securing  the  thread  at  NT  it  was  wouinl.  They  are  generally 
in  shape  luillimis  near  the  one  end,  whence  they  taper  to  a  ] 
on  the  short  end  like  a  boy's  top,  and  lengthen  out  into  a  handle 
at  the  other.  Tli>-  thread  was  attached  t«»  the  handle  of  the 
spindle,  which  was  laid  on  tl.e  right  thigh,  and  made  to  revolve 
or  spin  like  a  top,  by  drawing  the  right  hand  quickly  over  it,  as 
it  lay  «.n  the  thigh.  The  spindle  i^  tlien  allowed  to  spin  in  the 
air,  or  on  its  narrow  point  on  the  floor,  so  long  as  the  motion  of 
the  hand  keeps  it  revolving,  the  fibres  meanwhile  being  drawn 
from  the  bundle  of  Flax,  in  order  to  form  the  thread.  The  re- 
of  this  process  are  beautifully  distinct  and  clear, 
and  render  the  mode  of  spinning  in  Egypt  very  intelligible.  The 
di>taff,  a  piece  of  wood  round  which  the  Flax  to  be  spun  was 
lapped,  was  soon  added  to  the  spindle,  which  made  the  process 
i  and  more  expeditious  than  by  the  spindle  alone.  The 
distatV  was  held  in  the  spinner's  left  hand,  while  the  right  was 
engaged  in  drawing  the  fibres  from  the  bundles  of  Flax,  and 
ever  and  anon  giving  fresh  impetus  to  the  motion  of  the  Bpindle. 
The  same  system  of  spinning  had  been  common  in  Palestine,  as 
it  is  related  in  Proverbs,  that  the  virtuous  woman  layeth  her 
hands  to  the  spindle,  and  her  hands  hold  the  distaff. 

For  thousands  of  years  this  rude  mode  of  spinning  was  the 
one  known,  and  it  was  practised  in   every  country  where 
the  manufacture  of  Linen  was  earned   on.     Until  a  compara- 
tively recent  period,  and  until  the  introduction  of  the  spinning- 
wheel,  the  same  plan  was  in  universal  use  in  this  country.     The 
following  description  of  the  method  followed  here  up  to  nearly 
the  end  of  last  century,  is  very  little  different  from  the  oriental 
•in  of  three  or  four  thousand  years  ago,  and  it  shows  the 
little  progress  which  had  been  made  in  this  useful  branch  of 
industry  during  that  long  period  of  tiin--. 

The  distatV  and  spindle  in  use,  until  superseded  by  the  rock 
(Dan.  rote,  dixtat}*)  and  spinning-wheel,  were  generally  of  simple 
construction.  The  distaff  was  a  piece  of  light  wood,  fifteen  to 


686  MODERN  LINEN. 

twenty  inches  long,  round  which  the  Flax  to  be  spun  was 
wound,  leaving  a  portion  of  the  distaff  clear  of  the  Flax.  This 
portion  was  stuck  into  the  apron-string  of  the  spinner,  or  into  a 
belt  fastened  round  her  waist  to  receive  it.  The  distaff  slanted 
out  from  the  left  side  of  the  spinner,  so  as  to  be  convenient  for 
drawing  the  Flax  from  it  in  forming  the  thread.  The  spindle 
was  a  round  piece  of  wood,  about  a  foot  in  length,  thick  at  the 
middle,  and  tapering  toward  each  end,  the  lower  one  somewhat 
like  the  point  of  a  cone,  and  the  upper  longer  and  less  pointed, 
with  a  ring  or  belt  of  some  heavy  substance  round  the  middle. 
A  short  thread  formed  of  the  Flax  was  fixed  in  a  notch  in  the 
upper  end  of  the  spindle,  and  the  spindle  was  then  turned 
smartly  by  the  right  hand  pressed  upon  it  against  the  right 
thigh,  and  allowed  to  dangle  in  the  air,  hanging  by  the  thread 
from  the  distaff.  The  centrifugal  motion  thus  given  to  the 
spindle  was  kept  up  for  some  time  by  the  heavy  ring  upon  it, 
which  acted  as  a  kind  of  balance-wheel,  and  kept  the  circular 
motion  somewhat  steady.  While  this  whirling  of  the  spindle 
was  going  on,  the  spinner  was  busy  drawing  out  the  fibres  of 
the  Flax  from  the  distaff  with  the  left  hand,  and  forming  them 
into  an  equal  thread  with  the  right.  When  the  spindle  reached 
the  ground  and  stopped,  or  when  the  impetus  given  to  it  by  the 
hand  was  lost,  care  being  taken  not  to  let  it  retrograde,  as  by 
that  means  part  of  the  twist  given  the  thread  spun  would  be 
lost,  the  yarn  spun  was  wound  upon  the  upper  part  of  the 
spindle.  The  same  process  was  repeated  again  and  again,  until 
the  spindle  was  full,  from  one  to  two  yards  being  spun  at  each 
movement  given  the  spindle.  The  yarn  was  then  reeled  off  into 
cuts,  heers,  hesps,  and  spindles,  when  it  was  ready  for  the  mar- 
ket, or  for  being  woven  into  cloth.  This  primitive  system  of 
spinning  would  appear  strange  to  either  maid  or  matron  of  the 
present  day,  but  it  was  well-known  in  Scotland  to  the  grand- 
mothers or  great-grandmothers  of  this  generation.  Tt  was  some- 
times practised  within  and  sometimes  without  doors,  as  the 
spindle  and  distaff  could  be  easily  carried  about,  and  it  was  no 
uncommon  sight  to  see  a  girl  herding  the  cows  and  plying  her 
spindle  busily  the  while.  All  females  were  then  learned  to  spin 
in  their  girlhood,  and  with  care  and  assiduous  application,  but  not 
without  both,  they  soon  became  expert  at  it.  It  required  a  nice 


MANUFACTUU1N"  "iT.K  \  I  IONS. 

ami  \\ell-praclised  hand  to  spin  very  small  sizes  of  yarn  .    but  as 
all  women,  in  those  days,  prided  themselves  on  their  laleir 
spinning,  many  of  them  o.uld  furm  an  astonishingly  fine  tin 

&•   the   demand  for  yarn   increased,   this  slow  ami    t«-d! 
mode  of  spii.  uld,  don!  ii  complained  of,  but 

it  was  not  until  the  fourteenth  eentnry  that  any  improvement 
was  effected.  An  apparatus  called  the  "  Torn"  was  then  intro- 
duced. It  was  merely  a  sort  of  tVame  for  supporting  the  spindle 
and  distal!',  apart  tVom  the  spinner.  In  1533  a  wheel  for  spin- 
ning Flax  was  invented  l.y  a  citi/.en  ot  Uninswick.  At  first 
the  spindle  was  mounted  on  a  frame,  and  driven  by  a  belt 
passing  o\vr  a  larger  wheel.  This  was  further  improved  by 
using  a  treddlo,  worked  by  the  foot  of  the  spinner  to  effect 
the  movement  of  the  wheel,  by  which  her  hands  wan  left 
tVee  to  regulate  the  motion  of  the  thread.  Shortly  there- 
after a  more  perfect  apparatus,  called  the  Saxon  wheel,  took 
the  place  of  those  of  simpler  construction  for  spinning  Flax. 
It  had  on  its  spindle  a  bobbin,  on  which  the  thread  was  wound, 
and  a  flyer,  revolving  with  greater  rapidity  than  the  bobbin,  to 
give  the  thread  the  necessary  twist.  The  Flax  was  IOOM-IV 
wrapped  round  a  distaff  or  rock,  which  was  fixed  at  a  little  di-- 
tance  above  the  spindle.  The  treddle  was  moved  by  the  foot  of 
the  spinner,  and,  by  means  of  a  crank  shaft,  gave  a  rotatory 
motion  to  the  wheel,  she,  meanwhile,  drawing  out  the  fibre 
the  Flax  in  the  re«misite  numbers  to  form  the  grist  or  size  of 
the  thread  desired.  In  doing  this  the  fibres  were  from  time 
to  time  moistened  with  saliva  to  make  them  more  readily  com- 
bine. 

For  a  loim  period  after  the  introduction  of  this  wheel  into 
Scotland  it  had  only  one  spindle,  but,  about  the  year  17<'>J,  the 
two-handed  \\hirl,  having  tw.,  spindles,  was  inu-nted,  and 
shortly  after  it  began  to  be  used  in  some  districts,  although  its 
use  did  not  1  ral  until  toward  the  end  of  the 

tury.  Indeed,  the  one-handed  wheel  had  long  powerful  op- 
ponents in  the  spindle  and  distaff,  so  difficult  is  it  to  root 
out  received  notions  or  anti- plated  ideas.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, the  wheel  supplanted  the  spindle  and  distatf.  and  gradually 
the  one-handed  wheel  gave  way  to.  and  was  superseded  by  the 
more  productive  two-handed  instrument 

The  spinning-wheel,  as  well  known  to  and  much  used  by  the 


688  MODERN  LINEN. 

maidens  and  dames  in  the  first  quarter  of  this  century,  may  be 
thus  described : — The   frame  of  the  machine  stood  on  three 
feet,  on  the  right  of  which,  facing  the  spinner,  was  a  spoked 
wheel,  of  about  two  feet  in  diameter,  with  the  rim  slightly  hol- 
lowed outside.      Kapid  motion  was   given  to  the  wheel  by  a 
wooden  rod  or  crank,  connecting  the  axle  of  the  wheel  to  the 
treddle  or  footboard,  and  moved  at  will  by  the  foot  of  the 
operator,  much  in  the  same  way  as  a  turning-lathe  is  moved. 
On  the  left  were  two  pirns  or  spindles,  one  for  each  hand,  for 
receiving  the  yarn  as  it  was  spun,  driven  by  means  of  bands  of 
gut,  or  cords  of  Flax  or  woollen  yarn,  highly-twisted,  passing 
round  the  rim  of  the  wheel  and  their  axles.      Each  pirn  or 
spindle  had  a  flyer  for  twisting  and  guiding  the  thread  before 
it  was  wound  upon  the  bobbin,  which  was  a  hollow  reed  slipped 
over  the  axle  and  fitting  rather  closely  to  it.      The  fly  went 
round  with  great  rapidity,  while  the  bobbin  being  kept  back  by 
the  strain  of  the  thread,  turned  round  on  the  axle  only  as  fast 
as  it  was  let  out  by  the  spinner.     This  depended  on  the  degree 
of  twist  intended  to  be  given  to  the  thread,  and  the  expertness 
of  the  operator.      The  rock  or  distaff,  with  the  Flax  wound 
round  it  in  the  manner  best  adapted  for  admitting  of  the  fila- 
ments being  readily  drawn  out  by  the  spinner,  was  placed  above 
the  pirns,  and  both  hands  were  employed  in  drawing  out  the 
fibres  and  forming  the  threads.     The  threads,  after  being  car- 
ried through  a  throttle  or  opening  in  the  end  of  the  spindle,  were 
from  time  to  time  shifted  along  the  flyer  by  means  of  small 
pieces  of  bent  wire  attached  to  it,  for  the  purpose  of  filling  the 
bobbin  regularly  with  the  yarn  as  it  was  spun.     During  the 
operation  the   spinner  moistened  the  threads   regularly  with 
saliva,  the  better  to  unite  the  fibres  and  improve  the  appearance 
of  the  yarn.     When  full  the  bobbins  were  put  on  a  pin  or  wand 
held  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  yarn  wound  off  from  it  by  the 
right,  round  a  reel  of  ninety  inches  in  diameter,  attached  to 
which  was  an  indicator  to  show  when  120  rounds,  which  consti- 
tuted a  cut,  were  reeled.     When  this  quantity  was  told  off,  it 
was  tied  with  a  thread  and  another  cut  begun,  and  so  on  until 
a  hesp  or  hank  was  completed,  when  it  was  removed  from  the 
reel  to  make  way  for  farther  reeling. ' 

Some  of  the  wheels  used  by  the  upper  classes — and  in  those 
days  all  females  span,  from  the  highest  of  the  nobility  to  the 


•  r\--i  i  RINe  ui'i.KAHONB. 

1-west  of  the  peasantry  in   both  t«.\vn   and  country  --\\vn-  made 
of   fancy  wood,    finely    polished,   and   had   rather   a  hand 
appearance,  quite  snilt-il  f..r  either  tin-  parlour  or  drawi: 
Tin-  great  majority  were,  however,   made  of  common   material, 
and.  thon-h  highly  useful,  they  were  not  very  sightly  as  an 
of  furniture.      The   last    improvement   on    the   Saxon  or  Flax- 
spinning  hand-wheel,  was  tbj  application  of  Ark\\  ri-ht'.s  pri 
pie.  l»y  rendering  the  flyer  antomatie   in  spreading   the  yarn  on 
the  bohhin,  which  saved  the  timeii  in  moving  the  tl. 

from  one  of  the  small  bent  wires  on  the  flyer  to  another,  and  at. 
^allletime  performed  the  operation  more  equally.  This,  though 
a  great  improvement,  was  not  suliicient  to  enable  the  Saxon 
wheel  to  hold  its  own  against  all  comers.  A  new  and  mighty 
rival  was,  by  the  ingenuity  of  man,  raised  up  in  competition, 
and  although  for  a  time  it  had  many  cheeks  and  made  way 
slowly,  yet,  surely  and  steadily  it  held  on  its  course,  until  it 
triumphed  over  every  competitor.  Not  only  did  it  silence  the 
l»irr  of  the  spinning-wheel  on  the  domestic  hearth,  but  it  totally 
changed  the  nature  and  character  of  the  textile  manufactur* 

onntry,  and,  along  with  this,  the  social  habits  of  the  whole 

Marly  in  the  last  century  thinking  minds  were  actively  at 
work  trying  to  discover  some  way  of  bringing  machinery  to  do, 
or  assist  in  doing,  both  the  work  of  the  hands  and  of  the  head  of 
the  >pimier  of  yarn  from  fibrous  substances.  Jn  1738  Lewis 
Paul  discovered  the.  principle  of  roller-spinning,  and  took  out  a 

it  tor  a  machine  for  this  purpose.       This  machine  \va- 
perimented   upon,   and    improved   by  various   parties,   and    it    is 
said   that  in  1711    or    17  I'J  a  mill,  turned   by  two  asses  walking 
round  an  axis,  was  erected   in   Birmingham  for  spinning  cotton 
on   this   plan,  and   ten   girls  employed   in  attending  the    work. 
Paul's    invention    contained   the  germ  of  a   self-acting  and    - 
regulating  principle,  and  the  means  which  he  n-  BO  unlike 

any  pivvious  performance  by  the  hands,  that  he  is  well  entitled 
to  the  admiration  of  posterity  for  the  originality  of  his  genius. 

Many  of  those  who  first  embarked  in  spinning  by  machin 
did  not  prosper,  but  others  took   their   place,  and  good  proi: 
was  made,  and  various   improvements  were  from  time  to  time 
introduced.      It  wafl  left  tor  the  genius  ol  Richard  Arkwright  to 


690  MODERN  LINEN. 


give  a  practical  solution  to  the  problem  of  automatic  spinning  ; 
and  after  he,  by  his  talents  and  perseverence,  had  overcome  the 
difficulty,  the  onward  course  of  machine  spinning  was  astonish- 
ingly rapid. 

The  successful  application  of  machinery  to  the  spinning  of 
cotton  induced  men  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  spinning  of 
Flax  by  like  means.  Accordingly,  in  the  year  1787,  John 
Kendrew,  optician,  and  Thomas  Porthouse,  clockmaker,  both  of 
Darlington,  in  the  county  of  Durham,  applied  for  and  got  a 
royal  patent  for  "a  mill  or  machine,  upon  new  principles,  for 
spinning  yarn  from  hemp,  tow,  Flax,  or  wool."  A  specification 
of  this  patent,  with  figures,  is  inserted  in  the  Repertory  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures,  vol.  xvi.  "  The  figures,"  says  William 
Brown,  in  his  Reminiscences  of  Flax-spinning  (a  pamphlet  pub- 
lished privately  by  him  at  Dundee  in  1862,  and  containing  much 
valuable  information  on  the  early  history  of  Flax-spinning  by 
machinery),  "  shew  merely  a  spreading  or  driving  machine,  con- 
sisting of  a  cylinder  three  feet  in  diameter  by  ten  inches  broad, 
smooth  on  the  surface,  with  some  small  cylinders  or  rollers  in 
connection  for  holding  and  drawing  the  Flax  and  other  fibrous 
materials  put  upon  it  for  operation.  Also  a  spinning  machine 
or  frame,  having  four  spindles,  consisting  likewise  of  a  plain 
cylinder,  but  of  smaller  diameter,  with  rollers  for  holding  and 
.  drawing  the  untwisted  sliver  of  Flax  or  other  material  passing 
there.  Intermediate  drawing  machines  are  alluded  to,  but  not 
described  further  than  as  to  their  being  on  same  plan  as  the 
others. 

"  These  machines,  plain  in  construction  as  they  seem  to  have 
been,  are  to  be  looked  upon  as  having  given  rise  to  all  those 
more  refined  and  effective  ones,  still  much  on  same  principle, 
which  have  gradually  come  into  use  since,  and  which  have  spread 
widely  over  Europe,  almost  entirely  superseding  the  ancient 
modes  of  spinning  by  distaff  and  spinning  wheel." 

Kendrew  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  inventor,  as  he  had  seen 
cotton  machinery,  and  probably  took  the  idea  from  it ;  but 
whether  this  be  so  or  not,  he  was  ably  seconded  by  Porthouse, 
who  was  an  expert  workman.  By  much  perseverance  they, 
together,  fitted  up  their  machines  in  a  small  building  called  the 
"  Low  Mill/'  situated  on  the  river  Skerne,  at  Darlington.  The 


M  \\ri  tl   ii    .IN-  ioNB. 


building      had      ple\i..llvl\     |,r,.M     ..ccllpied     |,y     Keli.ll 

uriii'lin  ./.   and  ;i  part  ol    it  is  still    standinir.        Tin-  work,   which 
commenced  spinning.  as  i»  unit-rally  believed.  in  17*7,  tin-  same 
in  which  tin-  patent  was  granted,  is  red,  and  \\ith 

propriety,  in  he  the  first  regular  work  got  up  I'm-  tin-  spiiiiiin 
Flax  by  mill   machinery       At'vr  ;i  few  years  I  he  work  was  di^ 
continued.  and  tlu-  partners  separated  to  com*  .dividual 

OOoeerni.      Ivndrews  erected  a  work  near  Iloughton,  and  1 
house  procured  a  building   IU-MT  (  'MMthaiu.   In.tli  <>n  tin-   Skcnu-, 
and   lu-ar    Darlington.       James  Aytoiin  of    Kirkraldy,  who  died 
this  y.ir,  and  was  in  very  truth  the  lather  <>!'  the  Flax->i>iimin'_r 
trade,  havini:  heen  a  spinner  for  more  than  the  t!  and 

t.-n  years  allotted  as  the  measui-e  of  man's  days,  veiled  the  linn 
in  Darlington  in  171I2-3.  and  studied  what  they  could  teach, 
imperfect  th..u^h  it  was.  Mr  Aytoun  was  an  ardent  sj  tinner,  and 
wh.-n  not  howcd  down  hy  pain  or  hodily  inlinnity.  took  pli-asine 
in  recounting  his  experience  of  the  trade  in  its  infant  d 
The  follow  in^  inforination  regnrdin^  this,  the  first  Flax-spinning 
mill,  and  other  interesting  details  interspersed  throughout  the 
volume,  were  kindly  and  readily  furnished  1>y  him. 

In  17D2,  Mr  Aytoun,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  went  to  Manclu> 

ter  to  ho  instructed  in  cotton-spinning,  which  was  then  making 

rapid  progress.  Hearing  of  the  patent  taken  out  by  thcDarlingt-  n 

firm  for  spinning   Flax,  and  of  the  work  which  they  had  estab- 

lished there,  he  left  Manchester  and  proceeded  to  that  place,  and, 

ly  said,  studied  under  the  firm.     Their  spinning  frames 

Of  36  spindles,  divided  into  six  distinct  heads  each  of  which 

conld  be  stopped.      Thirty-six  cannisters  of  small  diameter  were 

put  at  the  back  of  the  frame,  and  a  soit  sliver  pa  —  'd  over  an  18- 

inch  wooden  cylinder  to  the  front,  with  lever  weights  to  <  m  \  it 

along.      His   knowledge  of  cotton   spinning   being  greater  than 

theirs,  lie  suggested  roving  or  twisting  the  sliver,  which  must  have 

improvement  on  the  plan  they  had  adopted,  but  it 

was  a  considerable  time  befOK  it  was  introduced  by  the  firm. 

;•  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  new  trade,  he  agreed  with 
them  for  a  license  to  work  four  frames  of  36  spindles  each  ,  being 
lit  in  all,  for  which  he  paid  them  a  royalty  at  the  rate  of  one 
pound.  These  frames  he  erected  at  Kinghoni,  as  already  men- 
tioned in  the  notice  of  that  town.  All  the  Flax-pinning  mills 
\  x  2 


(392  MODERN  LINEN. 

first  erected  in  Scotland,  including  those  in  Bervie,  and  at 
Douglastown  in  Kinnettles,  appear  to  have  done  so  by  virtue  of 
licenses  granted  by  the  patentees,  for  each  of  which  they  were 
paid  a  royalty.  The  patent  must  therefore  have  been  a  profitable 
one  for  them. 

In  their  separate  establishments  the  two  patentees  succeeded 
moderately  well,  although,  from  the  small  extent  of  their  works, 
their  prosperity  could  not  be  very  great.  Kendrew  died  in  1800, 
but  Porthouse  survived  him  some  years.  In  1805  the  concern 
at  Coatham  appeared,  to  a  party  from  this  district  who  then 
visited  it,  to  be  in  a  thriving  state.  Some  of  the  original 
machines  from  Darlington  were  then  at  work,  and  were  plain 
and  ancient  looking  when  compared  with  others  of  later 
construction  standing  beside  them.  The  grounds  around  the 
work  were  laid  out  with  shrubs  and  flowers,  and  the  place  had  an 
air  of  cleanliness  and  comfort  about  it  pleasant  to  behold.  Port- 
house  was  a  quiet,  retired  man,  and  left  the  management  of  the 
mill  chiefly  to  his  wife,  who  was  an  able,  active  woman.  She 
attended  the  work  daily  from  morning  till  night,  going  about 
with  tools  in  hand,  shifting  pinions,  and  doing  other  little  and 
necessary  pieces  of  work  as  an  ordinary  manager  would.  Shortly 
after  the  invention  of  Flax-spinning  at  Darlington,  mills  were 
erected  at  Leeds  and  neighbourhood,  and  ever  since  that  locality 
has  been  the  headquarters  of  Flax-spinning  in  England ;  steam 
having,  from  the  first,  been  the  motive  power  employed. 

Unless  steam  power  had  been  successfully  applied  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  better  class  of  yarns,  and  a  more  adequate  supply 
than  the  distaff  and  spindle  or  the  spinnirg- wheel  could  have 
provided,  the  Linen  trade  would  never  have  attained  to  any 
great  extent,  nor  could  Britain  have  been  able  to  cope  success- 
fully, either  in  the  home  or  foreign  markets,  with  countries 
where  provisions  and  wages  are  low,  and  where  the  raw  mate- 
rial is  largely  grown,  or  can  be  procured  at  less  cost  than  here. 
The  spinning  frame  is  the  starting  point  from  which  all  im- 
provements in  the  trade  have  rapidly  advanced,  and  wonderful 
has  been  the  progress  made  since  the  first  frame  was  set  up  in 
1787. 

The  first  Flax- spinning  mills  erected  in  this  country  were 
small,  and  in  general  they  turned  out  unfortunate  concerns. 


.  1'  'N-. 


The  machinery  was  badly  e..n-tructcd.  and  th«  managers  of 
the  works  were  new  to  the  trade,  and  ignorant  u!'  the  right 
principles  of  spinning.  Some  of  them  were  speculative,  un- 
steady men,  without  e\[«Tience  (.r  capital,  and  their  downfall 
ed  upon,  and  injured  the  infant  trade.  1 '•  "•  --iforls  of  skill 
or  ingenuity  !  n  e..inpl.-t«-ly  successful  at  their  com- 

nt.  as  the  ingenious  contrivers  often  want  :'  the 

elements  necessary  for  that  industrious  perse  which  begets 

success,  and  it  is  often  left  to  the  succeeding  p-m-ratinn  to  reap 
the  fruit  of  their  predecessors'  exertions.     It  was  so  with   1 
spinning:   and   it    was  only  after  years  of  probation,    and   the 
Miccc»ful   intro<luction  of  various   iinproveinents.  that  the  trade 
proved  profitable  to  those  engaged  in  it. 

Ev  f  manufacture  has  its  day  of  small  things,  and 

time  and  a  hard  >t  niggle  are  required  to  give  sustaining  vitality. 
No  great  branch  of  national  industry  ever  started  into  a  pros- 
perous existence  at  once,  but  scientific  skill  and  steady  persever- 
rcoraes  all  difficulties.  The  machinery  first  applied  to 
the  production  of  textile  fabrics  cannot  be  otherwise  than  rude 
and  imperfect.  Enlightened  experience  gradually  discovers  and 
introduces  more  suitable  appliances,  until  at  last  a  high  degree 
of  perfection  is  attained. 

During  the  first  decade  of  this  century  Flax-spinning  machi- 
nery continued  rude  and  imperfect,  but  as  the  trade  became 
more  developed,  and  its  value  better  understood,  attention 
was  directed  to  the  machinery  and  improvements  began  to  be 
effected.  As  improvements  progressed,  the  quality  of  the  yarn 
spun  became  better,  and  by  and  bye  it  was  preferred  l<\  und 
at  last  completely  supplanted,  hand-spun  yarn.  This  prefer- 
ence, added  to  the  elastic  and  expanding  progress  of  the  Linen 
trade,  stimulated  spinning  enterprise,  and  many  new  mills 

ted  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

!•'!. i \- -pinning  machinery  was  not  adapted  fur   spinning 
tow,  and  fur  a  long  time  thib  article  was  of  comparatively  so  little 
value  that  it  was  only  used  for  making  ropes  and  other  mi 
laneous  purposes.      About  the  beginning  of  the  oentory,  exp«-ri- 
ments   were   made   in   tow   spinning,  but    for  some  time  little 
real  progress  was  made,  as  the  first  trials  were  not  very  suce 
ful.       Improvements   were,   however,    introduced   from  tim< 


(>94  MODERN  LINEN. 


time,  arid  after  repeated  experiments  more  satisfactory  results 
were  attained,  and  tow-spinning  became  a  fact.  In  August, 
1821,  the  Advertiser  says — "  In  1814  it  was  considered  a  good 
day's  work  to  spin  twelve  spindles  of  6  Ib.  tow  yarn  on  a  frame 
of  30  spindles,  but  now  the  quantity  taken  off  is  not  only  largely 
increased,  but  the  quality  is  so  greatly  improved  that  the  differ- 
ence of  price  between  Flaxen  and  tow  Osnaburgs,  which  had 
formerly  been  Id  to  IJd  a  yard,  is  now  only  from  Jd  to  Jd." 

William  Brown,  of  Dundee,  an  intelligent  and  enterprising 
spinner,  took  the  lead  in  effecting  these  valuable  improvements 
in  tow- spinning,  and  he  was  ably  seconded  by  the  late  George 
Moon,  of  Kussell  Mill,  in  Fife,  and  the  late  James  Aytoun. 
Although  Mr  Brown  has  retired  from  his  favourite  trade,  he  is 
still  an  enthusiastic  spinner,  and  takes  delight  in  witnessing 
the  onward  progress  of  mill-spinning.  Mr  Brown  became  a 
Flax-spinner  about  fifty-five  years  ago,  and  he  is  now  the  father 
of  the  trade.  May  he  be  still  spared  for  many  years,  and  able 
to  recount  his  triumphs,  glorious  though  bloodless,  in  the  spin- 
ning cause  ! 

The  great  object  of  the  Flax-spinner,  whether  by  hand  or 
by  machinery,  is  to  draw  out  and  arrange  the  fibres  in  one  con- 
tinuous thread  of  uniform  thickness,  and  with  an  equal  twist 
throughout  its  entire  length.  On  this  depends  the  quality  of 
the  yarn,  and  the  beauty  and  value  of  the  cloth  to  be  made  of  it. 
By  much  practice  and  nice  manipulation  many  hand-spinners 
became  adepts  in  the  fabrication  of  yarn,  and  some  of  them 
could  spin  a  thread  of  extraordinary  fineness  with  great  regu- 
larity. Others  were  unable  to  acquire  such  perfection  in  the 
art,  and  never  became  so  expert  as  to  be  able  to  make  the  thread 
uniform  throughout.  The  quantity  which  any  one  person  could 
spin  was  necessarily  small,  it  therefore  required  the  united  pro- 
duction of  several  spinners  to  form  a  piece  of  cloth.  As  the  yarn 
was  from  these  causes  very  unequal  in  size,  colour,  and  quality, 
it  required  much  sorting  before  being  given  out  to  the  weavers, 
and  even  the  greatest  care  was  insufficient  to  produce  a  piece  in 
perfection. 

Any  plan  by  which  the  yarn  could  be  produced  of  uniform 
quality  was  therefore  a  boon  to  the  trade,  and  this  mill-spinning, 
from  its  very  nature,  was  calculated  to  do.  The  nice  judgment 


, 


MANUKA'  i  CATIONS. 

of  tl.  ipeiior  Kan. I  -pinner,  it'  practical  l.y  tin-  process  at 

nil,  could,   l.y   it.  l»c  applied  and  i:  lihible   without    limit. 

Sup:  rior  minds  felt  the  truth  of  thk  irrappled  boldly  with  the 
subject,  and  tinally  triumphed.  The  FMtOty  was  not  won  in  a 

or  a  year,  l>ut   the  light  was  maintained   until  success  was 
gained.       To    Kendivw  and    1'orthouse   tlie   honour    bflloOgi   of 

;  Mating  the  application  of  machinery  to  the  spinninir  of  Flax, 
and  their  invention  has  beeo  pnt.luetive  of  mighty  results. 

After  the  Flax  has  1  ;led,  it  is  ready  for  the  sp inning- 

mill.  The  first  process  in  -pinning  is  to  ]>laceth<-  Flax  in  hand- 
t'uls.  with  the  end-  over-lapping  each  other,  on  a  small  table, 
win-nee  it  is  made  lo  pa—  between  two  lluted  rollers  ('retaining  rol- 

.  and  traverse  a  series  of  heckles,  worked  on  an  endless  chain, 
the  ingenious  apparatus  for  which  purpose  is  called  the  r////,  from 
the  name  of  the  inventor.  After  passing  through  these  heckles. 
it  is  caught  l.y  another  pair  of  rollers  (drawing  roller-),  wh- 
it passes  in  a  continuous  ribbon,  railed  a  -liver,  into  a  high  tin 
(an.  The  endless  chain  works  over  rollers,  and  the  points  of  the 
heckles  are  made  to  move  through  the  sliver  with  a  speed  a  little 

ler  than  the  retaining  rollers,  and  have  thus  a  douhle  action. 
Filtering  the  sliver  immediately  on  its  emission  from  the  retain- 
ing rollers,  and  moving  faster  than  it  does,  the  heckles  split  down 
the  fibres  of  the  Flax,  and  allow  the  sliver  to  be  extended  by  the 
drawing  roller.  As  the  Flax  proceeds  onward,  the  action  of  the 
drawing  rollers  makes  the  extending  sliver  move  many  times 
faster  than  the  heckles,  and  by  this  means  straightens  and  lays 
parallel  those  fibres  which  may  happen  to  be  doubled,  or  lie 
obliquely  in  the  sliver.  The  drawing  rollers  move  at  a  different 
speed  from  the  retaining  rollers  ;  they  must,  therefore,  be  fully  the 

;h  of  the  fibre  apart.  <>r  they  would  break  it,  but  yet  not  at 

great  a  <li  Off  the  -li\»  r  would  not  follow,  as  it  would 

sep .irate  at  the  middle  part  from  the  great  attenuation  there. 

The  thawin--  pmce-s  is  repeated  over  and  over  again  by  plac- 
ing a  stated  number  of  these  slivers  together  through  the 
retaining  rollers,  whereby  inequalities  in  any  of  them  are 
e«[iiali/.ed,  and  an  even  and  uniform  sliver  produced.  The  pro- 

!  which  succeeds  these  repeated  drawings,  whether  made  by 
the  simple  rollers  or  by  the  gill,  is  twisting  the  sliver  into  a  rove 
or  loose  thread,  and  tor  this  purpose  an  addition  of  a  bobbin  and 


696  MODERN  LINEN 

a  flyer  is  made  to  the  drawing  machine.  The  bobbin  is  made  to 
revolve  with  such  speed  as  wind  or  roll  up  the  rove  as  fast  as  it  is 
yielded  by  the  last  pair  of  rollers,  and  the  flyer  with  so  much 
additional  speed  as  to  give  the  sliver  the  desired  twist  while 
moving  between  the  roller  and  bobbin.  As  the  diameter  of  the 
bobbin  is  constantly  increasing  by  the  accumulation  of  the  rove, 
and  as  the  speed  of  the  roller  remains  constant,  it  is  necessary  to 
vary  the  speed  of  the  bobbin,  so  that,  as  it  increases  in  diameter, 
it  may  diminish  in  speed  and  wind  up  the  rove  at  the  same  rate 
throughout.  In  some  roving  frames  the  machinery  to  accomp- 
lish this  is  very  complicated.  The  rove  on  the  bobbin  is  ready 
for  the  spinning-frame. 

In  tow-spinning  the  tow  is  spread  as  equally  as  possible  on  an 
endless  cloth  attached  to  a  breaker  carding  engine,  and  as  the 
cloth  revolves  it  carries  the  tow  to  the  card,  through  which  it 
passes  for  the  purpose  of  separating  the  fibres,  unravelling  those 
which  are  entangled,  and  presenting  the  whole  in  a  continuous 
sliver  or  ribbon  of  an  equal  width  and  density  throughout  its 
whole  extent.  For  the  better  accomplishing  this  object  several 
of  these  slivers  are  made  to  pass  together  through  another  card- 
ing engine,  called  a  finisher,  the  teeth  on  the  rollers  of  which  are 
finer  and  closer  set  than  in  the  breaker,  and  they  are  also  de- 
livered by  this  card  in  a  continuous  sliver.  The  fibres  compos- 
ing the  sliver  are  extended  by  drawing  them  out  without 
breaking,  several  slivers  being  made  to  pass  over  the  gills  or 
other  preparing  machinery  together,  with  the  view  of  making  the 
size  of  the  slirer  more  uniform.  The  fibres  are  combined  by 
slightly  twisting  them  in  the  drawing,  so  that  the  tortion  will 
generate  a  certain  compression  among  them,  which  will  make 
them  extend  farther  without  breaking,  and  thus  by  continued 
drawing  and  twisting  the  sliver  will  be  attenuated  to  the  required 
point.  This  operation  is  limited  by  two  circumstances — when 
the  fibres  end  together,  and  which  it  is  one  of  the  objects  of 
carding  to  prevent,  and  when  the  friction  produced  by  twisting 
becomes  so  great  that  the  fibres  will  sooner  break  than  slide  on 
each  other.  After  the  last  drawing  the  sliver  is  twisted  into  a 
rove,  and  put  on  a  bobbin  as  with  Flax. 

In  spinning,  the  bobbins  with  the  rove  are  placed  on  pins 
fixed  in  a  slightly  angular  position  on  the  top  of  the  spinning 


; 


frame,  whence   the    n>\e   i«  pasted  n-!l«  i  -    '  n    fefl    "lluT 

rollers   moving   at   a   greater  speed    than    the   first,  and   tin 

down  thr.'ii'jh    the  throttle  of  the  spindle,   over    the    arm  of  the 

:    and  on  to  the  spinning  bobbin.      Th-  -cess 

is  extended  to  t lio  greatest  degree  of  a t tennat i< .n  required,  and  at 

•  time   twisted  so  hard    that  when    ihe  operation  is  finished. 

and    tlie  thread    perfectly   formed,    the   fibres   will   sooner   bn  ak 

than  sliding  on  each   other.       The   thread   i-   then 

if  the  bobbin   into  cuts,   beers,   hanks,  ami  spindles,  a 

spindle  being  I  MOO  yards  in  length;  or  it  may  be  formed  in 

•i ill  into  chains  ready  for  the  loom. 

ily  in   the  century,  alter  some  progress  had  been  made  in 
Flax   preparing,  the  drawer  elongation  stood  as  follows : — At 
ding  tal'le  by  hand,  f>  to  1  ;  at  each  of  the  three  draw- 
-.   10  to  1  ;  mid  at  the  spinning  frame,  15  to  1  — 
making  in  all  1)0,000  to  1.     A  strike  of  Flax,  therefore,  mea- 
suring a  foot  in  length,  was  drawn  out  or  elongated  to  the  ex- 
tent of  17  miles  ere  forming  its  portion  in  the  finished  thread  of 
yarn.     Jn  systems  of  the  present  day,  where  additional  opera- 
tions are  in  use.  a  strike  of  Flax  is  drawn  out  to  the  extent  of 

d  hundred  miles. 

Wet  spinning  differs  chiefly  from  this  description  of  dry 
spinning  in  having  the  spinning  frame  furnished  with  a  receptacle 
for  holding  water,  which  is  heated  hy  steam,  the  rove  passing 
thumgh  the  water  on  its  way  from  roller  to  roller.  The  hot 
'11  farther  Biihdivides  the  til-res,  which  permits  them  to 
be  drawn  out  into  a  finer  thread  than  if  spun  dry,  and  the  water 
makes  the  loose  fibres  combine  better  with  the  body  of  the 

1  than  they  do  when  dry. 

Fconomy  of  spaee  and  labour  an-  two  very  important  elements 
to  the  Flax-spinner.      Formerly  this  was  not  so  much  consid- 

•I'-nt  of  the   machinery  in  tin-  older   mills   i>  in 
not  so  perfect  as  in  tho>e   of  m-«lern   construction. 
Improvements  in  these  respects,  where  practicable,  have  1 
introduei  d   into  all  works,  so  as  to  make  them  ; 
and  reduce  the  working  expenses  to  the  minimum. 

The  most  approved  arrangement  is.  to   have  the  carding  en- 
B  and  other  preparing  machinery  on  the  ground  floor  ;  or,  if 
tliei  "om  for  the  whole  there,  to  put  the  more  advai 

portion,  shdi  as  the  drawing  frames,  on  the  BDOOOd  floor.     The 


098  MODERN    LINF.N. 


spinning  frames  are  placed  on  the  second  and  third  floor 
and  the  reeling  and  warping  in  the  upper  storey.  The  material 
to  be  spun  is  stored,  in  a  state  ready  for  the  machinery,  or 
batched  where  this  is  necessary,  in  close  proximity  to  the  first 
machine  through  which  it  has  to  pass,  viz. — the  rough  Flax,  to 
the  heckling  machine  ;  the  longs  of  either  Flax  or  Jute,  to  the 
spreading  machine  ;  the  Tow  to  the  breaking  engine  ;  and  the 
Jute,  when  not  heckled,  to  the  teaser,  for  the  purpose  of  being 
made  into  Tow  ;  and  each  sort  of  material  is  taken  from  the 
store  to  the  several  machines  as  required. 

After  passing  over  the  spreading  table,  the  longs,  formed  into 
a  sliver,  is  either  allowed  to  fall  into  cans  or  wound  round  a 
beam,  whence  it  is  passed  through  the  drawing  machines,  the 
first  of  which  is  placed  immediately  beyond  the  spreading  ma- 
chine, with  just  enough  space  between  them  for  the  necessary 
cans  and  the  hands  required  to  attend  the  operation.  The  other 
drawing  frames  are  placed  in  a  line  at  regular  distances,  and  the 
material  goes  over  each  successively,  until  it  is  finally  twisted 
into  a  rove  and  wound  on  a  bobbin.  The  bobbins,  when  the 
roving  has  been  performed  on  the  ground  floor,  are  carried  by 
an  elevator,  worked  by  machinery,  to  the  second  floor,  and  placed 
on  the  spinning  frames,  where  the  rove  is  spun  into  yarn  or 
thread.  The  yarn  is  then  raised  by  an  elevator  to  the  upper 
floor,  reeled,  and  made  up  into  bundles  for  the  market,  or 
warped  into  chains  ready  for  the  loom,  or  wound  on  bobbins  or 
otherwise  for  weft.  The  Tow,  after  passing  through  the  break- 
ing engine  or  card,  is  put  through  the  finishing  carding  ma- 
chine, which  is  placed  at  a  little  distance  behind  the  breaker, 
and  from  the  finisher  it  passes  over  the  drawing  machinery, 
which  is  placed  in  a  line  behind  the  last  carding  engine,  and 
is  successively  changed  from  a  sliver  to  rove,  and  from  rove  to 
yarn,  <fec.}  as  in  the  case  of  the  line  yarn.  Jn  this  way  the  mate- 
rial passes  from  machine  to  machine  until  it  is  transformed  into 
yarn,  almost  every  process  being  performed  by  machinery,  much 
of  which,  is  automatic,  and  with  the  least  possible  amount  of 
manual  labour. 

It  is  of  vast  importance  to  the  spinner  to  provide  an  abundant 
supply  of  the  most  suitable  material  for  the  yarn  he  intends  to 
spin,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  assort  it  properly  so  as 
to  produce  a  uniform  quality  of  yarn,  as  its  value  is  greatly  de- 


, 


MAM  1  A  OPERA  i  i 

JM ndant  «.!i  its  unit«.rmity.  The  construction  of  tin-  preparing 
;n».l  spinning  machinery,  and  keeping  tin-  whole  in  the  nio>t 
eilieient  order,  is  another  matter  of  essential  importance.  U- 

96,  unles>  the  machinery  he  not  only  of  the  most  approved 
description,  l.ut  kept  up  to  tin-  mark,  it  is  impo^ihl,-.  .  \.-n  with 
tltr  finest  material,  t"  :  ip-TJor  yarn.  ( )t  hit 

great    improvements  have    been    made  on 
and  <  Mtly  CMiivtruct,  d  are  ponderous  machines  with  tin- 

1  cloth  on  a  diti.'ivnt  principle  from  what  was  formerly  QSed, 
an.l  with  in.. IT  workers,  ^c.,  an-mul  thr  cylindrr.  Tln-s.-  machines 
p«-rtorin  thi-ir  work  hettcr.  and  in  urcatly  larp-r  ([iiantity  than  tin- 
old  carding  engines.  Many  and  highly  important  alterati'-ns 
and  meliorations  have  been  made  in  the  drawing  machines,  and 
more  real  imprm'cmcnts  have  taken  place  in  this  <!«• 
partmt-nt  than  in  any  other.  The  spinning  frame  has  als< 

d   its  share  of  attention,  and  in  all   its  parts,  framework, 
cylinders,  spindles.  ll\vr>.  .  modifications  and  beneficial 

(.-haiiLces  have  been  made.  The  conical  spindle,  invented  by 
David  CairncrOBS,  Ulairgowrie,  in  1825,  was  one  of  the  earliest 
and  nuist  important  of  these  improvements.  The  machinery  of 
the  present  day.  when  compared  with  that  in  use  half  a  century 
icli  a  wonderful  advance  towards  perfection,  that  it 
may  be  doubted  if  improvements  can  go  on  in  the  same  ratio,  or 
if  the  pro;_riT>x  winch  can  be  made  in  the  future  will  at  all  com- 
pare with  what  has  taken  place  in  the  past. 

Some  machine  making  firms  have  been  long  celebrated  for 
the  Flax-spinning  and  weaving  machinery  they  produce.  Others 
of  shorter  standing,  are  fast  rising  into  tame,  and  bid  lair,  at  no 
di-tant  j»eriod  to  rival  their  older  compeers.  Peter  Fairbairu 
and  Co..  Leeds,  and  Combe  and  Co.,  Belfast,  are  famous  for 
drawing  and  roving  frames  and  other  preparing  machinery. 
Thomas  l\ohinx,,u.  Leeds  t-r  heckling  machines.  .lames  F. 
Low,  Monitieth.  for  carding  engines  and  spinning  frames  In 
Dundee.  rt.,bertsoii  and  ( )rchar.  Pearce  Brothers,  and  Charles 
Parker  and  Son,  for  p0Wer-loomi  and  for  winding  and  other 
preparing  machinery  tor  weaving,  .I«»hn  Kerr  and  Co.,  for 
id.-ring  machinery,  and  .1.  Carmichael  and  Co..  and  (Jour- 
tor  steam  engineB,  b..ilcrs,  <fec. 


700  MODERN  LINEN. 


CHAPTER    II. 
LINEN    WEAVING. 

WEAVING  is  the  art  of  regularly  interlacing  thread  or  filaments 
into  cloth.  It  is  performed  by  the  alternation  of  one  series  ot 
threads  over  and  then  under  another,  or  by  the  intermittent  but 
regular  crossing  of  the  threads,  as  the  cloth  to  be  woven  may  be 
wanted  plain  or  twilled.  There  are  also  various  kinds  of  fancy 
weaving ;  but  as  few  Linens  are  so  made,  excepting  damasks 
and  kindred  fabrics,  which  will  be  referred  to,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  mention  them. 

Pliny  allows  that  the  Egyptians  invented  the  art  of  weaving, 
and  Athanaeus  ascribes  it  to  Pythmias,  the  Egyptian.  This 
may  or  may  not  be  the  case,  but  certainly  there  is  no  handi- 
craft more  ancient  and  more  universal  than  weaving.  Repre- 
sentations of  both  horizontal  and  upright  looms  are  found 
in  the  Egyptian  tombs,  at  some  of  which  men  are  employed, 
and  at  others  women.  The  looms  appear  to  be  of  rude 
construction  and  simple  in  detail.  The  upright  looms  are 
not  unlike  those  still  in  common  use  in  this  country,  as  the 
framework  consists  of  upright  posts  connected  by  cross-beams, 
with  a  lay  and  other  appurtenances.  The  weaver,  in  one  of  the 
paintings,  sits  low  on  the  loom,  and  is  in  the  act  of  putting  in 
with  the  hand  a  long  shuttle,  having  a  hook  on  each  end  of  it. 
The  shuttle  is  not  thrown,  as  here,  which  must  have  made  the 
work  very  tedious.  The  horizontal  loom  was  a  square  frame, 
on  which  the  yarn  was  stretched ;  and  in  some  of  them  the 
increasing  length  of  the  cloth  is  taken  up  by  pegs  in  the  ground, 
a  mode  still  practised  in  Ethiopia.  In  some  of  the  Egyptian 
representations  of  weaving  the  warp  appears  as  if  suspended 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  loom,  and  the  woof  or  weft  is 
pushed  upwards,  a  practice,  says  Herodotus,  common  among 
other  nations,  but  not  in  Egypt,  where  it  was  pressed  down- 
wards. The  weaving  implements  of  Egypt  were  no  doubt  a 
type  of  those  in  use  among  other  nations  of  antiquity ;  but  it 


M  \M    I    M    I  I    !UN«.  :<>NS  7"! 

would  stem,  trom  the  expression  of  Job,  "  My  days  are  swifter 
than  a  weaver's  shuttle,"  that    the  shuttle  iniiHt  then   have  been 
tin-own   in  working,  as  in   n»>  ether  way  would  the  expre 
have  htvn  appropriate.     Frequent  mention  of  the  weaver  occurs 
in  the  Scripture,  such  as  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  being  tang! 
work  all  manner  of  cunning  work,  and  in  fine  Linen   of  the 
weaver,  <fcc.     The  staff  of  Goliath's  spear  was  like  a  wea 
1-eani.     The  expression  of  Isaiah,  "  My  life  is  cut  off  as  by  the 
weaver,"  A.r.     These  notices  show  not  only  that  the  Israelites, 
but  also  the  neighbouring  nations,  were  early  acquainted  with 
and  practised  the  art  of  weaving.     Indeed,  all  nations,  however 
uncivilized,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  testify  to   the 
antiquity  and  universality,   in   some  form  or  other,  of  textile 
industry. 

The  natives  of  India,  at  a  very  remote  period,  were  well 
acquainted  with  the  arts  of  spinning  and  of  weaving,  as  may  be 
proved  by  a  reference  to  their  Vedas.  In  India  many  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants  have  undergone  little 
change  for  a  very  long  period,  and  the  looms  of  the  present  day 
are  counterparts  of  those  in  use  in  early  times.  They  are 
exceeding  rude  in  construction,  and  have  few  of  the  appliances 
to  facilitate  the  process  with  which  in  this  country  even  the 
simplest  and  most  ordinary  looms  are  provided.  With  little 
more  than  a  few  pegs  stuck  into  the  ground,  and  some  pieces  of 
wood  crossed  over  them  to  contain  the  warp  and  the  cloth,  does 
the  industrious  native  of  India  sit  on  the  ground,  under  the 
shade  of  a  wide-spreading  tree,  and  weave  some  of  those  beauti- 
ful fabrics  which  are  the  admiiation  and  delight  of  the  nations 
of  Europe. 

According  to  the  representations  of  Ciampiui  and  Montfan- 
OQH,  the  looms  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  are,  in  uiany 
nspeeis,  different  from  the  modern.  The  threads  of  warp 
are  not  strained  longitudinally,  but  perpendicularly,  the  weaver 
standing  instead  of  sitting.  The  treadles  are  at  each  side  of 
the  loom,  which  is  insulated.  There  is  no  appeal ance  of  the 
lay  and  reed,  which  divides  the  threads,  and  drives  the  < 
thread  or  weft  close.  There  is  a  boat-fashioned  shuttle.  The 
weights  appear,  and  the  woman,  besides  the  shuttle  in  one  hand, 
has  in  the  other  a  stick  to  rectify  the  threads.  Isidore  and  others 


702  MODERN  LINEN. 

mention  the  insubulus  about  which  the  cloth  was  rolled,  the 
reel,  the  slay,  the  threads  diluted  with  water  to  render  the  finer 
sort  more  firm.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  dictionaries  there  are  the 
slay,  lathe  or  lay  (sice),  the  weaving-house  (toiv  hus),  beam 
(ama),  and  female  workers  or  weavers  (webstres). 

The  common  hand-loom  of  the  present  day  does  not  differ 
much  from  those  used  by  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and 
other  ancient  nations.  In  all  there  are  the  four  upright  posts, 
bound  together  by  cross-ranees  or  ties.  In  front  there  is  gene- 
rally a  breast-beam,  with  a  cloth  centre-beam  under,  but  a  little 
behind  it.  and  the  yarn-beam  at  the  back  of  the  frame,  which 
can  be  elevated  or  depressed  to  suit  the  height  of  yarn  upon  it. 
Near  the  front,  the  lathe  or  lay  is  suspended  from  the  top  of  the 
frame  for  the  purpose  of  driving  home  the  weft.  Behind  the 
lay  are  the  heddles  or  camb,  hung  from  pulleys  at  the  top  of  the 
loom,  and  connected  with  the  treddles  which  are  placed  under- 
neath the  frame-work.  The  heddles  are  composed  of  as  many 
pieces  of  twine,  with  loops  or  mails  in  the  centre  of  each  through 
which  the  threads  of  warp  are  passed,  as  there  are  threads  in 
the  warp. 

For  plain  weaving  two  heddle  leaves  are  sufficient,  although 
four,  attached  two  and  two,  are  used  for  some  fabrics,  for 
the  purpose  of  spreading  the  warp  more  regularly,  but  only 
two  treddles  are  required.  For  twilled  cloth  three  or  more 
treddles,  with  distinct  heddles  for  each,  are  required,  depending 
on  the  description  of  twill  wanted,  and  which  is  known  as  three- 
feet,  four-feet,  eight-feet  twill,  &c.  Each  heddle  being  con- 
nected with  a  treddle,  the  pressure  of  the  weaver's  foot  raises  one 
and  depresses  the  other  continuously  and  alternately,  conse- 
quently, in  plain  weaving,  raises  half  the  threads  of  warp  and 
depresses  the  other  half,  making  an  opening  in  the  warp  called 
the  shed,  through  which  the  shuttle  with  the  weft  passes  in 
front  of  the  lay.  The  Jay  is  composed  of  two  sides,  called 
swords,  connected  with  a  heavy  piece  of  wood  below,  when  the 
shuttle  is  thrown  from  side  to  side  by  the  hand ;  and,  when  the 
picker  shuttle  is  used,  by  a  race-course,  in  each  end  of  which  is 
a  recess  for  the  shuttle.  In  each  recess  is  an  iron  rod,  on  which 
move  small  pieces  of  wood  or  buffalo-hide,  called  pickers,  to 
which  strings  are  attached  which  meet  in  a  handle.  This  the 


MAN  I!   |  i:  \  l  IONS. 

weaver  take-    in    Ins    rinht    hand,  and.   l.y  a    sharp  jerk,  pn 
tlic  shuttle  al"iii:  I  lie  shuttle-race  ;    thu>   In-   impels  the  shuttle 
with  the  weft  from  side   t«»  side  alternately,  the  lay  being  dra\\n 
foruard  linnly  l.y  the  left  hand  at  each  crossing  of  the  shutt: 
drive  the  well  home. 

Immediately  above  the  raee-course  or  bottom  of  the  lay  is 
placed  the  euinh-like  frame  ealled  the  reed,  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  thin  pieces  of  cane  or  steel,  the  t lat  sides  of  which  run 
parallel  with  the  threads  of  warp,  and  the  narrow  edge-  i-i< •••  the 
front  and  back  of  the  loom.  The  threads  of  warp  are  drawn 
through  between  the  pit  ees  of  cane  or  steel  in  regular  order,  tw«» 
in  each  space,  die  ol'  which  rises  with  the  motion  of  the  1  reddle 
alternately.  By  the  nu ml >er  of  splits  in  a  given  space  of  the  i 
the  tint-ness  of  the  cloth  is  determined.  Above  the  race-course 
uf  the  lay  is  the  cape,  a  piece  of  wood  which  can  be  moved  up 
and  down  the  swords,  and  which  rests  on  the  top  of  the  reed  to 
keep  it  in  its  place  and  perpendicular  to  the  warp.  When  the 
lay  is  drawn  forward  the  reed  pushes  the  thread  of  weft,  which 
has  just  been  thrown  across,  close  up  to  the  previously  thrown 
thread.  And  as  the  alternate  treddle  is  moved  after  each  thread 
of  weft  is  thrown,  the  warp  threads  thus  bind  it,  and  the  fabric 
of  the  cloth  is  formed. 

The  picker  was  the  invention  of  John  Kay,  of  Bury,  by  whom 
it  was  patented  in  1733.  By  means  of  it  the  threads  of  weft 
are  passed  in  with  more  rapidity  than  when  the  shuttle  is 
thrown  from  hand  to  hand  by  the  weaver,  and  much  wider  cloth 
can  be  weaved  by  one  person  than  by  the  old  mode,  which  is 
limited  by  the  M  retch  of  the  weaver's  arms.  The  weft  i>  wound 
on  a  small  bobbin,  which  is  placed  in  a  hollow  made  for  the 
pnrj)ose  in  the  shuttle,  and  allowed  to  run  off  freely  as  the 
shuttle  is  passed  from  side  to  side.  A  new  mode  has  recently 
i  introduced  of  winding  the  weft  on  a  spindle,  from  which 
it  is  removed  and  placed  on  another  in  the  shuttle,  thus  render- 
ing the  small  bobbin  unnecessary  and  saving  time  to  tin- weaver. 

Before  the  threads  of  war])  can  be  wound  on  the  yarn  beam 
on  the  loom,  they  must  undergo  a  preliminary  operation  called 
warping  For  convenience  and  the  BBVlQg  of  room  the  yarn  in 
the  hank  is  wound  np«  n  large  bobbins,  which  are  placed  on  a 
vertical  frame  so  constructed  as  to  all<  w  the  1  ol  bins  to  revolve 


704  MODERN  LINEN. 

easily,  and  to  keep  the  threads  of  yarn  apart  from  each  other. 
The  threads  are  made  to  pass  through  guide-pins  in  a  heck-box, 
and  then  round  a  large  reel  or  warping  mill,  six  or  eight  feet  in 
height  and  of  a  diameter  varying  with  the  length  of  the  warp 
required,  the  reel  being  turned  by  an  endless  rope  passing  round 
it  and  a  wheel  turned  by  the  warper.  The  heck-box  moves  up 
and  down  a  post,  the  motion  being  regulated  by  a  cord  pass- 
ing over  a  wheel  or  pulley  and  wound  round  the  axle  of  the 
reel,  and  unwound  alternately,  as  the  box  moves  up  or  down  the 
post.  By  this  means  the  warp  is  wound  spirally  and  regularly 
on  the  reel,  from  top  to  bottom,  or  the  reverse  as  the  heck  moves 
down  or  up,  and  the  process  is  continued  until  the  proper  num- 
ber of  threads  of  warp  for  the  intended  web  are  given. 

The  heck-box  is  composed  of  two  pieces,  which  can  be  raised 
on  slides,  and  through  the  guide-pins  of  which  the  threads  are 
passed  alternately.  In  commencing  to  wind  the  yarn  on  the 
reel,  the  threads  which  pass  through  each  of  the  two  pieces  of 
the  heck  are  separated  by  raising  one  piece  on  its  slide,  and  they 
are  then  passed  the  one  portion  over  and  the  other  under  a 
guide-pin  attached  to  the  reel.  The  other  piece  of  the  heck  is 
then  raised  and  the  threads  in  it  passed  over  another  pin  on  the 
reel,  while  those  in  the  other  piece  pass  under  same.  This  pro- 
cess is  repeated  each  time  the  chain  or  warp  is  wound  up  or 
down  the  reel,  by  which  means  the  whole  warp  is  separated 
thread  by  thread,  which  facilitates  their  alternate  arrange- 
ment in  the  heddles  in  the  loom.  At  the  bottom  of  the  reel  a 
few  of  the  threads  are  alternately  passed  together  in  pinfuls  over 
and  under  other  two  pins,  which  enables  the  weaver  by  means 
of  an  evener  or  very  open  reed,  with  a  moveable  top,  in  each 
opening  of  which  a  pinful  of  the  yarn  is  placed,  to  spread  the 
warp  regularly  in  winding  it  upon  the  yarn  beam  of  the  loom. 
Before  the  warp  is  taken  off  the  reel,  a  piece  of  cord  is  passed 
carefully  through  the  yarn,  close  to  the  pins,  to  preserve  the  se- 
paration of  the  threads  at  both  ends  of  the  warp,  which  separa- 
tion is  called  the  lease  and  without  which  it  would  be  very 
difficult  to  weave  the  warp  into  cloth.  The  warp  is  marked  on 
the  reel  in  stated  lengths,  either  by  coloured  threads  or  other 
means,  to  enable  the  weaver  to  know  how  he  is  progressing  with 
the  weaving  of  it,  and  to  put  on  the  weft  regularly.  In  rolling 


MAM  1  A  7"  - 


tin-  warp  «>n   tin-  yarn   heam,  it    is   Legim  at    the  end  where  it  H 
divid.  d    int..   small   pin-f'ilk  and   terminated    wh.-re  it  16  b- 

i  int.)  alternate  tl  Thi-  anangeinent  i-  :  y  for 

the  operation  <»f  drawing  tin-  threads  through  the  heddles  and 

,   and    the   weaver  tttkoi  OBI€    t"    praBOTC   the   /•">• 
throughout    the  entin-  weaving  "f  the  \vel»,   hy  passing  two  lease 
rod-  between  the  alternate  threads  and  keeping  tin-in  th- 

in winding  the  warp  on  the  yarn  heain  of  the  Loom,  railed 
beaming,  a  roller  with  weights  attached  is  made  to  pass  over  tin- 
yarn  to  make  it  tight  and  hard,  in  order  that  the  ten-inn  may 
be  uniform  while  the  weaver  is  working  it  oil',  as  the  cloth  would 
otherwise  he  irregular  and  unsightly. 

In  wra\ing.  the  warp  is  kept  extended  hy  weights  hung  on 
the  1).  am.  and  taken  off  gradually  as  the  weaver  proceeds,  or  it 
is  let  off  by  means  of  a  rat  died  wheel  and  catch  ;  and  the  cloth 
is  wound  round  the  cloth  heam  as  it  is  woven,  the  yarn  and 
cloth  being  kept  tight  by  a  finer  toothed  wheel  and  catch  on  the 
cloth  heam,  wrought  hy  a  lever  at  the  pleasure  of  the  \\eaver. 
To  have  the  loom  in  good  working  order  it  is  necessary  that  it 
be  made  perfectly  level  and  square,  and  properly  fixed  in  its 
position.  The  lay  should  be  hung  mid-  way  hetween  the  heddles 
'inb  and  the1  woven  portion  of  the  work,  and  so  poii-ed  as  to 
return  to  its  portion  hy  its  own  weight  as  soon  as  the  stroke 
is  made.  It  should  also  lie  hung  at  the  proper  height  to  permit 
the  due  el.  -Nation  and  depression  of  the  threads  of  warp  by  the 
heddles,  and  if  not  so  hung  it  will  overstrain  the  weaver,  and  not 
do  the  work  so  perfectly.  The  loops  of  the  heddles  must  be 
hung  at  the  proper  elevation  to  keep  the  \\arp.  when  at  rest, 
hori/.untal  with  the  top  of  the  yarn  heam  and  hivast  beam;  and 
they  are  suspended  ofal  a  pulley,  or  in  such  other  \\ay  as  per- 
mit them  to  he  raised  and  depressed  alternately.  Tin-  t  reddles 
move  on  a  pivot  at  one  end,  and  are  attach*  -d  to,  and  suspended 
i  the  heddles.  with  such  an  elevation  as  make  the  tramp  of 
the  weaver  raise  the  heddle  sulliciently  to  let  the  shuttle  i 
freely  through  the  shade  in  the  warp.  In  the  connection  le 
tween  the  camh  and  t  reddles,  spriiiL  inarches,  Ac., 

are  generally  uted  to  ease  the  "peratkm,  steady  the  motion,  and 
make  the  threads  of  warp  pass  each  other  the  inoro  readily.  A-  . 

In  the  trim  of  the  l,.«>m  even  for  weaving  plain  cloth,  some 
v  Y 


706  MODERN  LINEN. 

fabrics  require  a  difference  in  the  arrangement  from  others. 
Heavy  goods,  such  as  sail-cloth,  require  more  lever  power  in 
the  treddles,  and  the  lay  must  describe  a  greater  arc  than  in 
weaving  Osnaburgs  or  other  light  fabrics.  Other  appliances 
than  those  mentioned  are  used  to  give  motion  to  the  shuttle, 
and  in  some  of  the  other  minor  details,  but  the  principle  is  the 
same  in  all  cases. 

Twilled  fabrics  are  extremely  various,  and  some  of  them  very 
complex  in  their  character,  and  difficult  to  explain  to  one  not 
practically  acquainted  with  the  process.  In  twills  the  warp  yarns, 
instead  of  interlacing  alternately  with  the  weft  threads,  cross 
them  at  regular  or  irregular  intervals  of  every  third,  fourth,  or 
other  threads,  depending  on  the  number  of  heddles  employed, 
and  the  way  in  which  the  threads  of  warp  are  drawn  through 
them.  The  object  in  twills  ie  to  show  more  than  half  the  warp 
on  the  surface  of  the  cloth,  and  by  tliis  means  improve  its  ap- 
pearance ;  or  to  form  diamonds,  squares,  or  other  figures  upon 
it.  The  number  of  combinations  which  may  be  thus  formed  are 
very  numerous,  and  in  many  instances  the  strength  and  dura- 
bility, as  well  as  beauty  of  the  fabric  is  increased,  by  making 
the  same  quantity  of  yarn  into  twilled  cloth  than  it  would  be 
if  made  plain.  Squares,  and  other  simple  figures  can  be  formed 
on  the  surface  of  the  cloth,  in  plain  weaving,  by  a  different 
drawing  of  the  threads  through  the  heddles.  If  three  threads 
be  drawn  through  one  heddle  or  leaf  of  the  camb  in  succes- 
sion, and  one  through  the  other,  it  will  form  a  figured  surface. 
If  coloured  yarn  be  introduced  in  either  warp  or  weft  of  plain 
cloth,  or  in  both,  many  patterns  can  be  produced,  and  that  in 
a  variety  of  ways  and  of  various  figures.  But  if  coloured  yarns 
be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  twills,  there  is  scarcely  a 
limit  to  the  patterns  which  may  be  formed.  In  ordinary  de- 
scriptions of  Linen  little  diversity  of  colouring  is  resorted  to, 
but  beautiful  specimens  of  what  can  be  done  in  this  way  are 
shown  in  the  variety  of  styles,  and  numerous  patterns  of  Jute 
carpeting  winch  are  made.  Ordinary  twilled  sacking,  drills, 
<fec.,  exhibit  one  style  of  twills,  while  towelling,  diaper,  &c., 
show  another,  and  a  very  different  description,  and  others  differ 
from  both  of  these. 

In  figure  weaving,  whether  the  draw-loom,  the  Jacquard,  after 


MAMTAtTC  NATIONS.  T<  >7 

ward-  d.  or  other  me 

pends  on  tin-  proper  arrant -m.  nt  of  the  warp  yarns,  as  a  sii 
thread  mispl:  -sirily  BOdo*  tin-  figure!  imj  The 

takinir  up  of  tin1  pn.prr  threjuls  uf  warp,  and  drawing  tlu-in 
through  tlie  appropriate  mail  «T  heddle.  u\\\*i  therefore  In-  done 
with  great  care.  To  facilitate  the  operation  it  is  necessary,  in  some 
complex  patterns,  to  have  tin-  de-ign  drawn  on  paper,  divided 
into  squares,  like  those  for  German  embroidery  work.  In  this 
way  tin-  drawing  of  the  warp  threads  for  each  shot  of  weft,  so  as 
to  produce  the  intruded  pattern,  can  readily  be  made  by  an  in- 
telligent weaver,  with  a  person  to  count  otf  and  call  out  the  pet- 
tern  as  the  drawing  proco. 

The  beautiful  specimens  of  damask  made  in  DunfermliiK 
fa>t.  and  other  places,  are  now  chiefly  produced  by  the  Jacquard 
machine,  invented  by  Joseph  Marie  Jacquard,  and  first  shown 
at  the  National  Exhibition  of  Industry,  held  at  Paris  in  1801. 
This  very  perfect,  but  simple  machine,  was  at  first  received  with 
much  l>ad  feeling1  by  the  artizans  of  France,  many  machines 
having  been  destroyed,  and  the  inventor's  life  threatened.  Its 
merits  were  too  valuable  and  too  apparent  to  be  entirely  kept 
back,  even  by  such  furious  and  frenzied  opposition,  and  when  it 
did  emerge  it  revolutionized  the  trade.  Previously,  figures 
which  could  not  be  produced  by  combinations  of  twilling  and 
colouring,  were  formed  by  the  aid  of  the  draw-boy,  and  such,  or 
other  appliances,  or  by  the  cumbrous  and  tedious  modes  known 
in  tapestry  work  as  high  and  low  warp,  but  by  neither  mode 
were  they  so  perfectly  brought  out  as  by  this  beautiful  invention. 

The  value  of  Jacquard's  most  ingenious  and  truly  admirable 
machine  has  long  been  universally  acknowledged.  He  was, 
ml  all  doubt,  a  benefactor,  not  only  to  those  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  but  to  the  world  at  large.  The 
Chamber  of  Commerce  at  Lyons  recently  erected  a  white  marble 
tomb  over  the  grave  of  Jacquard,  in  the  cemetery  of  Oullins. 
near  that  city,  but  a  more  endearing  and  more  enduring  monu- 
ment has  been  erected  in  the  hearts  of  all  who  derive  benefit 
from  JacijuardV  invention,  and  of  all  who  know  and  can  appie- 
ciate  true  genius. 

The  Jacquard  engine  is  fixed  at  the  top  of  the  loom,  in  a 
direction   perpendicular  to  the  harness,  and  it  may  be  attached 
YY'2 


708  MODERN  LINEN. 

to  almost  any  kind  of  loom  ;  but  without  diagrams  it  is  nearly 
impossible  to  give  a  description  at  all  intelligible  to  the  gene- 
ral reader.  Each  cord  of  the  harness  is  distinct,  with  a  small 
leaden  weight  attached  to  the  lower  end  to  keep  it  extended. 
The  upper  ends  are  attached  to  lifting  hooks,  each  of  which 
goes  through  an  eye  in  a  corresponding  needle.  This  har- 
ness answers  the  purpose  of  the  heddles  or  camb  of  the  com- 
mon hand  or  power-loom,  the  threads  of  the  warp  being 
passed  through  an  eye  in  the  cords  of  the  harness,  each  thread 
having  its  respective  cord,  which  are  raised  by  the  treddles 
operated  upon  by  the  foot  of  the  weaver.  The  needles  lie  in 
rows  in  a  frame,  horizontal  to  the  warp,  with  their  points 
projecting  from  the  frame,  and  they  are  kept  extended 
in  their  position  by  spiral  springs  placed  in  cavities  at  the 
end  of  the  frame.  In  front  of  the  points  of  these  needles  a 
square  metallic  box  is  placed,  perforated  on  each  side  with  holes 
exactly  corresponding  in  number  and  position  with  the  needle 
points.  The  box  turns  by  a  fourth  of  a  revolution  at  each  tramp 
of  the  treddle,  and  at  the  same  time  its  side  is  pressed  for- 
ward on  the  points  of  the  needles,  which  enter  it  and  are  lifted 
by  it,  together  with  the  lifting  hooks,  cords  of  the  harness,  and 
corresponding  threads  of  warp,  and  they  are  held  in  position 
until  the  weaver  throws  a  thread  of  weft.  He  then  removes  his 
foot  from  the  treddle,  when  the  box  is  drawn  back  from  the 
needles,  and  the  harness  cords  are  allowed  to  drop,  and  with 
them  the  warp.  This  process,  if  repeated,  would  not  produce 
ligured  patterns  on  the  cloth ;  but  this  is  done  in  the  following 
manner. 

In  order  that  the  whole  warp  be  not  lifted  at  once,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  all  the  needle  points  from  entering  the  holes  in 
the  box.  To  accomplish  this  a  number  of  perforated  cardboards 
are  made  to  pass  over  it  in  endless  succession  with  its  revolu- 
tions. These  cards  are  only  perforated  in  certain  parts,  according 
to  the  design  intended  to  be  produced,  and  where  there  are  no 
openings  in  them  the  needles  are  pressed  back  and  drop,  the 
corresponding  lifting  hook,  cord,  and  thread  of  warp  dropping 
with  them,  the  only  threads  kept  up  being  those  wanted  to  be 
shown  on  the  surface  of  the  cloth  to  produce  the  desired  pat- 
tern. As  the  perforation  of  the  cards  is  the  means  by  which 


MANUFACTUIUM;  on 

the  harness  is  raided,  and  the  ib06O06  of  pen'orat  i'.n  «1«  term 
tin-  |  art  of  tl,e  \\arp  not  t«>  In-  lifted,  it  N  necessary  to  have  one 
v  -hot  of  \Neft.  until  tin'  whole  pattern  i>  de^-ribed. 
The  cords  are  exactly  fitted  to  the  box  by  means  of  studs  upon 
tin-  latter  corresponding  with  larger  holes  in  the  former,  and 
the  \\hole  are  loosely  looped  together  at  the  corners,  so  as  to 
form  an  endless  chain,  one  whole  revolution  of  which  completes 
the  pattern. 

rl'li  on  tntanoeeio  withdraw  the  box  and  make  it  revolve 

regularly.  t<>  throw  tin-  lift  ing-hooks  out  of  ^varitrj-.  and  in  n.n- 
neet  the  whole  with  the  motion  of  the  tivddles,  &C.,  whieh  it 
Would  he  too  tedious  to  descrihe.  The  c;-nU  are  perforated  by 
an  ingenious  machine,  a  sort  of  counterpart  of  the  engine  it»  It, 
whieh  performs  the  operation  lioth  expeditiously  and  correctly. 
The  pattnn  desired  is  first  drawn  on  paper  ruled  in  small  squares, 
denoting  the  respective  threads  of  warp  and  weft,  which  enaMes 
the  perforator  to  determine  t lie  proper  spots  to  punch  out  on 
the  card,  so  as  to  raise  the  necessary  threads  of  warp  to  produce 
the  design. 

This  machine  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  silk,  cotton, 
woollen,  and  Linen,  and  is  alike  suitable  to  all.  Patterns  of 
endless  design  and  of  wonderful  beauty  can  be  produced  by  it, 
l»y  the  mere  change  of  the  cards  passed  over  the  surface  of  the 
>rated  box,  the  particular  pattern  depending  wholly  upon 
them.  Improvements  have  from  time  to  time  been  effected  on 
this  engine,  and  it  has  now  been  made  so  astonishingly  perfect  for 
the  various  fabrics  for  which  it  is  adapted  that  it  will  be  verv 
difficult  to  supersede  it  by  anything  more  suitable. 

It  is  nearly  two  centuries  since  power-loom  weaving  was  first 
thought  of,  the  idea  having  originated  with  M.  Gennes,  a  French 
naval  officer,  who  communicated  the  plan  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  there  in  1078,  and  it  was  translated  into  our  Philo.sophi- 
cal  Tiai^ir' in-  in  June  that  year.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
about  the  end  of  last  century  that  Cartwright  solved  the  same 
problem  with  memorable  success,  and  since  then  an  extensive 
series  of  improvements  have  been  conducted  1>\  various  parties, 
and  the  machines  have  now  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection. 

Shortly  after  power  had  been  successfully  applied  to  the  w* 


710  MODERN    LINEN. 

ing  of  cotton,  Linen  manufacturers  and  others  began  to  turn 
their  attention  to  weaving  Linen  by  power,  but  for  a  long  time 
the  difference  between  the  nature  of  the  two  fibres  presented  a 
serious  barrier  to  its  adoption.  A  cotton  thread  is  so  elastic 
that  it  will  stretch  a  long  way  before  it  breaks,  and  threads 
of  silk  and  wool  have  also  considerable  elasticity,  but  a  Linen 
thread  will  break  if  extended  one  thirty-sixth  part  of  its  length. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Trustees 
for  Manufactures  in  Scotland  that  in  1788  a  loom  was  made  by 
Alexander  Kobb,  to  be  driven  by  water  or  other  mechanical 
power.  It  appears  from  the  proceedings  of  the  Trustees  that  in 
1810  Joseph  Crompton,  then  residing  in  Dundee,  had  invented 
a  loom  to  go  by  water  or  steam,  but  neither  of  these  looms  seem 
to  have  been  brought  into  practical  use,  as  no  farther  mention 
is  made  of  either  of  them. 

The  first  really  successful  manufactory  for  weaving  Flax 
goods  by  power  was  established  in  London  in  1812  or  1813, 
when  this  country  was  in  the  very  height  of  the  struggle  with 
Bonaparte.  The  factory  was  connected  with  the  extensive  rope- 
making  works  of  Charles  Turner  &  Co.,  at  Limehouse.  The 
warp  yarns  were  starched,  and  went  through  a  laborious  prepa- 
ration, and  the  entire  process  would  be  reckoned  very  slow  in 
the  present  day,  but,  for  the  period,  displayed  much  mechanical 
skill  and  ingenuity.  The  yarns  were  chiefly  spun  by  Neilson 
&  Co. ,  Kirkland  Works,  but  towards  the  close  of  the  war  Messrs 
Turner  erected  a  mill  for  spinning  their  own  yarns.  At  the 
Peace  of  1815,  the  demand  for  their  goods  ceased,  and  the 
spinning- mill  was  stopped.  The  power-looms,  however,  were 
kept  on,  and  in  1832  they  were  still  working,  and  at  that  time 
making  good  canvas,  but  not  long  after  they  were  stopped.  One 
of  the  partners  of  this  establishment  was  the  inventor  of  the  in- 
genious machine  for  weighing  sovereigns,  and  another  was  cele- 
brated for  other  inventions,  so  that  the  firm  had  been  mechani- 
cally inclined. 

In  1821  mention  is  made  of  a  power-loom  being  about  to  be 
used  in  Dundee  for  Linen,  but  if  the  experiment  proved  suc- 
cessful, it  was  not  followed  up.  The  next  successful  application 
of  the  power-loom  to  Linen  fabrics  was  made  in  Kirkcaldy  in 
1821.  Some  details  of  the  work  are  given  in  the  notice  of  that 


M  \«.  HINU   nlT.  711 

t-Avn.      At  tin-  time  thr-c  WOK-  wiittm   th«>  pi. -\  . 

the  London  eMahli-dimrnt  was  unknown  t<>  th<-  author. 

Shortly  aft. M- that    prri,.d  MaU-rly  &  Co.  br-nn  1-  <•: xperi nient 
upon  weaving  Urn  i^  1-y  powrr.  which,  having  proved  successful, 
induced  them  to  go  into  the  trade       In  Mr  Mabcrly's  end 
on  tin'  Linen    trade,  lakni    in    Parliament    in    lMM-."».  ! 
tliat   In-   h-id  then  200  power-looms  < 
Linen  \\t\-ivin.ir.        He  calculated    that    mi    fabrics  of  10(1  a  yanl 

would  1)C  a  saving  of  upwards  of  25  jx-r  <vnt.   in 
bj  power,  coinpan-d  with  tho  expense  of  weaving  the  same  de- 
scription of  Linens  by  hand  in  Kngland. 

The  power-loom  Linen  weaving  establishment  which  Mr 
Mabcrly  comim-ncrd  in  AlionWii  in  1824,  was  contiuiK-d  in 
active  operatiun  during  the  existence  of  his  firm.  On  the  stop- 
page of  Mabcrly  and  Co.,  Richards  and  Co.  stepped  in  and 
took  ii})  the  Linen  manufacturing  branches  of  the  business, 
and  since  then  the  power-loom  factory  at  Aberdeen  has  been 
continuously  and  successfully  carried  on,  and,  as  already  men- 
tinncd.  it  now  contains  428  looms.  This  establishment  may 
be  called  the  parent  of  the  Linen  power-loom  works  of  the 
country,  because,  from  the  great  talent  and  mechanical  skill 
which  the  proprietors  employed,  and  the  strong  efforts  they  per- 
severingly  made  to  adapt  machinery  to  Linen  weaving,  the  ob- 
stacles which  had  previously  barred  its  progress  were  obviated, 
and  success  attained.  This  work  is  therefore,  perhaps,  the  oldest 
Linen  weaving  establishment  by  power  in  existence. 

A  firm  in  Preston  put  up  a  number  of  power-looms  for  the 
finer  class  of  Linens,  when  the  demand  for  such  goods  in  France 
was  so  great,  but  after  the  increase  of  the  duties  there  in  1842, 
the  trade  ivasod.  and  this,  and  some  oil. IT  factories  which  hail 
been  started,  were  clu-  d. 

Messrs  (.f  Dundee,  as  previously  mentioned,  intended 

to  have  erected  power-looms  in  182G.  In  1828  tiny  actually 
o>inin»  need  power-loom  weaving,  l>ut  their  success  was  not 
as  to  induce  tin 'in  to  continue,  and  the  looms  and  other  ma- 
chines were  laid  aside.  In  183G  they  again,  or,  rather,  their 
new  firm,  Baxter  Brothers  and  Co.,  dt-tn mined  to  go  into 
Linen  powrr-l«...m  weavinir,  and  built  a  factory  to  contain  216 
looms  Since  that  period  the  firm  have  11 :  shdly  ; 


712  MODERN  LIN  EX. 

vered  in  the  trade,  and  they  now  employ  more  power-looms  on 
Linen  than  any  other  firm  in  the  world.  One  of  the  partners, 
Peter  Carmichael,  has  devoted  much  of  his  time  in  maturing 
and  perfecting  the  looms  and  preparing  machinery,  and  to  his 
success  is  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  the  admirable  suitableness 
of  the  power-looms  of  the  present  day  to  the  weaving  of  Flax 
and  Jute  goods.  Mr  Carmichael  has  improved  heckling  ma- 
chines, spinning  machinery,  weft  winding  machinery,  power- 
looms,  &c.,  and  he  is  the  patentee  of  several  inventions  for 
these  objects,  which  have  been,  and  still  are,  in  practical  use, 
and  highly  valued. 

It  was  some  time  after  these  experimental  trials  before  Linen 
power-loom  weaving  made  much  head- way,  but  of  late  years 
astonishing  progress  has  been  made  in  the  various  Linen  manu- 
facturing districts  in  the  kingdom.  The  trade  may  even  yet  be 
considered  in  its  infancy  ;  but,  judging  from  the  many  factories 
in  course  of  erection,  and  the  great  magnitude  of  some  of  them, 
it  bids  fair  to  attain  maturity  at  no  distant  day,  and  to  possess 
a  vigorous,  prosperous  existence. 

The  superstructure  of  a  power-loom  is  a  frame-work  of  cast- 
iron,  standing  on  a  solid  foundation,  and  made  of  such  strength 
as  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  web,  and  the  heavy  strain  which  the 
loom  undergoes  in  working.  There  is  the  breast  beam  in  front, 
over  which  the  cloth  passes  in  its  way  to  the  cloth  beam  or  roller 
placed  below,  around  which  it  is  wound  by  the  machinery  as  the 
work  proceeds.  The  warp  beam  is  placed  behind,  with  a  roller 
over  it  and  parallel  with  the  breast  beam,  to  keep  the  yarn  in  a 
horizontal  position;  and  the  warp  is  kept  at  a  proper  tension  by 
weights  or  other  appliance  attached  to  the  yarn  beam.  The 
treddles  are  suspended  from  the  top  of  the  loom  by  two  or  more 
belts  working  on  pullies  if  the  cloth  is  narrow,  or  winks  if  broad 
— the  wide  cloth  requiring  the  heddles  to  be  hung  from  more 
points  than  the  narrow,  to  give  strength  to  the  gearing  and 
steadiness  to  the  motion  of  the  heddles  in  the  operation  of  weaving. 
The  lay  is  put  in  motion  by  two  cranks,  one  at  each  side  close 
by  the  frame  of  the  loom,  that  they  may  not  interfere  with  the 
space  for  the  warp.  The  shuttle  is  thrown  by  a  whip -lever  in 
the  centre  of  the  loom,  moving  alternately  to  the  right  and  left 
or  by  two  whip-levers,  one  at  each  side  of  the  loom  within  the 


MAN:  HIM  Of!  K  \riON8.  71:5 

framing,  t..  which  th-  picking-cords  are  attached,  and  whi<-h 
move  tin-  picker  with  a  jerk.  The  mot  inn  of  the  treddles  is  pro- 
duced hy  two  eccentric  wheels  acting  nn  two  levers  or  tivddles 
furnished  witli  friction  rollers,  tin-  short  radius  of  the  one  win •<•! 
allowing  its  corresponding  treddle  to  be  raised  at  the  time  the 
loni:  radhlfl  of  the  Other  <fep  Ml»\  and  thus  the  treddles 

raised  and  depressed  alternately. 

The  motion  is  Communicated  to  the  various  parts  of  the  loom 
by  means  of  a  driving  shaft,  to  which  teethed  wheels,  cranks, 
<fec.,  are  attached  or  eofcneottd,  These  move  the  lay,  shuttle, 
t n-ddles,  Ac.,  with  unerring  regularity,  and  the  whole  operations 
goon  simultaneously  and  uniformly.  The  loom  is  thrown  out  of 
gearing  hy  means  of  fast  and  loose  pullies,  one  of  which  is  con- 
d  with  the  driviiiLT  shaft,  and  the  other  unconnected,  the 
driving  helt  being  moved  by  a  lever  from  the  one  to  the  other 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  weaver. 

At  first  the  mechanism  of  the  power-loom  was  very  imp-  r 
feet,  and  so  far  from  precision  that  each  loom  had  its  own  par- 
ticular character,  and  was  individualised, — as,  she  would  only 
work  a  certain  kind  of  work  ;  she  took  a  stubborn  fit  and 
required  to  be  coaxed,  often  for  half  a  day  at  a  time,  before 
she  would  throw  the  shuttle,  or  take  up,  &c.  Under  the:>e 
circumstances  the  looms  could  not  do  much  work.  The  speed 
did  not  exct •' -d  eighty  picks  a  minute,  and  a  weaver  was  required 
for  each  loom  ;  indeed,  \\ith  the  shifting  of  the  temples,  and  the 
rubbing  of  the  cloth,  both  of  which  processes  are  now  obsolete 
or  superseded,  one  loom  was  hard  work  for  a  strong  woman. 
Practical  experience  has  introduced  so  many  really  benefi- 
cial alterations  and  improvements  that  power-looms  are  now  in 
a  hi-_:h  degree  perfect  and  complete.  Fome  fabrics  of  Linen 
require  a  very  different  construction  of  loom  from  those  suit- 
able for  others,  hut  the  science  and  skill  which  have  been  brought 
to  bear  on  the  subject  have  overcome  all  difficulties,  and  looms 
now  made  admirably  adapted  for  every  description  of  goods. 
So  complete  are  they  now  constructed  in  all  their  parts  that  the 
weaver  has  little  more  to  do  than  keep  th-  shuttles  supplied  with 
weft,  and  repair  any  threads  of  warp  which  may  get  broken,  and 
one  weaver  is  quite  aMeto  attend  to  two  looms  at  once,  although 
they  are  now  runninir  at  more  than  twice  the  speed  of  twentv 
vears  ago. 


714  MODERN  LINT.N. 

Some  of  the  recent  improvements  in  the  construction  of  the 
power-loom  are  both  ingenious  and  useful,  among  which  may  be 
noted  the  following  : — By  a  simple  mechanism  the  loom  is 
stopped  when  the  weft  in  the  shuttle  is  run  out,  or  in  its  break- 
age from  any  cause.  By  another  the  loom  is  stopped  whenever 
the  shuttle  does  not  get  clear  of  the  shed.  The  rubbing  machine 
was  invented  and  patented  in  1845,  and  by  this  machine  the 
work  of  one  hundred  looms  can  be  rubbed  in  a  superior  man- 
ner by  one  person.  The  warp  is  retained  at  the  proper  ten- 
sion by  levers  and  springs,  &e.,  &c.  By  a  self-acting  process 
the  several  shuttles  required  in  working  checks  and  such  goods 
are  changed  regularly  at  the  proper  time  for  producing  the 
desired  pattern.  In  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862 
several  most  complex  looms  for  weaving  Brussels  carpeting 
were  shown,  in  some  of  which  the  wires  which  form  the 
looped  surface  of  the  cloth  are  inserted  and  again  withdrawn  by 
a  novel  and  ingenious  contrivance,  which  performed  the  work 
admirably.  But  perhaps  the  greatest  curiosity  in  mechanical 
weaving  is  the  electric  loom  of  Chevalier  Bonelli  of  Milan,  from 
which  there  are  good  grounds  for  anticipating  very  brilliant  re- 
sults— more  especially  in  its  application  to  the  principle  of  the 
Jacquard  looom. 

Preliminary  to  the  warp  or  chain  going  into  the  power-loom, 
the  yarn  has  to  undergo  the  operations  of  winding,  warping,  and 
starching  or  sizing,  all  of  which  are  now  performed  by  means  of 
machinery. 

In  the  preparing  machinery  great  advances  to  perfection 
have  been  made — several  patents  have  been  taken  out  for  im- 
provements in  winding  both  warp  and  weft  yarns.  Some  of 
which,  such  as  those  of  Mr  Cox  of  Lochee,  Mr  Carmichael,  and 
Robertson  and  Orchar,  of  Dundee,  are  really  valuable.  The 
introduction  of  the  "  flatterer"  or  parallel  motion  into  the 
dressing  machines,  by  means  of  which  the  warp  threads  are 
made  of  uniform  length,  though  never  patented,  greatly  facili- 
tated weaving.  So  many  other  improvements  have  been  from 
time  to  time  introduced,  both  in  preparing  machinery  and  in 
looms,  that  some  machinery  and  some  looms  have  been  broken 
up  and  re-made  again  and  again  during  the  last  twenty  years. 
For  instance  the  weft  winding  machines,  which  at  first  required 
the  yarn  to  be  wound  from  the  hank  on  large  bobbins,  and  then 


:<)NS.  /!,) 

d  IK  in  these  on  to  the  weft   pirns,  passed  through 
of  development   previous  t<>  the   patent   taken  out  tor  it 
in    is.",;',.     Tin-    best    \\ett    winding   machines    have  a  sepa 
buildim:   apparatus  tor  each  spindle,  tu  stop  the  -pindle  when 
the  thread   break-,  «>ne   t-»  prevent    doiihlini:  <>r    1  \\«»  ends  going 
on  at    onoe,  an.!    m« ehanism   to  make  the  yarn  run  at    the  same 
speed  at  the  thiek  part  of  the  pirn  as  at  the  small,  an  apparatus 
I'.T  stopping  the  >pindle  when   the  pirn  has  rec. -iv. -d    its  proper 
pliant  itv  of  yarn,  <fec.,  Ac. 

Want  of  space  prevents  any  description  from  Ix-mir  glW,  • 
was  intended,  of  winding,  warping,  dressing  or  beaming  ma- 
chines, and  of  other  inaehines  connected  with  the  Linen  manu- 
facture. 

It  is  iimst  important  to  have  the  machinery  of  a  power- 
lo,,m  work  of  the  best  construction,  and  kept  up  in  tii>t- 
rate  order.  It  is  no  less  important  for  the  success  of  the 
manufacturer  that  he  keeps  up  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  best 
and  most  suitable  quality  of  yarn,  which  is  his  raw  material, 
without  which  superior  Linens  of  uniform  quality  cannot  be 
produced.  Having  the  machinery  and  yarn  what  they  ought. 
to  be,  the  next  point  is  to  make  the  one  transform  the  other 
into  superior  cloth,  quickly  and  cheaply.  To  do  this  requires  ;i 
well  arranged  work,  so  that  the  yarn  may  pass  through  the  vari- 
ous processes  without  loss  of  time,  or  waste  of  labour.  Pan- 
mure  Works  have  been  referred  to — page  488 — as  a  model  in 
this  respect.  There  the  railway  waggon  with  the  yarn  is  taken 
into  a  gateway  in  the  centre  of  the  work,  and  the  yarn  removed 
to  the  warehouse  on  the  one  side  of  the  gateway,  whence  it  is 
taken  by  an  elevator  as  required  to  the  floor  above  and  wound. 
The  warp  yarn  is  taken  down  again  by  the  elevator  to  the  warp- 
ing and  dr.  ->inur  house,  and  the  weft  yarn  by  other  elevators  to 
the  weaving  shed.  After  being  warped  and  Marched,  the  chains 
are  beamed,  drawn  through  the  huddles  and  reed,  all  in  succes- 
sion, and  taken  into  the  wea\  i,  which  forms  the  centre  of 
the  work.  From  the  loom  the  cloth  passes  into  the  pickim-. 
damping,  and  calendering  house,  which  is  placed  on  the  oppo- 
site side  ,,f  th«-  weaving  shed  from  the  warping  house.  Then,  e 
the  cloth  :ito  the  lapping  house,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  gateway  from  the  yarn  warehouse,  and  is  there  lapped  and 


TIG  MODERN   LINEN. 

packed  into  bales.  These  are  put  on  the  waggon  in  the  gate- 
way and  sent  off  to  the  customers.  In  this  way  the  yarn  makes 
the  circuit  of  the  work,  and  in  its  course  it  is  transformed  into 
cloth  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  and  with  the  least  amount 
of  labour,  consequently  at  the  minimum  cost.  It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  the  extension  of  Panmure  Works  are  now  in  pro- 
gress, and  that  in  a  few  months  the  number  of  looms  will  be 
increased  to  about  420.  The  building  of  the  Institute  is  nearly 
completed,  and  the  erection  is  an  ornament  to  the  village  and  an 
honour  to  the  proprietors. 

Much  of  the  success  of  Linen  weaving  in  Dundee  is  due  to  the 
workpeople.  They  have  shewn  a  readiness  to  adopt  improve- 
ments for  lessening  labour  and  facilitating  the  various  processes 
which  is  highly  honourable  to  them.  They  have  also  shewn  a  re- 
markable facility  for  acquiring  the  skill  and  dexterity  necessary 
to  work  the  machines  with  quickness  and  ease,  to  the  advantage 
alike  of  their  employers  and  themselves.  Perhaps  it  is  the  same 
with  the  people  engaged  in  Linen  power-loom  operations  in 
other  places,  and  if  so  all  deserve  commendation.  It  is  gratify- 
ing to  think  that  the  wages  of  the  operatives  are  in  every  de- 
partment about  double  what  they  were  in  1842,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  in  the  future  they  will  be  as  well  remunerated  for 
their  labour  as  now. 


CHAPTER    III. 
LINEN    BLEACHING. 

BLEACHING  is  an  ancient  art,  but  it  is  not  known  by  whom  it 
was  first  discovered.  In  the  writings  of  the  old  historians  it  is 
mentioned  that  the  early  inhabitants  of  Asia  employed  certain 
earths  and  alkaline  plants  in  washing  and  scouring  their  gar- 
ments, and  that  they  were  acquainted  with  a  method  of  making 
their  Linen  extremely  white.  No  doubt,  when  the  knowledge 
of  the  whitening  and  detersive  properties  of  these  substances 
was  o  ice  acquired,  the  art  would  be  prosecuted  until  a  consi- 


MAM1   \  717 


derable  degree  of  proficiency  had  Uen  attained.  BJ  rlennlinoHs  i» 

one  of  the  handmaids  iif  civilisation. 

phrastus,    who    was   (lie    son   of  a  fuller    in    the    Isl«-   of 
<>s.  and  who  wn  te  .".on  years  before  the  Christian  era,  men- 
tions that  lime  was  then  employed   in  bleaching.     He  relates 
that  a  ship,  partly    loaded  \\ith    Linen  and  partly  with  lime  for 
h  It-aching  it.  WM  d  hy  the  accidental  M06H  <»f  water  to 

the  lime.      Parkes  doubts  this,  ami  in  his  essay  on  bleach! 
says  "it  is  stated  by  Th'-opln-a-Ius  that  lime  was  used  b\ 
ancients  in  bleaching.  but   this  has  not  been  proved,  and  it   is 
very  much  doubted  by  seientiiie  men/' 

Pliny  mentions  that  while  Linm  was  esteemed  ab'.ve  the 
a/.ure  blue-coloured  curtains  of  the  Kmperor  Nero.  Hesaysihe 
Greeks  and  Romans  used  several  kinds  of  earths  and  plants  in 
scouring  Lin^n.  Pliny  also  mentions  that  the  anei«  nt  (  iauls  and 
Britons  wete  aeiiuainted  with  the  art  of  bleaching  Linen  cl 
though  their  i  BUM  to  have  been  very  simple  and  impel 

He  say-.  ••  They  sometimes  put  certain  herbs,  particularly  the 
-  of  wild  poppies,  into  the  water,  to  make  it  more  efficacious 
in  bleaching  Linen.      But.  as  this  kind  of  cloth   is  v<  ry  apt  to 
contract  stains  and  impurities  in  the  using,  so  nothing  is  more 
necessary  to  those  who  wear  it   than  the  art  of  washing  and 
clean-in;:   it    from    time  to  time.     To  this  art    the  (Willis  and 
>ns  were  not  strangers,  for  soap,  made  of  the  tallow  or  fat 
of  animals  and  the  a-hes  of  certain  vegetables,  was  not  only 

j  much  UM.-d.  but  was  even  invented  by  the  ancient  Gauls." 

r  a  long  period  little  advance  seems  to  have  been  made  in 
the  art  of  bleaching,  either  in  the  materials  empl-ycd  or  in  the 
manner  of  their  application  to  the  yarn  or  cloth. 

In  the  beginning  of  last    century  the   Dutch  were  es- 
the  best    bleachers  in   Kurope.     Their  method  was  to  steep  the 
cloth  in  waste  ley,  then  in  new  ley.  which  was  run   on  the  cloth 
hot.  and  in  a  clear,  pure  state.      In  this  it  was  allowed  to  gj 

;urht    da;.  washed  with   black    soap,  and  wrung  by  a 

machine.     The  cloth  was  tin  n  steeped  in  a  wo 
tainin.^  butter-milk.     A   little  ..t   the  mi'k  was  iirst  poured   into 
a  vessel,  then  a  piece  of   the  cloth  was   tread   in.  more  milk  and 
cloth  were    then   added    alh  rnately   until   the   vessel  was  nearly 
full,  the  vessel  being   pfa0ed  with  planks   firmly  wedged  from  a 


718  MODERN  LINEN. 


beam  over  it.  After  steeping  from  six  or  seven  days  to  two  or 
three  weeks,  according  to  the  notion  of  the  bleacher,  the  cloth 
was  taken  out,  washed  with  black  soap,  wrung,  then  spread  on 
the  grass  for  two  or  three  weeks  to  bleach.  During  the  time 
the  cloth  was  exposed  it  was  regularly  watered  with  clear 
water,  supplied  from  small  canals  conveniently  led  through 
the  bleaching-ground.  The  water  was  thrown  over  the  cloth 
with  a  long  wooden  shovel,  so  contrived  that  with  it  the 
worker  could  throw  the  water  to  a  great  distance  over  the 
cloth.  The  operations  of  "bucking,"  i.e.,  pouring  boiling  ley 
over  the  cloth,  souring  in  butter-milk,  grassing  or  crofting,  was 
repeated  five  or  six  times,  the  strength  of  the  alkaline  ley  used 
being  lessened  each  time,  until  the  cloth  was  bleached  to  the 
whiteness  required.  Souring  in  butter-milk  was  the  only  mode 
then  known  and  practised  in  Holland.  The  time  occupied  in 
whitening  the  goods  was  from  six  to  seven  months,  in  summer 
only,  and  goods  commenced  in  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the  year 
had  to  stand  over  half  bleached  until  next  spring.  The  excel- 
lence of  the  colours  produced  by  the  Dutch  was  partly  owing  to 
the  purity  oi  their  water,  an  abundant  supply  of  which  was  of 
primary  necessity  to  them  in  their  bleaching  operations. 

The  mode  of  bleaching  fine  Linen  practised  at  Picardy  and  St 
Quentin  about  the  middle  of  last  century  differed  considerably 
from  that  of  the  Dutch.  The  following  description  of  the  ope- 
rations there  is  from  Postlethwayt's  "  Dictionary  of  Commerce :" 

"  After  being  taken  from  the  loom  they  are  put  to  soak  in 
clear  water  for  a  whole  day.  They  are  then  faken  out  and 
thrown  into  a  bucking  tub  filled  with  cold  ley,  made  of  wood 
ashes  and  water,  which  has  served  already.  Then  washed  in 
clear  water  and  spread  out  in  a  meadow,  where  they  are  watered 
with  scoops  called  gieters  out  of  the  river.  After  lying  some 
time  on  the  ground  they  pass  through  a  fresh  ley  poured  on  hot, 
then  washed  in  clear  water  and  laid  again  on  the  meadow,  all 
which  operations  are  repeated  till  the  Linen  has  acquired  the 
desired  degree  of  whiteness.  They  next  rub  them  with  black 
soap  to  take  out  the  grease,  wash  out  the  soap,  and  put  them  to 
soak  in  sour  milk,  the  cream  being  first  taken  off.  Being  taken 
out  of  the  milk  they  are  washed  in  clear  water  for  the  last  time. 
Then  dip  them  in  water  in  which  a  little  starch  has  been  steeped 


..l-KHAI-fOKS.  71.' 


with  smalt  or  1  hitch  lapis  -—next  fasten*  d  mi  poles  to  dry  —  when 
near  ilry  (three  quarters  and  a  lialt')  they  take  them  from  the 
poles  and  heat  them  on  marble  blocks  with  smooth  wooden  mal- 
lets, folded  into  small  squares  and  pressed.  The  merchants  t  hen 
put  their  numbers  on  them,  which  are  written  or  stamped  on 
8ma)l  bits  of  parchment,  and  tied  to  tin-  selvage  of  the  piece 
with  silks  of  dill'd'enl  colours,  according  to  the  merchant's  fancy, 
wh«.  calls  that  silk  his  livery,  each  merchant  having  his  own 
colour  which  he  never  changes.  After  this  they  wrap  them  up 
MTV  neatly  in  brown  paper  of  Roan,  well  beat  tied  with  small 
packthread  which  they  commonly  get  from  Holland.  They  are 
then  ?vady  f<T  • 

The  bleaching  of  common  Linen,  as  practised  at  Anjou  is 
similar,  hut  less  complicated,  and  with  this  addition  that  they 
are  first  put  into  wooden  troughs,  full  of  cold  clear  \\ater,  where 
with  wooden  mallets,  which  are  moved  by  a  water  mill,  they  are 
so  well  agitated  and  heat  that  they  are  insensibly  cleaned  of  all 
filth  and  har.-dmess.  The  calender,  from  I'ostlethwayt's  descrip- 
tion, would  seem  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  well-known  mangle. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  for  manufactures  in  Scotland,  soon 
after  their  appointment,  took  into  consideration  the  subject  of 
bleaching,  as  it  was  intimately  connected  with  the  Linen  manu- 
facture. The  Trustees  resolved  to  grant  assistance  to  parties 
willing  to  establish  hleachtields,  and  they  made  stringent  regula- 
tions anent  the  use  of  what  was  then  considered  improper  mate- 
rials for  bleaching.  The  first  bleachfield  set  up  under  their 
auspices  was  Dalquhorn  Field,  near  Dumbarton,  by  Patrick 
Seton  and  partners.  It  consisted  of  12  acres,  and  on  18th  Feb- 
ruary, 1729,  a  grant  of  £50  an  acre,  being  £600,  was  paid  to  the 
firm.  On  18th  March  1741,  a  farther  sum  of  £300  was  paid 
them.  In  1  7_'J  grants  were  also  made  for  Cameron  Field,  near 
Loch  Lomond  ;  Held  of  7  acres  at  Gray's  Green,  Glasgow  ;  field 
of  6  acres  at  Georg;  near  Edinburgh;  Cupar-in-Fife 

Field;  Aberdeen  Field,  etc.,  Ac.  The  Board  paid  for  experi- 
ments in  hleachini;  to  James  Spalding,  £180,  Dr  Win.  Cullen, 
Glasgow,  £21.  and  l>r  Francis  Home,  £100.  The  Hoard  sub- 
sequently, and  at.  various  times,  assisted  to  e>tahlish  hleachfields 
in  other  parts  of  Scotl 

The  first  important  improvement  made  in  bleaching  in  this 


720  MODERN  LINES. 

country  was  the  substitution  of  water,  acidulated  with  sulphuric 
acid  (in  place  of  the  butter  milk  previously  employed),  which  was 
introduced  by  Dr  Home  about  a  century  ago.  This  discovery 
was  probably  made  by  him  in  the  course  of  his  experiments  at 
the  request  of  the  Board  of  Trustees.  By  it  souring  was  effi- 
ciently performed  in  twelve  hours  instead  of  the  days  or  weeks 
required  when  milk  was  used  ;  and  when  the  sulphuric  acid  is 
properly  diluted  it  is  safe,  and  does  no  injury  to  the  goods. 

The  next,  and  perhaps  the  most  important  discovery  ever  made 
in  bleaching,  was  the  application  of  chlorine  in  the  whitening 
of  cotton  and  Linen  goods.  Some  time  after  the  application  of 
sulphuric  acid  as  a  souring  agent  in  bleaching,  it  was  discovered 
that  oxymuriatic  acid  possessed  the  property  of  destroying  vege- 
table colours.  This  led  the  celebrated  chemist,  Berthollet,  to 
experiment  upon  the  subject,  and  in  April  1785,  he  read  a  paper 
on  this  acid  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris.  Doubts 
were  at  one  time  entertained  regarding  the  priority  of  the  dis- 
covery, but  these  were  ultimately  decided  in  favour  of  Berthol- 
let. Chlorine  gas  is  produced  from  a  combination  of  common 
salt,  black  oxide  of  manganese,  sulphuric  acid,  and  water.  Dr 
Thomson  recommends  the  following  proportions  as  the  most 
economical  and  advantageous,  viz. : — Salt,  1  part ;  manganese,  1 
part ;  vitriol,  2  parts  ;  and  water,  2  parts.  Scheele,  a  Swedish 
chemist,  in  experimenting  on  manganese  and  muriatic  acid,  dis- 
covered this  new  modification  of  that  acid  in  1774,  and  Berthol- 
let, who  subsequently  repeated  the  experiments  of  Scheele,  dis- 
covered that  the  mixture  was  a  compound  of  muriatic  acid  and 
oxygen,  and  gave  it  its  shortened  appellation,  "chlorine."  The 
acid,  he  thought,  might  be  introduced  with  advantage  into  the 
art  of  bleaching,  and  shorten  the  process  greatly.  This  discovery 
quite  revolutionised  former  processes  of  bleaching,  and  from  it  a 
new  era  dates. 

In  1786  Berthollet  exhibited  the  experiment  before  Mr  Watt, 
the  person  who  first  introduced  the  new  method  of  bleaching 
into  Great  Britain.  Early  in  1787  Professor  Copland,  of  Aber- 
deen, was  shown  by  M.  de  Saussure,  in  Geneva,  the  dissolving 
property  of  this  acid,  and  on  his  return  home,  in  July  that  year, 
he  repeated  the  experiment  before  some  bleachers  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Aberdeen,  who  at  once  began  the  application  of 


MANUFA<  OPERATIONS. 

the  process  to  th.  ing  of  Linen  on  a  large  scale.     The 

i  to,  M'-ssrs  Milnes,  of  the  firm  of  Gordon,  Barron, 

and  Co.,  commenced  the  use  of  chlorine  in  bleaching  I.im-n  «t 

•i   in  17>7.  :m«l  they  \\nv  the  first  who  began  the  t: 
in  thi>  country;  luit  several  other  j»:irti<'s  OOOmHOOed  i' 
th.  same  and  following  year,  and  its  extension  was  very  rapid. 
Chlorine  was  at  first  only  known  in  its  gaseous  state,  and  < 
siderable  ditlicnlty  was  experienced  in  applying  it  to  the  n 
rial  to  be  bleached.     The  cloth  had  to  be  exposed  to  its  action 
in  a  close  receiver,  with  appliances  to  raise  and  lower  the  cloth 
in  water,  and  thus  expose  it  to  the  alternate  action  of  the  gas 
and  water,  as  the  chlorine,  which  would  not  act  on  the  cloth  in 
the  dry  state.     This  plan  continued  to  be  practised  until  1790, 
when  it  was  ascertained  that  chlorine  combined  with  a  solution 
of  pearl  ashes,  and  in  that  state  could  be  conveniently  applied  in 
bleaching. 

Another  great  discovery  was  made  in  1798  by  Mr  Tennant, 
of  Glasgow,  who  combined  chlorine  with  a  solution  of  lime,  and 
followed  up  his  invention  by  combining  chlorine  with  dry  lime, 
in  which  state  it  was  very  convenient  for  transport.  Chloride  of 
lime,  or  bleaching  powder,  has  since  then  been  regularly  used 
by  bleachers  of  Linen  and  cotton  cloth  and  yarn,  and  it  will  not 
be  easily  superseded. 

The  Board  of  Trustees  for  Scotland,  in  their  minutes,  Febru- 
ary, 1800,  mention  that  bleaching  by  steam  had  been  invent,  d 
by  Mons.  Chaptel,  "  the  celebrated  French  chemist."  In  1817 
a  bleaching  foreman  was  advertised  for  in  Dundee,  "  acquainted 
with  all  the  new  improvements  made  in  making  and  using 
oxigenated  muriatic  acid." 

Alexander  Driinmie.  MH  intelligent  bleacher  in  Aberdeen,  and 
father  of  Daniel  Drimmie,  of  Panmurefield,  Dundee,  made  some 
important  discoveries  and  improvements  in  Linen  bleaching. 
The  following  extracts  from  his  note- book,  written  about  1850, 
refer  to  his  substitution  of  soda  ash  for  potash  ley  about  1820, 
and  his  invention  of  washing  machinery  about  1825  : — "  Bleach- 
ing.— This  branch  of  the  Linen  trade  has  improved  at  an 
extraordinary  rate.  Formerly  fine  Linen  was  sent  to  Holland  to 
be  bleached.  It  required  a  whole  summer  to  do  PO,  and  hence 
was  called  Scotch  Hollands. 
z  z 


722  MODERN  LINEN. 

"  The  first  bleachfield  in  Scotland  was  near  Perth.  Barrilla 
was  used  in  part,  and  also  pearl  ashes  from  Russia.  Potash 
from  America  was  afterwards  introduced,  and  cost  at  one  time 
about  9d  per  fb.  About  30  years  ago  I  began  bleaching  with 
eoda  ash,  made  from  the  residuum  of  the  chlorine  stills,  and  that 
can  now  be  made  at  one  sixteenth  of  potash  at  9d  per  ft>.  The 
introduction  of  this  alkali  was  quite  an  era  in  the  trade.  By 
various  improvements  since  in  the  manufacture  of  chlorine,  this 
alkali,  now  called  soda  ash,  has  superseded  the  use  of  potash, 
and  was  exported  last  year  to  the  amount  of  £400,000  in  value. 

"  Alkali  being  now  so  cheap,  the  quantity  used  in  proportion 
to  the  weight  of  the  goods  is  much  greater,  and  much  time  is 
saved.  Indeed,  by  the  use  of  plenty  of  ley,  and  using  only 
chloride  of  soda,  Linen  cloth  may  be  bleached  almost  without 
exposure,  and  in  a  few  days,  if  the  proper  plan  be  taken.  It 
costs  more  money,  but  saves  time.  All  bleaching  materials  have 
been  brought  very  low  in  price,  and  machinery  has  also  helped 
to  reduce  the  cost  of  bleaching." 

"  Washing  by  machinery  was  introduced  by  me  about  25 
years  ago.  It  saves  labour,  and  does  the  work  well." 

A  calender,  to  give  a  finish  to  bleached  Linens,  was  erected  at 
Douglasfield,  in  the  parish  of  Dundee,  in  1819,  and  since  then 
the  calendering  has  been  applied  to  the  finish  of  almost  every 
class  of  Linens.  Cloth  bleaching  was  carried  on  largely  at 
Douglasfield  before  the  end  of  last  century,  and  the  work  is  still 
in  active  operation,  W.  A.  M'Intyre  and  Co.  bleaching  both 
Linens  and  yarns  there.  Baluniefield,  belonging  to  John  M'In- 
tyre, is  also  in  Dundee  parish,  and  is  a  large  and  prosperous 
yarn  bleachfield. 

Of  late  years  further  improvements  have  been  introduced  in 
the  preparation  of  bleaching  materials,  in  the  machinery  em- 
ployed in  bleaching,  and  in  the  mode  of  conducting  the  ope- 
rations, whereby  bleaching  Linen  cloth  and  yarn  has  been 
simplified,  expedited,  and  cheapened.  It  is  now  a  large  branch 
of  the  Linen  trade,  and,  as  conducted  by  the  bulk  of  the 
bleachers,  perhaps  the  most  healthy.  Bleachfields  or  greens 
abound  in  all  the  great  Linen  districts  in  the  three  kingdoms, 
and  the  bleachers  are,  as  a  class,  an  intelligent  and  respectable 
body  of  men,  and  many  of  them  are  excellent  chemists.  The 


MANUKA-   I  i  IMS'..,  OPXBJ  UONS. 

rinplnyiin-iit  t«-  many  tlmusiinl  male  aiul  female 
operatives,  ami  as  many  of  the  prooofloos  are  carried  <.n  in  tin- 
open  air,  or  in  I.. fly.  \vrll-\riitilated  hleaching-houses.  the  hand* 
are  noteil  f<>r  he ing  robust  ami  healthy.  Formerly  all  hl< -aeh- 
tields  required  a  great  extent  of  greens  for  exposing  the  yarn  «T 
cloth,  to  facilitate  the  process  and  whiten  the  colour  ;  but  DOW 
many  goods  are  bleached  without  exposure  at  all,  and  others  are 
p-as.xfd  tor  only  a  short  period,  so  that  extensive  greens  are  not 
80  much  required.  Indeed  the  character  of  bleaching  has  greatly 
changed,  recent  improvements  having  facilitated  operations,  and 
enahlt  d  the  various  bleachers  the  better  to  meet  the  increased 
requirements  of  the  extending  Linen  trade. 

BLEACHFIELDS  IN  FORFARSHIRE. 

1.  Aberdein,  Gordon,  and  Co.,        .  Sunnyside,        .        .        .  Yarn. 

2.  Cargill  and  Co.,  ....  Dundee,    ....  do. 
.'{.  John  Carmichael,        .        .        .  East  Mill,  Baldovan,         .  do. 
4.  Cox  Brothers,      ....  Camperdown  Linen  Works,  do. 
'>.  John  F.  Dickson,         .        .        .  Panbride,           ...  do. 

6.  Charles  Dowall,           .  .  .  Kelly,        ....  do. 

7.  Danitl  Drimmie  and  Co.,  .  .  Panmure,          ...  do. 

8.  David  Duncan  and  Co.,  .  .  Waulk  Mills,             .        .  do. 
!'.    Most  Mill  Company,    .  .  .  Brechin,            ...  do. 

10.  Inch  Bleaching  Company,  .  .              Do.,  ....  do. 

11.  John  Lowson,  Jun.,  .  .  Forfar,  ....  do. 
1'J.  John  Lowson  and  Son,  .  .             Do.,  ....  do. 
i:<.  John  M'Intyre,            .  .  .  Baluuie,  ...  do. 

14.  W.  A.  M'IntyreandCo.,    .        .  Douglas,  .        .        Yam  and  Cloth. 

15.  A.  J.  Murdoch  &  Co.,         .        .  Balmuir,  .        .        .        Yarn. 

16.  Charles  Nome  and  Sons,    .        .  Forfar,      ....          do. 

17.  Richards  and  Co Craigo,      ....          do. 

18.  Tui  nbull  and  Co.         .        .        .  Claverhouse,     .        .        Yarn  and  Cloth. 
!'.».  Webster  and  Co.,         .         .        .  Arbroath,          .        .        .        Yarn. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  several  firms  in  Dundee  bleach  the  yarn  required  in  their 
Carpet  Manufactures. 


ZZ'J 


(    724     ) 


APPENDIX. 


FLAX. — Very  little  progress  is  making  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe  to  increase  the  area  of  land  under  Flax,  and  no  great 
hopes  of  an  extended  supply  need  be  entertained  from  that  source. 
In  some  of  the  English  counties  a  little  more  attention  is  being 
paid  to  this  important  subject,  which  the  high  price  of  Flax  and 
the  low  price  of  grain  may  deepen,  but  as  yet  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  this  is  only  prospective.  Scotland  is  quite  asleep, 
and  no  hopes  of  the  resumed  cultivation  on  an  extensive  scale 
of  what  was  once  a  favourite  and  a  very  general  crop  are  enter- 
tained. Ireland  is  this  year  alive  to  the  importance  of  growing 
Flax,  and  nobly  has  she  done  her  part.  In  Ulster  a  greatly 
increased  acreage  has  been  sown  with  this,  to  the  farmer,  most 
profitable  plant,  and  even  the  central,  southern,  and  western 
counties  are  entering  with  spirit  into  the  golden  crop.  It  is 
calculated  that  upwards  of  300,000  acres  are  now  under  Flax 
in  Ireland,  and  as  the  crop  is  now  (June)  in  a  healthy  state, 
it  is  probable  that  the  produce  may  be  about  80,000  tons, 
which,  at  present  prices  for  seed  and  fibre,  will  bring  to  the 
growers  nearly  six  millions  sterling. 

The  India  Flax  Company,  formed  a  few  years  ago,  was  most 
unfortunate  in  its  first  attempts  to  improve  the  culture  of  the 
fibre  in  India.  The  seed  sent  from  Europe  lost  its  germinating 
powers  on  the  voyage,  and  one  year's  progress  was  thus  arrested. 
Now  the  prospects  are  more  hopeful,  and  in  another  season  or 
two  it  is  expected  that  India  will  produce  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  good  sound  common  Flax,  fit  for  the  trade  of  Dundee 
and  neighbourhood,  if  not  for  Belfast  or  Leeds.  A  good  deal 
of  Flax  continues  to  be  grown  in  the  United  States,  but  much 
of  the  fibre  is  still  unwisely  sacrificed  for  the  seed.  In  Canada 
some  progress  is  making  in  the  cultivation  of  Flax,  and  hopes 


AITr.Nl'lX. 

arc  entertained  that  it  will  rmfa  more  attention  as  its  value 
becomes  better  known,  and  that  the  country  will  yet  produce 
the  fibre  largely,  as  tin*  quality  is  very  suitable  for  spinning 
purposes. 

JUTK,— In  Scotf8M'i>j>i::in<-,  v..l.  Ixiv.  for  1802,  some  interest- 
ing details  regarding  Jute  and  other   Indian  fibres  are  gi 
On  2  -ember  1794,  Dr  Roxburgh,  superintendent  of  the 

East  India  Company's  Botanical  Gardens  in  Calcutta,  laid  be- 
fore the  Govern-  >r-(  Jeneral  samples  of  dressed  and  undressed  Jute 
and  other  fibres,  \\hieh  he  t hought  suitable  for  the  Linen  manu- 

irers  of  Scotland,  and  tor  papermakers.  He  subsequently 
made  experiments  in  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of  Jute. 
On  27th  May  1796,  the  Board  of  Trade  wrote  the  Gover- 
nor-(ieneral.  for  tranMnis>i<.n  to  the  Court  of  Directors,  that 
they  had  forwarded  in  a  bale  some  Jute,  sent  them  by  Dr 
Roxburgh,  as  a  specimen  of  an  attempt  to  improve  its  quality  by 
a  mode  of  cultivation  and  dressing  different  from  the  practice  of 
the  natives,  and  requesting  that  the  samples  might  be  referred 
to  manufacturers  in  England  for  trial,  and  their  opinion  com- 
municated to  the  Board  in  India.  Along  with  the  samples  the 
Doctor  sent  drawings  and  descriptions  of  the  two  plants,  the 
fibres  of  which  are  called  Jute,  and  an  account  of  his  method  of 
cultivation  of  the  plants,  and  preparation  of  the  fibres.  He 
says  he  thought  the  fibres  might  be  rendered  much  finer,  even 
fit  for  cambric  and  lawn,  by  being  sown  thicker  and  cut  earlier 
than  usual,  and  steeping  it  in  pure  soft  clean  water  well  exposed 
to  the  sun's  beams,  instead  of  in  the  muddy  water  of  the  tanks 
which  the  natives  used,  and  which  is  always  discoloured  by  the 
leaves  of  trees  and  other  putrid  vegetable  matters. 

In  1802  material  for  paper  making  must  have  been  scarce 
and  dear,  as  the  above  details  were  published  by  J.  Sewell,  3^ 

ihill,  London,  in  what  appears  to  be  an  advertisement  re- 
commending the  Kast  India  Company,  captains,  officers,  super- 
cargoes, importers  of  rice  and  India  bale  goods,  grocers,  drapers, 
<fcc.,  to  collect  sugar,  rice,  pepper,  and  other  bags,  as  they  made 
superior  paper,  samples  of  which  were  exhibited.  The  first 
idea  of  this  was  communicated  to  Mr  Sewell  by  an  ingenious 
literary  gentleman,  long  resident  in  India,  whose  attention  WH* 
railed  to  the  subject  from  Rccin^  an  advertisement  on  the  r< 


726  APPENDIX. 

of  the  European  Magazine,  recommending  ladies  not  to  destroy 
their  Linen  rags.  Jute,  it  was  said,  was  largely  used  in  Bengal 
for  making  coarse  sacking  (called  gunny  cloth),  ropes,  twines, 
and  many  other  purposes.  It  cost  in  Bengal  about  5s  a  cwt., 
and  had  been  sold  in  England  at  20s  to  29s  a  cwt.  The  adver- 
tisement goes  on  to  say,  "  Jute  and  Sunn  offer  a  very  good 
material  for  the  owners  of  rice  ships  to  fill  up  their  cargoes 
with,  or  as  dunnage,  or  if  packed  in  gunny  bags  it  will  be  more 
convenient,  without  risking  much  capital."  Sunn,  which  cost 
7s  to  8s  in  Bengal,  sold  in  England  at  35s. 

These  particulars  shew  that  some  attention  had  been  paid  to 
Jute,  and  that  its  nature  and  value,  as  a  textile  fibre,  was  not 
unknown  in  England  nearly  seventy  years  ago.  It  is  wonderful 
therefore  how  its  introduction  in  quantity  into  the  manufactures 
of  the  country  is  of  so  recent  a  date.  That  its  extension  has 
been  rapid  since  its  real  value  was  known  is  shewn  in  the 
chapters  on  Jute.  The  following  tables  bring  down  the  expor- 
tation from  Calcutta  to  the  present  time,  viz. : — 

EXPORTS  OP  JUTE  PROM  CALCUTTA. 

To  Great  Britain.   France,  &c.    America.         Total. 
Total  from  1st  Sept.  1862  to) 
31st  May  1863 — See  Page  87  ) 

June         „        .        .        .         „          16,953  699  1,979  19,631 

July          „  22,622  ...  6,415  29,037 

August      „  29,143  ...  ...  29,143 

September          .  84,191  84,191 

526,412  3,615         13,955         543,982 

COMPARATIVE  STATEMENT  OF  CLEARANCES  AND  SAILINGS  OF  JUTE  FROM 
CALCUTTA  TO  GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  FIRST  SEVEN  MONTHS  OF  SEASON  1863-4. 
Reported  Clearances.  Actual  Shipments. 

Jute  and  Cuttings.         Jute.  Cuttings.  Total. 

September,  Bales,  82,138  28,290  1,704  29,994 

October,  120,796  101,204  6,596  107,800 


November, 

December, 

January, 

February, 

March, 

April, 


143,911  85,335  3,608  88,943 

121,958  157,111  10,806  167,917 

62,733  98,880  9,620  108,500 

38,240  43,395  3,400  46,795 

49,172  39,007  5,310  44,317 

21,511  30,720  4,530  35,250 


640,459  583,942  45,574  629,516 

Owing  to  steam  communication  being  now  open  with  the  principal  Jute-growing 
districts,  the  new  crop  commences  to  arrive  in  Calcutta  a  month  earlier  than  here- 
tofore. Shipments  are  therefore  now  calculated  from  1st  September  to  31st 
August,  instead  of  1st  October  to  30th  September,  as  formerly. 


MTLNLMX. 


727 


STOCK  or  JUTI  i»  AND  AFLOAT  TO  LONDON  AMD  LiviKro*  i 
1st  JAM  ART  1864. 
Urerpool,  Ac. 


Spot. 

AIL at, 


<•  Afloat  to 
Great  liritalu. 


Spot, 

AtW. 


<s  Afloat  to 
Great  Britain, 


U>2.543 


ir,r,,4is 


14.4M* 
29,  i*'.2 

43,470 


TOD*. 
12,031 


iptioft  of  United  King-  ) 
dom,  including  Exports,         ) 


isi  JUNE  186*. 
90,445 

.<63  39,225 

119,808  39,225 

1867-8 


Seasons    1860-1 


246,893 

i4r,.r.2K 

3'J3,421 
18,330 

18*3-9 
343,000 

1861-2 

398,7rKJ 


34,313 


33,006 
52  688 


1860-60 
355,000 

1862-8 
471,140 


Some  of  the  fl-uret  regarding  Jute  are  taken  from  the  excellently  got  up  Weeklr 
KeporU  («f  Barber,  Nephew,  and  Co.,  of  London. 

Late  accounts  from  Calcutta  advise  that  a  very  greatly  in- 
creased area  of  ground  is  sown  with  Jute  this  season,  and  that 
the  appearance  of  the  crops  is  promising.  There  is  therefore  no 
fear  of  a  short  supply  of  fibre  for  next  season's  trade. 

IRELAND.  —  Abstract  of  Return  of  Flax-spinning  Mills  and 
Linen  power-loom  factories  in  Ireland,  wiih  spindles  and  looms 
in  1859,  and  iu  May  1864,  and  looms  in  1861,  compiled  from 
information  derive!  (save  in  a  very  few  instances)  from  the 
proprietors,  by  the  Linen  Trade  Committee  :  — 


Spindles 

KrapK.yo.l. 


Sl'INNINQ-MlLLS. 

spin.lle-.  Total 

Unemployed.         Spindle*. 

82  560,642  'J  1.230  651,872 

1864.  7i  641,914  8,860  650,774 

Iu  addition  to  the  preceding,  there  are  employed  in  twist- 
ing thread,        ....... 

Five  Mills  are  in  course  of  erection,  capable  of  containing 

POWER-LOOM  FACTORIES. 


Proposed 
Extension. 


50,638  Spindles. 

14,648       „ 
45,000 


Factories. 

Looms 
Employed. 

Looms 

I  nemployed. 

Looms 

1859. 

28 

3,124 

P00 

3,633 

1861. 

35 

4,609 

M 

MM 

B487 

Extension 


728  APPENDIX. 

The  trade  of  Belfast  is  in  a  most  flourishing  condition,  and 
extensions  to  old  mills  and  factories,  and  the  erection  of  new 
ones,  are  being  carried  on  with  great  vigour. 

FRANCE. — The  following  table  of  the  articles  enumerated, 
imported  into  France,  and  taken  out  of  bond  for  consumption, 
for  1861,  1862,  and  1863,  is  taken  from  the  French  Board  of 
Trade  Returns : — 

1861  1862  1863 

Jute,          .            .            .  Fr.,    5,369,189  3,780,339  4,208,464 

Flax,  „    41,636,063  35,808,071  41,585,404 

Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute  Yarn,  „      5,870,738  5,830,097  4,588^533 

Flax  and  Hemp  Tissues,   .  „     13,868,025  13,483,409  11,545,629 

Exports  of  French  productions,  for  same  years  and  from  same 
source : — 

Flax,          .  .  Fr.,    3,146,870  11,611,606  9,568,182 

Flax  and  Hemp  Yarn,      .  „      1,577,086  3,126,707  22,091,454 

Flax  and  Hemp  Tissues,  .  „    14,871,869  14,467,086  18,602,740 

These  tables  show  a  remarkable  extension  of  the  exportation 
of  yarn  in  1863,  when  compared  with  the  previous  two  years. 
In  1863,  the  sterling  value  was  about  £880,000,  being  seven 
times  the  value  in  1862,  and  eleven  times  the  value  in  1861. 
Of  the  yarn  exported  in  1863,  it  is  estimated  that  2,200,000 
spindles  were  sent  direct  to  Dundee,  besides  indirect  shipments 
via  Hull,  &c.  The  total  value  of  yarn  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom  from  France  in  1863  is  estimated  at  £600,000,  of 
which  about  two-thirds  found  its  way,  directly  or  indirectly,  to 
Dundee.  This  is  a  curious  illustration  of  the  effects  of  the  late 
French  Treaty,  and  it  is  convincing  evidence  that  the  protection 
accorded  to  the  French  spinners  by  a  large  import  duty  on  yarns 
spun  in  this  country  ought  never  to  have  been  agreed  to,  and 
should  at  once  be  taken  off.  Then  the  competition  between 
the  spinners  of  France  and  the  United  Kingdom  in  both  coun- 
tries would  be  on  fair  terms,  but  at  present  the  advantages  are 
manifestly  all  on  the  side  of  the  French.  Of  late  the  Linen 
manufacture  has  been  making  rapid  progress  in  the  northern 
districts  of  France,  and  the  productive  powers  both  of  spinners 
and  manufacturers  have  been  and  still  are  greatly  on  the  increase. 


Al'PKNIHX. 

RUSSIA. — The  Russian  Government  have  promulgated  a  de- 
cree, authorising  nearly  every  description  of  goods,  the  produce 
of  the  country,  to  be  expert .-.  I  fn f  duty.  This  is  a  commend- 
able policy,  and  if  the  Emperor  would  follow  it  up  by  removing 
the  prohibition  against  certain  imports,  and  reducing  the  <1 
on  all  to  reasonable  rates,  and  by  removing  the  many  restric- 
tions with  which  the  trade  of  the  country  is  trammelled,  1  it- 
would  do  much  to  encourage  legitimate  commerce,  and  to  enrich 
the  empire. 

UNITED    STATES. 

VALUE  OF  THE  LINENS  IMPORTED  INTO  NEW  YORK  FBOM  IHT  JANUARY  TO  SI.ST 

DECEMBER  1860  TO  1863. 
Entered  for  Horaa    Entered  for       Total  Entered    Withdrawn  from  Total  Thrown 


isr.i. 
1862. 
1863. 

Consumption. 
$6,415,345 

•J.iu 
6,711,630 
8,022,270 

$1,498,807 
7,650 
.271 
3,044,742 

at  the  Port. 
$7,914,152 
3,580,303 
7,666,901 
11,067,012 

Warehouse. 
$839,488 
1,878,081 
1,612,144 
2,465,564 

on  the  Market. 
$7,254,833 
4,020,734 
8,323,774 
10,487,834 

VALUE  OF  THE  LINENS  IMPORTED  INTO  NEW  YORK  FROM  IST  JANUARY  TO  31*r 
MAY  1862  TO  1864. 

1862.  $2,415,241     $365,615    $2,780,856     $877,472    $3,292,713 

1863.  3,523,772     1,537,538     5,061,310      673,107     4,196,879 

1864.  4,690,970     1,614,007     6,304,977     1,856,893     6,547,863 

The  same  causes  which  have  so  vastly  stimulated  the  progress 
of  the  Linen  trade  in  the  United  Kingdom  within  the  last  two 
years,  have  been  at  work  in  the  various  Linen  manufacturing 
countries  in  the  world,  and  all  have  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
felt  the  increased  demand,  and  shared  in  the  golden  harvest. 

The  following  extract  from  the  admirable  monthly  Report  of 
D.  Dewar,  Son  and  Sons,  for  July  18G4,  is  so  pertinent  and  so 
appropriate,  that  it  may  fitly  conclude  this  volume  :— 

"  The  trade  of  this  country  generally  is  in  a  very  prosperous 
condition.  For  this  prosperity,  however,  we  are  chiefly  indebted 
to  the  operation  of  free  trade  and  the  maintenance  of  peace — so 
essential  to  the  proper  development  of  that  commercial  policy 
which  has  proved  to  be  it  a  blessing  to  the  country. 

Never,  at  any  time,  has  trade  been  more  active  than  at  t he- 
present  moment.  In  every  branch  of  business — both  for  tl.e 
home  and  the  foreign  markets — the  most  buoyant  feeling  pn 


730  APPENDIX. 

vails.  The  recent  reduction  in  the  Bank  rate  has  infused  addi- 
tional life  into  commercial  operations  ;  so  that,  up  to  the  present 
time,  everything  appears  to  be  progressing  in  a  very  satisfactory 
manner.  Of  this,  some  proof  will  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
value  of  the  exports,  for  the  five  months  ended  31st  May  last, 
amounted  to  £64,069,060,  as  compared  with  £50,742,670  in 
the  corresponding  period  of  last  year,  and  with  £47,545,238  in 
the  preceding  year. 

t(  But  the  question  now  uppermost  in  everybody's  mind  is, 
shall  we  have  war  or  not  ?  At  this  time  the  interruption  of 
peace  and  the  extension  of  the  Danish  war,  to  other  parts  of 
Europe,  should  we  become  actively  involved  in  the  dispute, 
would  be  a  sad  calamity  indeed.  We  are  very  reluctant,  how- 
ever, to  believe  in  such  an  event.  No  Government  will  venture, 
under  existing  circumstances,  to  plunge  this  country  into  a  war 
involving  such  sacrifices  as  must  inevitably  be  made  to  support 
it.  It  is,  of  course,  difficult  to  say  what  effect  would  be  pro- 
duced on  our  trade  by  a  general  war  in  Europe.  That  it  would 
be  followed  by  severe  commercial  depression  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  aggravated  in  a  high  degree  by  the  increased  prices  of 
provisions,  in  addition  to  increased  taxation.  During  the 
Crimean  war,  when  the  foreign  supply  of  corn  and  provisions 
was  in  no  way  affected,  the  price  of  wheat  averaged,  on  several 
occasions,  as  much  as  80s  per  quarter.  It  is  now  only  40s,  but 
with  a  general  war  in  Europe,  affecting,  as  it  undoubtedly  would, 
all  the  corn-producing  countries,  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  esti- 
mate the  probable  average  price  at  100s,  an  additional  annual 
cost  to  the  nation  of  £60,000,000  on  this  one  item  only. 

"  The  British  trade  with  European  countries  is  now  of  a  very 
extensive  character.  During  the  last  year  the  real  value  of  the 
goods  imported  from  northern  Europe  and  France  amounted  to 
£70,795,575  ;  but,  including  all  Europe,  the  total  value  was 
£94,567,234.  On  the  other  hand,  the  declared  value  of  the 
British  goods  exported  to  the  north  of  Europe  and  France  was 
£37,479,009  ;  while  to  all  Europe  the  aggregate  value  amounted 
to  £59,641,568.  This,  of  course,  is  exclusive  of  the  value  of 
foreign  and  colonial  goods  re-exported  to  the  different  European 
countries.  It  will,  therefore,  be  seen  that  the  value  of  our 
exports  to  Europe  during  the  last  year  was  greater  than  to  all 


AlTENl'lX. 

the  world  in  the  year  luring  which   the  aggregate  value 

amounted  only  to  £52,849,44f>  A  \\ar  in  Kuiope  \vould,  for 
the  tinu-  being,  affect  trade  to  an  extent  equal  to  tin-  total 
uction  <>f  that  of  the  year  1848;  so  that  the  loss  which 
wunM  IK-  sustained  by  tin-  destruction  of  trade,  th.-  ciitia 
cost  of  provisions  of  all  kinds,  ami  tin-  increased  public  expen- 
diture, w,,nld  Maiv.lv  bi  less  than  £200,000,000.  Setting  aside 
all  other  ron-idi  rations,  what  (Government  will  venture  to  incur 
the  responsibility  of  entailing  so  great  a  loss  as  this  upon  thu 
country  ? 

"  Tin- ril'ects  of  a  war  would  of  course  be  felt  in  every  depart- 
ment of  trade ;  but  few  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  Linen  ti 
For  nearly  the  whole  of  the  foreign  supply  of  the  raw  material 
we  are  dependent  upon  the  north  of  Europe  ;  while,  at  the  same 
time,  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  Linens  exported  is  for  Euro- 
pean consumption.  On  a  former  occasion  we  estimated  the  an- 
nual consumption  of  Flax  in  this  country  at  100,000  tons  a  year ; 
this  lias  since  been  confirmed  by  the  last  report  of  the  Govern 
n lent  Inspector  of  Factories,  and  according  to  whom,  after  the 
most  careful  inquiry,  the  average  consumption  for  the  last  seven 
years  has  been  100,400  tons.  During  the  last  year  the  total 
quantity  imported  was  72,948  tons;  but  as  the  acreage  under 
Flax  in  the  United  Kingdom  during  the  last  year  was  wider, 
and  the  yield  heavier,  the  home  supply  has  been  estimated  at 
•  '.  L-J27  tons;  making,  in  all,  137,175  tons  for  the  past  year. 
For  so  far,  the  account  of  the  crop  up  to  the  present  time  is  most 
favourable.  There  is,  at  least  in  Ireland,  a  still  greater  breadth 
of  land  under  the  crop,  and  as  the  yield  of  fibre  promises  to  be 
equally  as  good  as  last  year,  we  have  little  doubt  the  supply  from 
our  own  sources  will  be  fully  70,000  tons. 

"  It  will  he  seen,  however,  that  this  quantity  will  fall  far  short 
ot  the  total  consumption  of  last  year.  In  the  quantity  imported 
there  is  a  very  considerable  increase  up  to  the  present  time; 
according  t«>  tin.-  returns  ju-t  isMied.  the  total  of  the  Flax  re- 
ceived during  the  live  months  ended  31st  May  last,  was  638,17-1 
cwt.,  compared  with  317,821  cwt.  in  the  corresponding  period 
of  last  year,  and  with  334,  l»',f>  cwt.  in  the  \Vc 

mii>t,  how,  \.i,  take  into  our  consideration  the  steadily  inci 
ing  demand  for  Linens,  which,  if  not  interrupted  by  war.  i 


732  APPENDIX. 

sarily  involves  an  increased  demand  for  the  raw  material.  Should, 
therefore,  the  present  pacific  relation  of  this  country  be  inter- 
rupted, it  will  easily  be  seen  to  what  an  extent  trade  will  suffer. 
But  we  are  not  amongst  those  who  believe  that  anything  serious 
will  occur  ;  and  the  steady  progress  of  our  foreign  trade  at  this 
moment,  as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  foreign  markets,  indicate 
clearly  enough  that  there  is  no  great  fear  existing  in  the  minds 
of  people  generally,  that  the  question  of  peace  or  war,  so  far  as 
this  country  is  concerned,  admits  of  any  other  than  a  pacific 
solution  only. 

"  In  any  case,  however,  we  find  ourselves  in  considerable  diffi- 
culty with  regard  to  the  supply  of  Flax.  The  consumption  of 
Linens  at  home  is  extending  rapidly  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  limited  only 
by  the  supply — for  the  demand  cannot  be  met ;  while  the  value 
of  the  piece  goods  exported  during  the  five  months  ended  31st  of 
May  last,  was  £3,138,863,  compared  with  £2,270,878  during 
the  same  period  of  last  year,  and  £1,722,705  in  the  preceding 
year. 

"  With  respect  to  the  supply  of  Flax,  we  are  much  gratified 
to  find  that  the  attention  of  the  Government  is  now  being  directed 
to  the  matter.  This  question  is  more  now  than  ever  of  paramount 
importance,  considering  the  increased  supply  of  the  raw  material 
necessary  for  the  requirements  of  the  additional  spinning  mills 
about  to  be  erected  for  supplying  the  excessive  demand  for  yarns, 
which  are  sold  at  such  unprecedentedly  remunerative  rates. 

"  Mr  Baker,  the  inspector  of  fac'ories,  in  his  last  official  report 
to  the  Home  Secretary,  states: — 'In  1862  Messrs  Dewar  esti- 
mated the  average  consumption  of  Flax  at  100,000  tons  a  yeart 
stating  also  that  fully  as  much  more  was  required/  According 
to  the  result  of  the  most  careful  inquiry  on  the  part  of  Mr  Baker, 
'  the  average  consumption  for  the  last  seven  years  was  100,400 
tons ;'  and  of  the  accuracy  of  his  statement  there  can  be  little 
doubt.  He  goes  on  to  state  that,  '  the  entire  acreage  of  England 
and  Wales  is  37,324,883,  which,  divided  into  farms,  gives  an 
average  of  149  acres  each.  Adding  the  number  of  farms  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  supposing  that  every  farmer  could  •  be 
induced  to  grow  five  acres  of  Flax,  for  one  year  as  an  experi- 
ment, the  produce  of  a  low  average  rate  of  4  cwt.  per  acre  would 
be  equivalent  to  511,850  tons/ 


A!  I 


Hut  Hipp.'Mii^  only  half  the  lainl,  or  Imlf  the  indiiiationB 
<>f  the  fanners,  w«.uM  admit  of  this  growth,  we  should  still  have 
a  production  ot  1  55,925  tons,  which  would  be  more  than  twice 
as  much  as  Mr  Dewar's  estimate  ;  and,  without  int<  -ri<  -ling  with 
otton  trade  at  all,  would  give  the  odd  day  and  a  halfs  em- 
ployment to  the  cotton  di>tri<  t>  which,  according  to  Mr  Ash- 
worth's  calculations,  will  be  wanting  in  1865,  and  perhaps  in 
1866;  and  would  <li-trihute  to  the  farmers  themselves  between 
two  and  three  mill  ions  of  hard  cash,  which  otherwise  they  would 
never  touch.  Moreover,  of  this  we  may  be  sure,  that  without 
this  home  growth,  should  there  ever  be  a  time  when  we  cannot 
obtain  foreign  Flax,  we  shall  then  have  a  Flax  famine,  as  we 
have  lately  had  a  cotton  famine  ;  and  whether  there  is  ever  such 
a  time  or  not,  the  Flax-spinning  spindles  of  the  European  con- 
tinent have,  within  these  late  years,  so  largely  increased,  that 
much  of  the  Flax  grown  abroad  will  be  wanted  for  home  con- 
Bumption  .  and  though  we  may  possibly  obtain  some  of  it,  the 
prices  will  be  enhanced,  and  our  own  farmers  had  better,  there- 
fore prepare  to  help  us  under  the  contingency.' 

11  These  remarks  are  so  truthful,  and  they  bear  so  fully  on 
the  present  position  of  the  trade,  that  we  deem  it  right  to  give 
them  all  the  publicity  we  can.  They  are  evidently  the  result 
of  careful  observation  and  inquiry  ;  no  practical  person  will  dis- 
pute their  accuracy  ;  and  it  would  be  fortunate  indeed  if  those 
most  interested  would  follow  the  advice  given  ;  for  certain  it  is 
that  something  must  be  done  to  render  us  less  dependent  on  the 
foreign  supply." 


(     734     ) 


INDEX 


Aberdeen— Manufactures,  426. 
Yarn  and  Linen  made,  538. 
Thread  made,  539— Mills,  540. 
Exports,  540— Spindles,  540. 
Decline  of  Trade,  541. 
Aberdein,  Gordon  and  Co.,  518,  577,  655, 

723. 

Abernethy,  483— Abernyte,  483. 
Abingdon,  66,  387. 
Achan's  Covetousness,  182. 
Adam,  120,  121. 
Adamson,  John,  549,  654. 
Adie,  A.  and  J.,  656. 
African  Company,  430. 
Agricola,  206,  578. 

Alexander  the  Great,  180,  191,  195,  220. 
Alexander  Severus,  206,  223. 
Alexandrosky  Works,  336 
Aloe  Fibre,  107. 
Alva,  Duke  of,  362. 
Alyth,  484. 

Amestris,  Queen  of  Xerxes,  191. 
Amiens,  315. 

Amorgos,  193,  195,  196,  222. 
Amsterdam,  291,  293. 
Anderson,  A.  B.,  67. 
Anderson,  William,  67. 
Anderson's  History  of  Commerce,  360. 
Anglo-Saxons,  356,  357. 
Anne,  Queen,  392,  393. 
Annan,  David,  508 — Annan,  James,  493. 
Antwerp,  292,  393,  304,  362. 
Appendix,  724. 
Arachne,  190,  219. 
Arab  Tent,  123. 
Arbirlot,  485. 
Arbroath — Jute  spun,  80. 

Osnaburgs  first  made,  541. 

Town  Clerk's  Account,  542. 

Pennant's  Tour,  542. 

Linen  Stamped,  542,  546. 

Sailcloth  made,  542. 

Elders  of  St  Vigeans,  543. 

Scrims  and  Thread  made,  543 

Spinning  Mills,  543,  545. 

Vicissitudes  of  Trade,  544. 

Bleachfields,  545. 

Discount  of  Bills,  545. 

Dundee  and  Arbroath  Railway,  545. 

Prices  Current,  547. 

Power-Looms  and  Spindles,  548,  654. 

Flaxdressers,  548. 


Production  of  Linens,  548. 
Archangel— First  Russian  Port,  320. 

Imports  and  Exports,  321,  322. 

Character  of  Flax  shipped,  322,  324. 

Brack  and  Classification  of  Flax,  323. 

Consul  Kenny's  Report,  324. 

Linen  made,  336. 
Arete,  Queen  of  Phceacia,  189. 
Argyle,  Duke  of,  443. 
Aristophanes,  193,  223. 
Arkwright,  Richard,  373. 
Assaville,  Nicholas  D',  448. 
Athelstane,  King,  356. 
Athena,  Goddess  of  Weaving,  &c. ,  190, 1 92. 
Athenian  Ladies,  192,  223. 
Athens,  191,  194. 
Attica,  192. 

Auchterarder,  485 — Auchtermuchty,  485. 
Augustus,  206,  220. 
Aurelian,  207. 
Austria — Made  Linens  early,  285. 

Flax  and  Hemp  grown,  286. 

Dependent  on  itself,  286. 

Manufacturing    Industry    Artificial, 
286. 

Imports  and  Exports,  287. 

Goods  in  Transit,  288. 

Spinning  Mills,  288. 

Linens  in  Exhibition.  288. 
Avoch,  486. 

Aytoun,  James,  71,  79,  510,  566,  691. 
Aytoun,  R.  and  A.,  655. 
Awnings  of  Linen,  206. 


Babylon — Magnificence  of,  136. 

Fabrics  costly  and  prized,  182. 

Silks,  182. 

Flax  grown,  183. 

Weaving  Establishments,  182. 
Baker,  Mr,   Inspector  of  Factories,  379, 

732. 

Baldwin,  Earl  of  Flanders,  249. 
Balfour  and  Gumming,  654. 
Balfour  and  Meldrum,  65,  68,  72. 
Banff,  486. 

Bank  of  England,  430. 
Bank  of  Scotland,  433 
Bannockburn,  Battle  of,  229,  422. 
Barber,  Nephew,  and  Co.,  727. 
Barcelona,  264. 
Barnsley,  385. 
Barry,  487. 


INDEX. 


«nd  Co.,  382,  614,  631, 

KiVeaux  Tapestrv,  .'l.V>. 

Trade  settled  in,  394. 

Spinning 

gueon  and  Prince  AlU-rfM  Vmt,  4UV 
Metropolis  of  Linen  Trade,  417 

Imp.rtsand  Kxports,    ll'.»,  420. 

Belgium -Flax  < 

Miingand  Weaving  F*rtorie*.  299. 
.•<  made,  299-   Bleaching,  299. 

Linens  in  K\liii>ition,  308. 
Benholm.  491— Bendoohy,  49L 
Benjamin  of  Tudt-la.  1 
.  275. 

ander,  666. 

Hervi,-.  4S1>.  tJ'.rj. 

lU-veiid-e,  F.rjikine  uud  Co.,  Ml. 

Bezaleel,  130. 

Bilbon.  2»J4. 

L>75,  276. 
if,  David,  589. 
Birsay  and  H array,  491. 
Blair,  Andrew  and  Co.,  655. 
. 

Blairgowrie— Jute-Spinning,  80,  B 
spinning  Mills,  239,  549. 
Linens  Stamped,  .'•  I'.'. 

miles  and  Power-looms,  550,  654. 
UK  aching-Greece,  193-Spain,  1 

Holland,  295,  717— Belgium,  L".»'.». 
nd,  M\~  Ireland,  409. 

17,  449,  720. 
With  K-l]..  I  teaching,  570. 

Dundee,  599,  722.      " 

Linen,  716— France,  71*.  71!». 

lUeachfields,  44H,  71'.» 

..in-,  7'Jl. 

Steam,  721 -Soda  Ash,  7J1. 
Washing  by  Machin.  ry,  7'Jl. 

Blue  BookH. 

ndT.,  656. 
lioadicea.  :{->}. 
Board  of  Trustees  for  Scotland. 

Patent  for  Appointment,  445. 

Rules  and  Regulation*. 

Extracts— Minutes  and  Heports,  448 
Boetius,  Hector,  484,  579. 
Bohemia,  287. 
Bois-le-duc. 
liologna,  2o. 
Boltou  and 

Bonelli,  Chev.i'n  r.  71  I. 
Borneo  Com  pa  UN  . 
Borsippa,  183. 
Boston,  348. 
Boswell.  St 
Bothwell,    . 

Bounty— On   Hemp  and    Flax    Impoite.l 
368. 


.  nnting,  663. 
AcU  Authorudng, 

OnKxp-MtH,  M>,  07«). 

1 

Boyack,  William,  71. 
Brabant,  227,  286,  290,  295. 
Breohin—  Osnaburg  Manufacture,  561. 

Hleacl.tiel.ls,  5.VJ. 

Power-Looms,  554. 
iJrehon  Laws. 
Brotagne,  304,  314,  315. 
Brice's  Universal  Geography,  584. 


liritish  I.iiu-n  Company,  2<S. 
Britons—  Noticed  by  old  Historian.-. 

Clothed  in  Skins. 

1'ainte.l  tl..-ir  Holies,  353. 

Span  ami  Weaved  Tartan,  &c 

Belgse  introduced  Linen 

Romans  introduced  ('ivili/.ati.m,  li.M. 

Wrapped  their  dead  in  ; 

Retreat  in  to  Wales  and  fornwhi:. 
Brougli,  Thomas,  656. 

.iwn,  Andrew  and  Co.,  656. 
Brown,  Jame>. 

Brown,  William,  589,  690,  6i»J. 
Bruce,  King  David,  578. 
Bruce,  King  Robert 
Bruges,  249,  290. 
Brussels,  299,  301. 
Buist,  Alexander  J.,  656. 
Butter  Milk,  718,  720. 
Byssus,  130,  141,  186,  215. 


Cadiz,  263. 

Caesar  mentions  the  Britons,  353. 

Oaird  U 

C.tir.l,  Kd  ward,  656. 

Cairnie,  491. 

f'airncross,  David,  699. 

Caledonians,  1_'L'. 

Calendering Machii,  §.  -}''.n.  i'-l  I. 

Calico— With  Flax  Warp,  370. 

Penalties  on  Weaving,  369. 
C«mbray,  293,  306-315. 
Cambric,  293,  314,  315,  363,  i'7 1 
Carabuslang,  492— Caputh.  • 
Cargill  and  Co.,  520,  7: 
'.  T.  and  J.,  656. 
Can m us,  Emperor,  207. 
Carmirhaol,  J.  and  Co.,  603,  699. 
Carmichael,  John . 
CarmichaeLPeter.712,714. 

Catalonia,  263. 

Carthage— Hebrew  spoken,  180. 

Founded  by  Dido,  181. 

imported  Flax,  1M. 

Kmporium  of  Trade,  181. 

Taken  by  the  Romans 

Intrudnced  Linen  to  Kur-  i 
Catullus,  187,  200,  "J17. 

•  TI.  ( 'li.ulcs  and  Co..  650. 


736 


INDEX 


Champagne,  304. 

Charlemagne,  201,  249. 

Charles  IF.,  391. 

Charles  III.  of  Spain,  262. 

Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  262. 

Charley,  William  J.  P.,  420. 

Chaptel,  Mons.,  721. 

Cheffelle,  Louis,  655. 

Chemmis,  172. 

China,  Early  Account  of,  173. 

Flax,  173,  345. 

Linens,  345. 
China  Grass— A  Nettle,  95. 

Cultivation,  95— Preparation,  97. 

Not  suited  for  Spinning,  98. 
Chlorine,  720,  721. 
Ciampini,  701. 
Cleopatra's  Gallery,  139. 
Cluny,  493. 
Colchis — An  Egyptian  colony,  184. 

Grew  Flax  and  Hemp,  184,  185. 

Exported  Linen,  184,  195. 
Cologne,  277. 
Combe  and  Co.,  684,  699. 
Commercial  Restrictions,  231. 
Companies  of  Merchants,  360. 
Comrie,  493. 

Constantine  Palaeologus,  343. 
Convoys  from  Leith  Roads,  438. 
Copenhagen,  339. 
Copland,  Professor,  720. 
Corinth,  196. 
Corsar  Brothers,  654. 
Corsar,  David  and  Sons,  654. 
Corslet  of  Amasis,  165,  213. 
Cos,  Fabrics  of,  188,  195. 
Cotton  Bagging,  439,  467,  600,  617. 
Cotton  Manufacture,  373,  374,  563,  598. 
Cotton  Sailcloth,  347. 
Council  of  Westminster,  358. 
Coupar  Angus,  454,  494. 
Courtrai,  299. 
Cox,  James,  572. 

Cox  Brothers,  573,  620,  656,  714,  723. 
Crail,  494. 

Craik,  J.  and  H.  and  Co.,  654. 
Crete,  344. 

Crichton,  Archibald,  592. 
Crichton,  James,  58. 
Crieff,  495. 

Crommelin,  Louis,  392. 
Crompton,  Joseph,  710. 
Cromwell,  580. 
Cronstadr,  325. 
Cruelties  of  the  Spaniards,  229,  263,  293, 

362. 

Cullen,  496 
Cumberland,  387. 
Cunningham,  J.  L.,  656. 
Cupar-Fife,  495. 
Curr,  William  and  Co.,  654. 
Curry,  Walter,  579. 


Dacca — Jute  grown  around,  60. 

Cloth  made,  162. 

Celebrated  Manufactures,  188 
Daniel's  Vision,  140. 
Darien  Compnny,  430. 


Darlington,  382,  692. 
Davidson,  William,  619. 
Dean  Castle  burned,  434. 
Deer,  497. 
Delos,  195. 
Demetrius,  Chlamys  of,  189. 
Denmark,  340. 

Dfiwar,  D.,  Son  and  Snns,  516,  557,  729. 
Dickson,  John  F.,  546,  723. 
Dickson  and  Co.,  317,  3 '8. 
Dio,  422. 

District  Trade,  483,  538,  577. 
Domestic  Trade,  481. 
Donald,  James,  574,  656. 
Dorian  Dress,  191. 
Dorset,  386. 

Dorsetshire  Gentleman,  375. 
Douglastown  Mill,  512,  692. 
Douglas,  William,  511. 
Dowall,  Charles,  546-723. 
Dowally,  497. 
Dritnmie,  Alexander,  721. 
Drimmie,  Daniel  and  Co.,  523,  721,  723. 
Druce,  Samuel,  jun.,  376. 
Druids  wore  Linen  garments,  355. 
Duncan,  D.  and  Co.,  723. 
Dundee— Direct  Jute  Imports,  65,  619, 
620. 

Jute  introduced,  67,  69,  71- 

Imports,  240,  587,  613,  633. 

Exports,  309,  587,  601,  606,  608,  613, 
635. 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  403,  601,  611, 
630,  666,  667. 

Stormed  by  Monk,  426,  580. 

Offered  a  Spinning  School,  448. 

Bleaching  with  Kelp,  449. 

Antiquity  of,  578. 

Second  Town  in  Scotland,  580. 

Decay  of  Trade,  581. 

Manufacture  of  Thread,  582,  612. 

Could  not  support  a  Bank,  582. 

Harbour,  579,  580,  583. 

Mobs  in,  582,  603. 

Account  of,  by  S.  Homespun,  583-- 
Brice,  584  — Pennant,  584— Dr 
Small,  584, 

Hereditary  Jurisdiction,  584. 

Various  Trades,  585. 

Price  of  Flax,  587,  608,  609,  616. 

Mill-spinning,  589,  591,  592,  613, 630, 
656. 

Bell  Mill,  590. 

Capital  in  Spinning  Mills,  591,  632. 

Mills  for  Sale,  591. 

Mills  in  Neighbourhood,  593,  654. 

The  Luckenbooths  and  Hand  spin- 
ning, 595. 

Difficulties  of  early  Spinners,  596. 

Night  Work,  598— Heckling,  598. 

Cotton  Manufacture,  598. 

Bleaching  Prices,  599. 

Russian  Merchants,  601. 

Whale  Fishing,  601. 

Manufacture  of  Sailcloth,  602. 

Punishment  for  Theft,  602. 

Foreigners  may  be  Free,  603. 

Engineering,  603— Shore-due*,  603. 

Linen  Stamped,  604. 


Wagei,  G06,  rt! 

.ill. 

ory,  615. 
- 

Bagging  *»d  Railway  .V 
Crimean  an.l  A 

Flax  Trad. . 

The  Cowrutf,  r.LH.». 

Fabrics  M.i  .  630. 

8t«1 

w  Material. 

Rti  «lfriri'.l  from  Jute, 

i 
Statistics  of  Mill*  and  Factories,  654, 

,;:„;. 

Dundee  Advertiser,  22.  75,  '.' 
-1  ..  438,  456,  4<; 

160, 

Duff,  Daim-l,  71,006. 
Durf,  Tliom 

Dunfermliue— New  Diaper  I. 

Specimen  of  Art 
Spinning-Mill. 

nufactmv-. 
.<•>— Wages, 
Pow«  r  Loom  Works,  557. 

uide,  558. 
DunkeM,  ! 

Dui  kirk— Flax  grown,  ill  I. 
Mar.ufacturep, 

'..rk.  .'517. 
clien,  498     Dun: 

Dupin,    Nich.'h-. 

Dui:i  I >.-ii,  507. 

Dutch  Government  UHP  Jute  Yarn,  75. 

Dutch  towing,  292,293. 

Dyeing— Ju- 

' 
Dyaait,  498. 

Kasson,  Alexander,  58 
!  >nd  Mcrch 
till  (  ompany,  5T.L'. 
I     M.,  66L 

Edinbui 
Exlinbu 
Edward  All 

Edwanl.    A.   :.ml    I),    an.l    Co..    f,l  : 

i  -  VI  ,  :'.«•••_». 

.  1  I.V 
TranK^  1! 

:it  Painting*,  1-Hi,  210. 

Sj.in.Iles  and  Spinning.  11^,  •_'!!. 

."-  A 


,  158, 

l.iii-u  UN "d  for  Emt>:i 

156, 

Mended  Miuuniy  Cloth*,  154. 
Embalm!,,.;,   I -.'«>,  155. 

t,  156— "Un 
Ah  .  nt«,  159. 

Mummy  Cl<>th     1!  I 

Net*  and  Patterns  of  Linen,  165 
Gold  -mil  >i\vr  I 

daft  i''«7. 
MonlanU  uaed,  1*>7. 

;^es  and  Carjietii,  I(i9. 
Twines  and  Paper,  170. 
Gnats,  remedy  against, 

yrmi  B..ats,  171     Sails,  171. 

. -n  m.i'ic  111  r-  mi>ie->,  ; . 

Kxi-oited,  17.\ 
vins,  Grott ••>  .if,   147. 

L86,  22]    1T22. 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  88L 

u,  rjs.   133,  L50,  i    •. 
182,  189,  1'." 

Employment  for  the  Unemployed,  366. 
Endogens,  105. 
England— People  rude,  S 
Saxon  Invasion,  226. 
Progress  in  Weaving,  •_>•_' 7. 
William  of  Normnn  ly,  L"J7. 
Visited  by  Phoe:,i 
Flax  imli- 

Guills  establis!ie.J,  358. 
Linen  Imports. 
Egyptian,     Geimnn,     ;iii<l     Flemish 

I  from  Caroliiui, 

an  'I'm  'o  bfgun. 

Flax  Culture  encouraged,  3«VJ,  31*3. 
I.in.Mi   M;i:mf;i' tin. •  encouraged,  »W3. 
Stagnation  in  '1 
Impoits  ami  Exports,  380. 

S|>ii,nii  -. 

Spindles  an<l  P.>wt  r-I^ooms,  387. 
b  IV  -luce  .lutv  ; 

"ens  assign-  <1  t». 

.  iutn  <>n  I:  ib  H.  mj>,  309. 
Whippini;  th-  Sc..tcl  . 
Union  with  r-co-lan.l. 
Complaints    of     N\  .x.ll,  n     Manuf.ic- 

Englinh  Gallant,  364. 

Lin.  u  Co  i 
Equivalent,  The. 
F.iu-ht,  River,  55a 

:  .:es,  River,  l&i 
Ewan,  John,  656. 

881. 

-mi,  106, 
Er-  kiel'i  Visioo,  14«\ 


Factory  Idiwg— France.  31'V 
I  King.l   m,  r.7l. 


738 


INDEX. 


Factory  Returns,  420,  662,  683. 
Fair  bairn,  Peter  and  Co.,  699. 
Falkland,  423,  501. 
Fashions,  Change  of,  369. 
Fergus,  John  and  Co.,  516. 
Fer^usson,  William  and  Sons,  656. 
Fibres  of  Plants,  4,  273,  683. 
Findlater,  Earl  of,  496. 
Finisterre,  316. 
Flanders,  227,  285,  290. 
Fraser,  Douglas  and  Son,  654. 
Flatterer,  The,  714. 
Flax  -Names,  4— An  Annual,  4. 
Description,  4. 
Varieties,  5,  127,  146,  255. 
Climate  required,  6. 
Seed  Valuable,  7. 
Sowing  Seed,  10,  33. 
Produce  per  acre,  11,  255,  374,  377. 
Composition  of  Plant,  12. 
Soil  required,  13,  32. 
Rotation  of  Crops,  14,  33,  256. 
Sowing,  16,  33,  146— Manure,  16. 
Weeding,  17,  34. 
Pulling,  17,  34,  146. 
Steeping,  19,  23,  28,  37,  147, 143,  378. 
Rippling,  20,  35, 
Preparing— Lee's    Patent,    21,    22— 

Sheack's,  26-  Watt's,  27. 
Spreading,  26,  38. 
Dew  Rettin?,  26,  323. 
Scutching,  29,  39, 146. 
Manage.nent  of  Crop,  31. 
Courtrai  System,  23,  39. 
Prices,  Riga  and  London,  113. 
Antiquity,  126,  127,  146. 
Where   Grown— Canaan,  127,  215— 
Egypt,  145,  210--  China,  173,  345 
-Babylon,    183  — Colchis,    184- 
Greece,  186,  197,  221— Italy,  201, 
253,  255,  258— Spain,  199,  224,  260, 
265 -France,  201,  303,  312,314,  358 
-  Germany,  267, 271,  275— Austria, 
286— Holland,  295,  297— Belgium, 
298— Russia,   323,   326— Portugal, 
340— Turkey,  344— America,  346— 
England,  357— Ireland,  388— Scot- 
land, 242,  439. 
Fibre  in  l^traw,  273. 
Scotch  and  Irish  Contrasted,  401. 
Progress  of  Cultivation,  724. 
Flax  and  its  Products  in  Ireland,  420. 
Flax  Seed— Food  for  Cattle,  7,  20,  378. 
Yield  of  Oil,  7 -Imports,  8,  373. 
Should  be  Saved,  19,  20,  438. 
Flax  Heckling,  683. 
Flax-Spinning,  130,  134,   187,  188,  215, 

223,  243, 246,  683,  684,  692 
Fleming,  David  H..  656. 
Fleming,  Robert,  629. 
Fleming,  W.  and  J.  and  Co.,  505. 
Fleming,  W.  and  R.  H.,  656. 
Flemings— Love  of  Liberty,  289. 

Enjoyed  Commercial  Freedom,  290. 
Weaving  a  Gift  to,  358. 
In  Scotland,  424. 

Fletcher,  Alexander  and  Co.,  505. 
Fordoun,  502— Fordyoe,  502. 
Forfar— Osnabuigs  made,  55S. 


Fluciuations  in  TraX  559. 

Linen  Stamped,  559. 

Wages,  559,  561. 

Value  of  Linens  made,  560. 

Hand  and  Power-Looms,  560. 

Bleachfield  and  Calender,  561 

Fabrics  made,  561— Castle,  578. 
Forfarshire,  385,  403. 
Forgan,  502— Forres,  503. 
France — Imports   and    Exports,    80,    81, 
305,  306,  307,  311,  728. 

Soil  adapted  for  Flax,  303. 

Linens  early  made,  304. 

Popish  Persecutions,  30*). 

Yarn  to  Dundee,  307,  728. 

Exports,  United  Kingdom  to.  30S. 
Do.,  Dundee  to,  309— Tariffs,  309. 

Acreage  under  FLtx,  312. 

Spindles,  312,  313. 

Factories  and  Factory  Laws,  313. 

Fine  Flax  grown  largely,  314. 

Prosperous  under  Napoleon,  316,  317. 

Linen  in  Exhibition,  318. 
Fraternity  of  Scissors,  359. 
French  Cambric  prohibited  in  England, 

370. 
Frieslandr  295— Frost  stops  Weaving,  451. 


Gaigacus,  578-Gulston,  503. 

Garments,  Seamless,  129,  130,  554,  56& 

Gaul,  199,  200,  203,  353. 

Gas  introduced  into  mills,  537. 

Gennes,  M.,  709- Gentle  Shepherd,  241. 

Genoa,  256,  257,  264— George  IV.,  402. 

Geraldus,  Cambrensis,  389. 

Germanic  Union,  278. 

German  Ladies,  224,  354. 

German  Fairs,  280- 

Geirmny — Linen  w>>ve  under  ground,  2001 

Manufactures  Ancient,  266. 

German  names  of  Linens,  267- 

Linen  Manufactures,  279, 

Fiscal  Regulations,  279. 

Linens  in  Exhibition,  284. 
Ghent,  299,  301— Gibbon,  166. 
Gilchrist,  Alexander,  516. 
Gibson,  Farqith'irson  and  Co.,  656. 
Gilroy  Brothers,  65,  79,  620,  625,  656. 
Giovani  Bolero,  305. 
Glasgow,  Manufactures  established,  428. 

Exported  Linen  to  Bristol,  430. 

Rope  Work  erected,  430. 

Woodrow's  Account,  432. 

Manufacturing  Progress,  433,  504. 

Lapping  Machines,  449. 
Glamis,  504— Gordon,  George,  654. 
Gordon,  Barren  and  Co.,  721. 
Gordon,  G.  and  A ,  654,  655. 
Gordon,  John  and  Co.,  656. 
Gourlay  Brothers,  699. 
Gourock  Rope  Work  Company,  505. 
Grange,  505. 
Great  Britain  — 

Importations  from  Ireland,  398-399. 

Imports  and  Exports,  658,  659,  666, 

Revenue  from  Flax,  &c. ,  660. 

Consumption  of  Linen,  665. 
Greece— J)eseiiption,  185. 


739 


w  Flai,  186--Ladi«i  of. 

Manufacture*,  196— Expoiti,  1'XJ. 

«;ie   n-.rk  Spurn  n-  ( '..uip.iiiy,  .">o'>. 

y     |,  .,..,.-. 

II 
Haarlem,  291,  294,  295. 

Haugart,  Jamea,  516-Hatlev,  John,  71. 
Halley,  William  and  Sont,  CM. 
Hamburg—  Import,  and  Exports  *>.  66, 

nit-  Linen,  118. 

Hanover— Famed  for  Linen,  :M7,  -71 
Napoleon  and  Trade.  LT  1 

J72. 

:i    ii  i:\hil.iti.-n,  284. 
HaniPMtio  League     F«nm:iti..u,  2*28,  282. 

Harjjraves,  Jaine*,  37;?. 

•s  -Distinctive  Dress.  ' 
Haiold,  Kiu.  .  356. 

Has»elquist— Egyptian  Linen,   17.'. 

Dg  M.M-lnne,  684— Hector,  189. 

IM.-n-Ind 

•  >v.  r.   1  '.'I. 
•  1      M:il. -ami  F. male,  41. 

Tliracian  •  .  42. 

14     Tolling,  46. 

Steeping  :i«iinor,  47. 

.5-Produce,  48, 

MO    111,  11G, 
117.  •ii-.o     :  .  ii60. 

Henderson ,  .  656. 

II-  :..!.i>. .11,  .l.-lin  nnd  SODS,  656. 

65A. 

in..  :i*8. 
uce,  305. 

422. 

,1,168, 
700-Hibi«cO«,  Denri 

Manufacture*  tried,  452. 
•  Garment*,  129. 

Hodgea.Profea.or,  11,  12,  419. 
1  Co ,  666. 

•i.l      Love  <»f  I  .ih,  r-v,  289. 

J04. 

Liiuit'<l  Muiiufa 


Jute  Yurns  manufacture.!.  !">,, 

Hnllin^h.u.l.  -r.-_'.  578. 

Hoin.  ipun,  Samuel,  374.  5831 

no. 

: 

Hull  1m 

llui.ti:.  .79   -Huutlv,  106, 

Huntly,  Marquu  . 

i 

I.U,MreM,  137-Iliiad,  183. 
l.,rh  I:! 

ut  trade  wi'li,  162. 
India  Flax  Conip 

rnesi,  506. 
Irelan 

Liueo  Board  api 

IOB]> 

Trade  settled  in  Ulstci 

Flax  st--L-|>fl  ii  net,  38d. 

l'.\  ported  Linfiis  early,  889. 

Women  good  »pinnera,  390. 

Linen  Manufacture  encouraged,  390. 

Exports  of  wool  prohibited,  391- 

;  nTrale,  99 
Linen  Ti  ad-  assign.  ,, 
Prottstant  Lin.-ns  encour 
Linen  Scarfs  at  Funerals, 
Premiums  and  Grants,  31H,  400. 
Transactions  of  Trust-  es,  394. 
Seals  Isaut-d,  31O. 
Domestic  nature  of  Trade,  395. 
District  iniuket  . 
Bounty  to  Linen  producers,  S96. 
Exports  and  Import  J,  3'J9, 

408-  Bounty  on  Irish  H  nip,  398, 
Bounty  on  Linen  exerted,  398 
Crow  Channel  Trade  Coasting,  39d. 
To»r  of  Inspection,  400,  403. 

-handed  Wheel,  400. 
Kilu-drying  Flnx,  401. 
Int  S>ed,  402. 

Dutch  Agriculturists,  403. 
Late  Introduction  of  Mill-spinning, 

404_Ki.st  Spini.inu  Mill-,  404. 
Grants  to  Tmstc<  a  withdrawn,  401, 

405  105. 

:    405. 

tu  re,  400,  414 
1  1    •   !-p»iu  Y;iri'. 

r..w.  !  i.  ...  ,!„,,  4>-.  i  •_•.!.  :•_•;. 

.  no. 
Ai-r.-.u'--  of  Kl.ix  grown,  -111.  412. 


Market  K 
PTORTeM  ot  ' 
Quality  of  Irish  Flax,  4 
Flax  Seed,  417. 
Trade  centralised 
Persons  employed,  i 
Flax  and  i 
•  1,  George,  jun..  I 


740 


INDEX. 


Isaiah — Zion's  daughters,  136. 
Italy  -Flax  grown,  201,  253. 

Free  Cities,  248,  252. 

Flax  Cultivation,  253,  256. 

Districts  where  grown,  256. 

One  Power- Loom,  257. 

Priests,  259. 

Imports  and  Exports,  259. 
Ivan  Vassiliewitch  II.,  320. 
Ivory,  James  aiidCo.,  238,  458,  490,  512. 


Jacob's  Garments,  124. 

Jacquard  Machine.  556,  707. 

Jaffe  Brothers,  629. 

James  II.,  367,  427. 

James  III.,  579— Jeffrey,  John,  655. 

Jesus,  Seamless  Coat,  130. 

John,  King,  establishes  Guilds,  358. 

John,  Saint,  143. 

Johnson,  Ben,  Silent  Women,  363. 

Johnston,  G.  and  J.,  538. 

Joseph's  Coat,  124, 126.-Josephus,  129. 

Jute— Long  grown  in  India,  49. 

First  importation  of,  50. 

Experimental  Cultivation,  50,  725. 

Varieties  and  Description,  51,  83. 

Names,  51,  52,  53-Job,  52. 

Sowing.  Soil,  and  Climate,  53. 

Roots,  54 — liunner.s,  55. 

Reaping,  55  --Steeping,  55. 

Scutching,  56— Produce,  56. 

Grown  in  Dundee,  58. 

Stalk  or  Stem  useful,  58. 

Colour,  59— Uses  in  India,  59. 

Gunny  Clo'h  and  Baqs,  60. 

Whisky  made  of  Roots,  60. 

Transport  to  Calcutta,  61. 

Bazaars,  61. 

Public  P.icking  Houses,  61. 

Size  of  Bales,  61— Packing,  62. 

Shipment  from  Calcutta,  62. 

Sold  by  B,  okers  in  England,  62. 

Auction  Sales,  63. 

Intermediate  Agents,  64. 

Direct  Shipments  to  Dundee,  65. 

Selma,  first  direct  Ship,  65. 

Spun  on  Hand-wheel,  67. 

Disliked  by  Mill-spinners,  70,  77. 

Bad  repute  of,  71,  76,  78. 

Carpeting,  72— Dyeing,  73. 

Imports  itito  Dundee,  76. 

Batching,  77. 

Fibres,  Hard  and  Dry,  78. 

Weaved  without  Starch,  79. 

Appearance  sightly,  79. 

Fabrics  made,  79. 

Extending  Consumption,  80. 

Imports  into  France,  80. 

Cotton,  82- Wool,  82. 

Extent  of  Crop,  83. 

May  be  Washed  or  Boiled,  83,  84. 

E sports  from  Calcutta,  84,  86,  726. 

London  Statistics,  85. 

Stock,  88,  727. 

Imports,  89,  110,  111,  115,  117,  660. 

Prices,  89, 108,  110. 

Countries  whence  Imported,  1.15. 

Exports,  116. 


Purfcs  iiito  which  Impoited,  117. 

Manufactures  Exported,  678. 

Consumption,  727. 
Jute  Factories,  680,  681,  682. 
Jute  Yarns— Largely   used  in   Holland, 
296— Exports,  678. 

K 

Kay,  John,  703. 

Keith,  507— Kemback,  507. 

KenJrew  and  Porthouse,  239,  381,   458, 

489,  510,  512,  690,  695. 
Kenmore,  508  -Kettle,  508. 
Kennedy  and  Co.,  656. 
Kerr,  John  and  Co.,  699. 
Kil'iarchnn— Thread  Manufacture,  434 
Kilbride,  508  -Kilchoman,  509. 
Killin,  509— Kilwinning,  509. 
Kilmarnock,  Earl  of,  434. 
Kingborn,  510,  655— Kinloch,  511. 
Kinmond,  Luke,  and  Co.,  657. 
Kinnettles,  458,  511. 
Kinross— Patriotic  experiment,  438,  514. 
Kirkcaldy—  Shipping,  561. 

Linen  Manufacture  established,  561. 

Fluctuations  in  Trade,  562,  565. 

Linens  Stamped,  562,  563. 

Ticking  Manufacture,  562. 

Looms  employed,  563. 

Power- Looms  erected,  565. 

Spindles  and  Power- Looms,  567,  655. 
Kirkden,  514. 

Kirkland  Works,  22,  239,  536,  710. 
Kirkwall  and  St  Olda,  515. 
Kirriemui!— Flax  Cultivation,  567. 

Curious  articles  madp,  568. 

Linen  Fabrics,  568,  569. 

Linens  Stamped,  569. 

Looms,  569— Wages,  569. 
Kitto,  Dr,  216. 
Konigsberg-Flax  Exports,  274,  275. 

Convenient  Shipping  Port,  334. 
Kyd,  James  P.,  654. 


Lace,  299,  301-Lacedemonians,  196. 

Laing,  John,  614— Laing  and  Ewan,  656. 

Laird  and  Co. ,  654. 

L  imb  and  Sco  t,  554. 

Lancashire,  385— Largo.  515. 

Lawson,  Alexa  der^  508. 

Leadbetter  and  Co.,  11. 

Leather  Tanning,  426. 

Lee's  Flax  Preparation,  21. 

Leghorn,  264  -Leeds,  378,  382,  383,  384. 

Leipsic  Fair,  280,  401. 

Leland,  389— Leprosy,  131. 

Leslie,  515— Lei  bendy,  516. 

Leuchars.  516—  Ley.len,  293. 

Libau,  331  -Lille,  315. 

Lime  or  Linden  Tree — Ornamental,  103. 

Yields  Sugar,  103, 

Raw  Material  for  Mats,  103. 

Cut  Young,  103-  Steeping,  103. 

Uses  to  which  Bark  is  applied,  104. 

Large  production  of  Mars,  104. 
ineu— Antiquity,  1,  118,  126,  210. 

Countries  whence  Imported,  115. 

Healthy  to  Wear,  122. 


11 


A.  .  UM. 

144 

Book 

.  !:;•_•     M  1.,,-sv  N.tin.  *.  1  II. 
. 

i>ic«,    172-   ' 
Onrth..ge,    1-1 

184— Qieeoe, 
l93-Sp«Jo,    199. 
LV,-;     it.ty.   -j:.r,    Germany.   -''-7 

Truss  .,,    -_V,7      SiK-siu  .iii.l   S.ivny. 
267,  269-  H   Hand,  '.".MI     |;, 

354 

. 
389-  Scot 

Inijort.s  .in.l    \.\    ..it*      B«  Limn,   300 
—  France,  'M  '      !;  I  >  i, 

:     :U1  -  New 
•  g.lom, 

.1  in  llritish  15  n row*. 
Exported  from  KnJ.md.  'Ml. 
Mannfai  •  1  unl, 

nu.dity  made  in  Ir.-l   - 

M:U.  -';il>!ish'  «1  ill  Sc;  .t'llllil, 

430  in  «<:otlaiitl, 

•' 

:.te<l,  7<H). 
71''.. 

417. 
Linen  Yarn— Countries  whence  Ini|>orte«l, 

11:. 

Imports  ;,,,.!    Export*,  ft* 

LinMc.i.  iol,  7,  8. 

-v.  i.;i. 

;  •!. 

I. in 

nt  family  1 

wn  Lin.  n  ^ 
Otl. 

L4»ngforkjati,  T)!'.'     1 

-K-ryptia  'J25,700. 

Iin}> 
Indir 


Baa 

Low,  Alfx».n.ler,  657. 
Low,  Andr«w  aixl  ^<>n,  71. 

Lou  vain 

: 

Lowion,  .iuh-,  .inn., «;:.«. 

L«»WBO  !  Son,  664,  . 

Lucim,  Chariot  and  Co.,  657. 
Luingair,  Kul^rt,  654. 
Lunisden,  1 ' 
LUIIM.I.-H,  William  .ui.I  BOD, 

M 

Maborly  »nd  Co.,  67,  "ill,  711. 

Madox— History  of  Excl, 

i.  Large  Power- 1. 

Mains.  519-  055. 

Malcolm,  James  and  Suns,  657. 

• 

Manilla    Hemp  —  Indigenous    to    I'lnlli- 

's   Isl. mils.  IIH». 
Description  of  PI  at.  Ml. 
I'M. 

Inr reuse  ..f  lv\i>oi  tuti.-n,  101. 
Purposes  adapted  for, 
Maaufacturinjz  Operatives,  r, 
M   roo  I'..!-.  17-     Markin.-l.. 

:;ill  ;.I..l  CO.,   877, 

Marshall,  Sun-leinan,  aii'l  ( "... 
Martin,  David  and  Co.. 
M.iry,  Quten  of  B 

:;.")t;. 

n  and  Ch. timers,  657. 
If". 

\    .171. 

OMt52I 
27 1,  275. 

M«  nun;: 


Mi,,   ,s;,,  -Ji.5 
.Mitclifil,  .lolm.   (>20% 
.Mitli.id,t.-s. 

I 

Monciir,  Joli'  . 

Monklaud,  East, 
Montague,  Lndy,  ' 

Sailcloth  i 

i     t:\mprd,  575. 

Lace  S  li...  1.  .".;. 


742 


INDEX. 


Flax  Mill  for  Sale,  576. 

Spindles  and  Power-Looms,  577,  655. 

Goods  made,  577— Wages,  577. 
Monzie,  524— Moon,  George,  694. 
Moors  of  Spain  encouraged  Trade,  260. 
Moravia,  287— Mordecai's  Apparel,  136. 
Mover's  Account  of  Crops  in  Scotland,  428. 
Moiison,  W.  K.  and  Co.,  627,  657. 
Morrice,  John,  654. 
Moryson,  Fynes,  423. 
Moscow,  320— Mouliu,  524. 
Mudie,  James,  577.  , 

MulhollandandCo.,  404. 
Muuro,  General,  426. 
Murdoch,  A.  J.  aud  Co.,  520,  723. 
Murland  and  Co.,  404. 
Murray,  Regent,  579. 
Musselburgh— Riding  the  Marches,  434. 

N 

Naples,  258. 

Napoleon,  Emperor,  271,  306. 

Napoleon  III.,  317    Narva,  326. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  180. 

Needlework,  124,  129,  133,  192,  357. 

Neil  son  and  Co.,  710— Neish,  James,  74. 

Neish,  Thomns,  68,  69-Nero  182. 

Netherlands— Cloth  Halls,  291. 

Revolt,  293— Trade  Iniured,  294. 

Tariff,  295  -Trading  Company,  296. 
Nettle,  95— Newburgh,  525. 
New  York,  350. 
New  Zealand  Flax — 

Discovered  by  Captain  Cook,  98. 

Description,  98— Pieparation,  99. 

Strength  of  Fibres,  99. 

Spun  into  fine  yarn,  100. 

Cor.l age  for  Model  Frigate,  100. 
Nicol,  Alexander  and  Co.,  654. 
Nicoll,  A.  and  J.,  657— Nine veb,  183. 
Noah  and  his  Family,  118,  123. 
Noble,  G.  and  J.  A.,  80,  106,  108. 
Nomadic  Life,  122- Norfolk,  386. 
Normand,  James  and  Son,  500. 
Normandy,  304— Norrie,  Charles,  75. 
Norrie,  Charles  and  Sons,  560,  723. 
North  Yell  and  Fetlar,  527. 
Norwich,  362— Novgorod,  320,  322,  336. 

O 

Odyssey,  180,  187. 
O^ilvy,  John  and  Co.,  654. 
Osnal  urgs,  451,  541,  558. 
Osnaburg  Yarn  ordered,  451. 
Oiphir,  527-  Ovid,  219. 

P 

Paisley,  527-Par.mure  Works,  488,  715. 
Par  al  States,  257. 
Parker,  Charles  and  Son,  699. 
Parker,  Edward,  574,  657. 
Paterson,  James,  657. 
Pat erson, William- -Bank  of  England,  430. 
Paton,  J.  and  G.,  577,  655  -Putae,  192. 
Pearce  Troth ers,  699  -Piedmont,  257, 
Penelope's  Industry,  135,  188,  189. 
lYnnan-'B  Tour,  430,  -542,  575,  584. 
Peri  phi*  of  the  Erytlnaean  Son.  17-°.. 
Fenian,  3L'8. 


Perth,  528— Peterhead,  531. 
Peter,  H.  and  T. ,  537. 
Pharaoh's  Daughter,  ]33. 
Philip  and  Mary,  320. 
Phoenicians— First  Merchants,  176. 

Fleets  visited  Britain,  177,  353. 

Circumnavigated  Africa,  177. 

First  used  Canvas  Sails,  177. 

Founded  Carthage,  177. 

Traded  in  Red  Sea,  178. 

Tyrian  Dye,  139,  178. 

Silk  Manufactures,  179, 
Picker  Lay,  703— Plutarch,  157. 
Picts,  The,  578-Plowgates,  241. 
Winy,  146,  147,  166,   200,  224,  353,  355, 

700,  717— Poland,  334,  338. 
Popish  Persecutions,   229,  263,  305,  362, 

367,  392— Popish  Woollens  392. 
Port,  John,  Inventory  of,  361. 
Portugal— Aocient  Linen  Trade,  200,  340. 

Flax  grown,  340. 

Hand  and  Mill  Spinning,  340. 

Native  Consumption,  341. 

Imports  and  Exports,  341. 

Slave  Trade,  341. 
Postlethwayt,  397,  435,  443,  718. 
Power-Looms—In  England,  387,  680,  682. 

In  Ireland,  407,  681,  682. 

In  Scotland,  439,  680,  682. 

Invention  of,  457,  461,  462. 

Description,  712. 

Personified,  713. 

Improvements,  714. 
Prain,  James,  657. 
Premiums  on  Flax  and  Hemp,  463. 
Preston,  385— Priam,  189. 
Prince  Consort,  377,  405. 
Printed  Calicoes,  369. 
Protestant  Linens,  392. 
Prussia — Linen  Manufacture,  267- 

West  Prussian  Manufac  ures,  270. 

Exports,  268— Looms,  274. 

Expiry  of  Zolverein,  279. 

Linen  in  Exhibition,  284. 
Ptolemy  Epiphanes.  172. 
Pythmias  invented  Weaving,  700. 


Rait,  James,  654. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  293. 

Ramsay,  Lady,  576. 

Ramsay,  James  and  Co.,  518. 

Rathen,  531 —Rebecca's  Veil,  123. 

Rebellion  in  Scotland,  451. 

Ree,  H.  P.  and  Co.,  657. 

Reed-maker  Settles  in  Sco'land,  448. 

Renny,  Consul,  324. 

Renny,  William  Warden,  329. 

Revel,  328— Rheea  of  Assam,  98,  106. 

Rheims,  304,  359. 

Richaids  and  Co.,  519,  540,  577,  655,  711, 

723. 
Riga — Impnr'ant  Shipping  Port,  328. 

Classification  of  Flax,  329. 

Exports,  329,  330. 

Marks  of  Flax,  333. 
Ki'chip  ;»n.l  Simp  <»P,  <'-"'7. 
Rizch,  :Ui     1,'i/zi...  David,  12:;. 


INhKX. 


743 


Alexandt  r  Loom, 

.  494. 

K,,l.,-rt*-.|,  and  «  Mvliar.  r,W.   714 

i>,  Thomas,  609. 

men,  198. 

Wearing  Ettabltsam<  nt«,  208. 
lUoui 

Awnings  of  Linen,  206. 
Overthrow,  207 

• 

Royal  Hank. 

456.472,580. 

ipge,  629. 

In-uraii,-.-  Company,  629. 
n— Linen  used  for  Moi 

Russia- -Anriently  little  known,  2.' 

Discovered  Vy  the  English,  229. 
Greatest  Flax- growing  Count iy,  319. 

Pro.i 

Produce  01  iginally  exported. 

Government  Monopoly,  320. 

Monopoly  broken  up. 

Export,  ami  Imp  ;  .'.  327, 

Profoima  Invi-ic.-B,  : 

Do.  to  Si 

Valiu  i,  336. 

L  n-'i.*  i; 

H  of  fine  materia 
Arbitrary  Government. 
Tariff  on  Jute  Goods,  338. 
,s  in  Exhibition,  338. 
oval  ..f  Pu'v  on  Exports.  729. 
Russia  Company,  320. 

S 

Sackcloth,  124. 
Sacred  Larg<-s»t*  226,  226. 

L  177.  -JIN.. 
St  Boswell,  532. 

.  tersburg-  Founded,  32R. 

Classifies 

i  gmility,  326. 

Salmun.l    Will  am  .U..1  Co..  654. 
N  657. 

Sander 

105. 

t  nctiun  Travel!*  i,  171. 
Sanl 

Saunders,  George  and  Sous,  654. 
Saussnre,  M.  de,  720-  >  7 .  28\ 

Scotland— M;«nuf..cture*  introduced.  228. 

litil.-  use,! 

ill 


Rebellion  of  1745,  236,  451. 

Linen  Stamped.  237.  476. 
440. 

127. 

State  of  1  400. 

An  y  Apochryphal,  421. 

niM  ».i..iixht,  424. 
Illil.  .  425. 

Kn-lisli  Money  soarc< 

1    in    E  iglsnd, 

Corpses  Bnri.-il  in  Linon,  4'2'.l   1 
x  ExiM>rtatioti  p,  V29. 

sr  Company,  429. 

Linens  made  in  Scotland,  : 
Inkle  I 

A  LadyV  mry,  433. 

Depression  m  '!'• 

Woollen  Manufacii;  >laint, 

l>u  483. 

Si-ate  of  '1 

Linen  Duties  Imposed,  438. 

First  Steam  Mill,  438. 

Spindles  and  Power-Looms,  439,  680, 
682     ll.i  ish  Linrn  Company,  442. 

Lin.  nourishing,  i 

'J'lii-tft •>'  Surveyor's  T«ur,  4."iJ. 

Country  Descril.  d,   : 

Lint  Mills,  455. 

The  Stump  Act,  465. 

Di  triclTr.d.',  483,538. 
Scot',  J  ITU. 
Scott,  .l.an  >  iin.l  William,  657. 

:..-   Ma.h  nery,   30,  39,  400,  401, 
416-S«lma,  .;!'...    ' 
Si-iniiands  Invents  Weaving,  190. 
Sesostris— Fleets  of. 

Colony  at  Cold,.-,  l- J 

Sailori  Phoenicians,   184. 
Severus    \1  ft,  223. 

Seville,  263— Sharp,  John,  t. 
Shaw,  Baxter,  and  Co.. 
Shaw,  William.  615. 
Sheets  of  Serge  worn,  360. 

:  ».  204.  452,  703.  712 

Sidoo— Most  Ancient  Citv.  177 

Celel-  -nufactuiea,  179. 

v,  187. 
i  —Linen  early  made,  267. 

-pun  by  the  SpindK  269. 
Mannfait  iring  Details,  2C9. 
Linen  Tiade  imp 

'ifacture.-.  j 

Silk -An.  ient  Manufacture  of,  179. 
Got  fn-in   In  h  -.    1>J. 
in  Babylon.  Itt 
n  in  Rome. 

Introduced  into  Britain,  3i>l. 
Sinclair,  S,r  J.ihn,  441. 


744 


INDEX. 


Sisera— His  Mother's  Song,  124. 

Small,  Dr,  458,  584. 

Smart  J.  and  J.,  554. 

Smieton,  James  and  Son,  488. 

Smith,  David  and  Son,  485. 

Smith,  John,  654. 

Smith,  Laing  and  Co.,  496. 

Smiths,  Mitchell  and  Co.,  657. 

Smith,  Peter,  79. 

ISmith,  William  and  Son,  496. 

Smythe,  Mi^s— Her  Wedding  Outfit,  431. 

Sobieski,  John,  of  Poland,  343. 

Soda  Ash,  721. 

Solomon  imports  Linen  Yarn,  132. 

Solyman,  the  Turk,  343. 

Somersetshire,  386. 

Sou  tar  and  Nicoll,  657. 

Spain — Noted  for  Linen,  199. 

Chequered  History,  260. 

Flax  grown  by  the  Moors,  260. 

Moors  expelled,  260,  343. 

Decline  of  Manufactures,  261. 

Kevival  of  Trade,  262. 

Fer  ility  of  Country,  262. 

Linens  made  in  Seville,  263— Cata 
Ionia,  263--Bilboa,  264-  Malaga, 
2G5  —  Valencia,  265  —  Santander, 
265. 

Linens  largely  consumed,  265. 

Imports  and  Exports,  266. 
Spider's  Web,  121. 
Spinning- Jute,  77,  78. 

In  the  Wilderness,  130. 

Jade*,  134,  215— Egypt,  148,  211. 

Greece,  187-  Kome,  203. 

France,  314— Germany,  365. 

Employment  of  Women,  128, 223, 246. 

Locomotive  machines,  243. 

Introduction  of  Machinery,  689. 
Spindles  -France,  312,  313. 

England,  387— Ireland,  406. 

Scotland,  439— Aberdeen,  540. 

Atbroath,  548-TBlairgowrie,  550. 

Brechin,  552— Kirkcaldy,  567. 

Monti  o-^e,  577— Dundee,  630. 
Spindle  and  Distaff,  134,  149,   187,  203, 

685— Spinning  Machinery,  691,  693. 
Spinning  Mills  - 

Douglastown,  238,  458,  511. 

Darlington,  382- Yorkshire,  382,384. 

England.  387—  Ireland,  406. 

Bervie,  489-  Fordoun,  502. 

Glamis,  504  -  Kirkd-  n,  514. 

Mains,  519— Monifieth,  523. 

Kirkland,  536-ArLroath,  541,  543. 

Blairgowrie,  549    Brechiu,  552. 

Dunfermline,  555. 

Dundee,  589,  591,  592,  613,  630. 

Internal  Arrangements,  621,  628, 
694,  696,  697. 

Outward  Appearance,  621. 
Spinning  Process,  694. 
Spinning  Schools,  365,  435,  447. 
Spinning  Wheel,  371,  400,  687. 
Spinster — Origin  of  term,  356. 
Stamp  misters,  465,  468. 
Stamping— Abolished,  464.  474. 

Instituted,  465. 

Fabrics  St  imped,  407     Fe<>».  4<i7. 


Fabrics  Exempted,  467. 
Stamps  cut  off,  468. 
Proceedings  of  Board,  470. 


Abuses,  4 

Returns  of  Linen  Stamped,  476. 
Steiglitz,  B;,ron,  337,  338. 
Stocking  L  om,  450. 
Sti*bo,  184,  352,  353. 
Stracathro,  533. 
Strafford,  Lord,  393. 
Stranraer,  533  —  Strathdon,  533. 
Strathmiglo,  534— Strichen,  534. 
Sbuttgardt,  273. 
Stuart,  J.  G.  and  Co.,  521. 
Sunn— Description,  90. 

Cutting  and  Steeping,  90. 

Scutching,  91. 

Early  known  in  India,  92,  726. 

Tried  in  Dundee,  92. 

Found  Unsuitable,  93. 

Shipments fiom  India,  93. 
Swan  Brothers,  510,  655,  657. 
Switzerland,  342. 


Tabernacle,  Curtains  of,  128. 

Tacitus,  354— Tailors  <>f  London,  359. 

Tailors  v.  Weavers,  434. 

Tanning  Leather,  426— Taws,  James,  72. 

Taylor,  John,  the  Thames  Waterman.  425. 

Taylor,  William  and  Co.,  77,  657. 

Te'emachus,  189. 

Temple,  Sir  William,  229,  390. 

Temples,  402— Tennant,  M.,  721. 

Thebes— Celebrated  for  Linen.  151. 

Numerous  Dyers,  173. 
Theophrastus,  717. 
Thorn,  Wa'ter,  489,  490. 
•'  hums,  Vice-Consul,  296. 
Thomson,  Shepherd  and  Briggs,  628,  657. 
Thomson's  Experiments,  122,  160,  162. 
Thracians— grew  Hemp,  196. 
Thread  Manufacture,  434,  451,  486,  490. 

527,  531,  539,  543,  574,  582,  585. 
Thucydides,  195— Thurso,  534. 
Timbuctoo — Linens  expoited  to,  372. 
Tocher,  A  Witt's,  431. 
Tow— Imports,  114— Trebizond,  344, 
Tremeuheere,  Mr,  410. 
Triumphant  Song,  143. 
Trojan  War,  188. 
Troup,  Alexander,  534. 
Turkey— Beautiful  Country,  342. 

Solyman  crossed  Hellespont,  343. 

Moslem  Aggression  Checked,  343. 

Cimate  suitable  for  Flax,  343. 

Li'ien  hugely  Worn,  343. 

Flax  Grown,  344. 

Fine  Linen  of  Rizeh,  344. 
Turkish  Sultana's  Dress,  193. 
Turnbull  and  Co.,  520,  723. 
Turnbull,  W.  S.,  530. 
Turner,  Charles  and  Co.,  710. 
Turriff,  535. 
Tyre— Merchant  Princes,  139. 

Purple  Dye,  139.  178. 

Dyed  Liien^,  179. 

Dyr  oUaiued  from  Fish,  179. 


7!.. 


Uc-»tiiKti,.i.  .-r.  isu. 

• 

I 


Imports  of  Jut.',   vc  .   1  h>,  »i60. 
In  •  x.  fa  .    110,   II 

Imports     Kn.ni  wlu-ii,-.'.  ]  l.;.  1  1  1 
Do,      wiu-i-r  Lndad,  1  r.'.  Ill 
Export*,  Flax,  Jute,  &a,  1  If. 
I  •  .      fcol        •  •,  MS. 

.'.-•livi.li-il.  . 

w.,nt  of  statist^.  <>5a 

Valur  Linen  MaoV,  f.f.l 
!••}•«••!  in  M  .nufa.-tui. 

MH: 

tan,  f-7i. 

Kxpoitsof  Yarn  niul  Liuen,  8! 

tunis,  680. 
«1  States  of  America  — 

Import^  of 

Fil'iv  S  .ciilic  .1. 

Fl  i\  spinnin-  Mills.  ;:»•;. 

Progress  Linen  Tra<l*«,  347 

1*.  ices  of  Jute 

Value  of  Imports.  ::i:». 

Tin-  AV;n  ami  the  Lin.  i 

V;ilm-  Linen  Imports  into  N.-W  ^  ,.ik. 

Val-  n.  iemus  Lnce,  301,  306,  315. 

I  ..f  Imliii.  701. 
v,-»i  ,,f  iioiv  ,.f  Holie^  128. 

\  ,-li-o.lski.  m 
.  256—  Vespasian,  206. 
f  the  Oo<ls.  137. 
Vesture  ilipp.-.!  in  ]'.\»  -.1.  I  H. 

l.ster,  426. 

Qx  Won.:in,  KU,  1.% 

Volog.:  .-•    Yoh  ,i.,. 

w 

Wages  Contrasted,  50:?,  535. 

Wages  p:ii,l,  :.:;;»,  545,  556,  563,  566,  606, 

W.,lkt-r,  -I.  an.l  11. 
Walker,  .I..lin  :ui.l  Co.. 
Warn.  .  378. 

Warping  Mill—  Intnxluc  .1.   J.M. 
il'tii«n,  703. 

i  mid  Son,  507. 
n,  Dr  J.  F.,  Report  on  Jute  Crop, 

AYutt,  Jatnos,  jun..  jnirchases  Jute,  69. 
ji.lrtl  <)|..'i..ti..ns,  70. 

r.uin.-.i.  71. 

^^\•ave^s  /•.  Tailois.  4:t4. 

j-t.    1IH,  1", 
•l'li>lini"Uts  in  .liuh'H.   l.'.'J. 


(irVixv. 


l.M      HJ.sl 


K..I.U-,  -JO-J.  *>-,.  1MU-  Spain,  I'.'.t. 
(Jci-miiny.  XV     Kn^u,!    ..".',      ..-'. 

A  i 

;•»!      H.m.l  I 

Jaoquard  Macbioo,  707. 

Weavers'  Company  <*f,  I...n.|..n,  SRO. 

Weaving  b> 

Weaving  School,  454. 

\v,.»,  • 

Webst 

Weem,  :,;:.     \\.inyw,  535. 

\Vhal. 

Wilkiis  George,  589. 

Wilkinson,  Sir  J.  G.,  U7. 

\Villi:iin   HI 

William  m.l  M 

William,  tli.  :t58. 

\V  ,  I  s  ,u.  Professor,  1  S.  1'7     Wilt*,  :i58. 
Wiiu-hester  -  Imperial  Oolleg*, 

IrisJ)  Lin.-u  US.-.I. 
Womn,  Span  in  Ixrafl,  130,  l.:i. 
Wootl,  Ai.'.i 

Woihow's  Account  <'f  Glasgow 
Woollen  Manufacture,  :i68. 
Wortley  on  Stamping,  469. 
Wove  n  Air,  120. 
Wurti-ml>ergf  267,  271,  273. 
W>  brants  Brothers,  6T>7. 


Xenophon,  183,  184. 
XcrxoM,  ML',  I'.'l.  I'.M. 


Yaikan.l. 

Yarn— Whence  Imported,  115. 

Imported  by  Solomon 

Imports  and  Exports— Belgium,  300. 
Do.,Fnmc, 

False  Reel  of.  -jr.l.  171. 

Exports—  Umtrd  Kingdom. 
Yaroslav,  322,  336. 
Yarranton,  Andrev^ 
York,  Duke  of,  1 
Yorkshire,  382,  I 

\orknhire  Woollens  Stamped,  469. 
Yool,  W.  \\ 
Ypres,  «7,  •_".'!. 


Zion's  Daughters,  Dress  of,  ! 
llvt-n  in  -Imports  a 

;oni,  279. 


THE  LINEN  TRADE:  ANCIENT  4  MODERN, 
BY  ALEX.  J.  WARDEN,  DUNDEE. 


LONDON:  LONGMAN  A  CO. 
8vo.,  Cloth  Boards,  18i ;  Gilt,  20t. 


EXTRACTS    FROM    OPINIONS    OF    THE    P  R  E  3  8. 

FROM  THE  "  DUNDEE  ADVERTISER,"  20iH  JOLT,  1864. 

Mr  Warden's  book  on  the  Linen  Trade  will  become  the  standard  work  of  refer- 
ence for  information  on  every  subject  connected  with  the  raw  material,  the 
processes  of  manufacture,  and  more  especially  with  the  history  and  statistics  of 
ranch  of  the  Linen  and  Jute  Trades.  Combining  rare  diligence  with  con- 
tinned  and  systematic  effort,  be  has  brought  together  in  one  volume  an  extraordi- 
nary array  of  facts,  many  of  them  curious,  and  all  of  them  more  or  less  important 
as  throwing  light  on  the  development  of  a  large  branch  of  national  industry. 
Written  with  remarkable  fluency,  in  a  simple  and  easy  style,  distinctly  arranged 
in  chronological  order,  and  with  a  copious  index,  the  volume  is,  in  fact,  a  cyclo- 
paedia of  all  that  relates  to  the  Linen  Trade,  and  will  take  its  place  on  the  office 
desk  along  with  M'Culloch's  Dictionary  of  Commerce  and  Balnea's  History  of  the 
Cotton  Manufacture.  Nor  will  it  interest  bnsiness  men  alone.  Mr  Warden,  in 
his  gleanings  from  all  available  sources  of  everything  connected  with  the  growth 
and  manufacture  of  flax  and  jute,  has  noted  many  remarkable  passages,  throwing 
light  on  the  social  progress  of  our  own  and  other  nations,  and  many  parts  of  his 
book  may  be  read  with  pleasant  interest,  quite  apart  from  the  subjects  to  which 
they  more  directly  relate.  ...  Mr  Warden  has  collected  a  great  num- 
ber of  very  curious  facts  with  respect  to  the  means  taken  to  promote  the  Linon 
Trade,  and  of  the  jealousy  subsisting  between  different  towns  and  countries  with 
regard  to  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  goods.  Our  Scotch  forefathers  were  very 
much  opposed  to  English  woollens  coming  into  Scotland,  but  the  English  of  the 
period  took  their  revenge  by  whipping  as  malefactors  our  pedlars  who  were  found 
telling  Scotch  linens  in  England,  and  Mr  Warden  pawkily  remarks,  "  had  the 
practice  of  whipping  the  Scotch  who  went  to  England  to  sell  their  linens  not  been 
•topped,  it  would  have  been  a  severe  blow  to  the  Scotch  Linen  Trade  of  the  present 
age,  as  manufacturers  would  not  have  liked  such  a  castigation  in  their  journeys  to 
the  South."  The  Parliament  of  Scotland  in  1688,  in  order  to  encourage  the  Linen 
Trade  of  the  period,  passed  an  Act  denying  burial  to  any  corpse  of  any  person 
whatever  "  in  any  shirt,  sheet,  or  anything  else  except  plain  linen,"  and  by  a  sub- 
sequent Act  the  nearest  elder  or  deacon,  with  one  or  two  neighbours,  was  required 
to  see  that  the  law  was  complied  with.  At  that  time  it  was  the  pride  of  the 
women  to  have  large  chests  full  of  linen  of  their  own  spinning— the  fashion  of 
going  to  the  shop  and  ordering  their  marriage  outfits  not  having  then  set  in.  .  . 
We  have  directed  attention  to  only  one  or  two  chapters  of  Mr  W.ml-  us  valuable 
work.  It  would  far  exceed  our  limits  were  we  to  attempt  to  notice  them  all  in  the 
same  way.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  no  one  professing  to  be  well-informed  with  regard 
to  the  Linen  and  Jute  Trades  can  dispense  with  this  compendious  work.  The 
chapters  on  the  raw  material,  on  ancient  linen,  and  particularly  on  the  Linen 
Trade  of  the  different  countries  in  Europe,  are  all  valuable ;  while  about  two 
hundred  pages  of  the  work  are  occupied  with  accounts  of  the  Linen  Trade  of  the 
different  towns  and  villages  in  Scotland,  which,  from  their  special  local  interest, 
are  sure  to  be  eagerly  read. 


THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


FROM  THE  "DUNDEE  COURIER  AND  ARGUS,"  20iH  JULY,  1864. 

Mr  "Warden  has  chosen  happily  his  time  for  a  history  of  the  Linen  Trade.     The 
Linen  Trade  in  these  latter  days  is  worthy  of  a  historian.     It  is  among  the  very 
oldest  of  human  enterprises.     When  that  sad  necessity  for  clothing  arose,  conse- 
quent upon  the  misconduct  of  the  first   man  and  woman,  the  linen  trade  was 
obviously  at  hand.    The  fig-leaf  was  an  arrangement  of  a  most  temporary  character. 
The  coat  of  skins  was  a  step  in  advance,  but  it  also  was  unsatisfactory.     Visibly  it 
had  no  higher  aim  than  to  keep  poor  homeless  man  from  the  cold,  till  his  necessity 
had  time  to  give  birth  to  some  of  those  inventions  of  which  she  is  truly  said  to  be 
the  mother.     Nature  provides  no  ready-made  clothing.     From  the  day  that  Adam 
fell  the  loom  was  inevitable.    To  what  forgotten  son  of  genius  it  first  occurred  to 
discard  the  sheep's  skin  and  clothe  himself  in  its  wool  we  shall  never  know.     In 
like  manner  the  man  who  first  utilised  the  fibres  of  the  flax  plant  is  a  benefactor 
whose  memory  is  unhonoured  because  his  name  is  unknown.     That  he  lived  at  a 
very  early  period  in  the  world's  history  is  all  we  can  tell.     Mr  Warden  conjectures 
that  linen  was  in  use  among  the  ante-diluvians.     Very  certainly  it  was  largely 
used  in  Egypt  at  no  very  great  interval  after  the  deluge.     The  Egyptians  living 
and  dead  were  a  linen-weaiing  people.     From  Pharoah  in  his  palace  to  the  beggar 
in  his  hovel,  every  Egyptian  dressed  himself  in  linen  ;  and  when  he  died  his  friends 
•wrapped  his  body  in  linen,  and  put  it  away  to  await  the  expected  return  of  his 
soul  to  its  former  dwelling-place.    The  production  of  Egyptian  looms  must  have 
been  very  considerable,  for  there  was  a  large  export  as  well  as  a  large  home  trade. 
Mr  "Warden  thinks  there  may  have  been  large  handloom  weaving-shops,  similar  to 
our  own,  in  the  city  of  Thebes,  for  example,  which  was  much  famed  for  its 
cloths.     Are  our  readers  not  conscious  of  a  feeling  of  brotherhood  with  those 
ancient  and  long-embalmed  Pagans,  who  were  the  skilled  linen  weavers  of  anti- 
quity ?    That  poor  mummy,  whom  we   stare  at  in  a  museum,  spent  his  days  in 
that  remote  time,  and  in  that  mysterious  and  awful  valley  of  the  Nile,  very  much 
as  we  do  by  the  waters  of  the  Tay,  in  continual  thought  and  converse  about  the 
quality  of  linen  yarns  and  the  texture  of  linen  cloth  !    Ever  from  his  time  to  ours, 
the  Linen  Trade  has  been  an  institution  upon  the  earth.     After  a  duration  nearly 
coeval  with  that  of  man  himself,  it  has  in  our  day  entered  upon  a  new  and  widened 
stage.     Almost  always  until  quite  recently,  linen  weaving  has  been  carried  on  in 
the  dwelling-house  of  the  weaver,  and  upon  a  comparatively  limited  scale.     Ours 
is  the  era  of  large  factories.     It  is  the  era,  too,  of  expansion  hitherto  undreamed 
of.     Till  our  time,  the  Linen  Trade  has  been  one  of  the  most  humble  and  unob- 
trusive of  the  arts,  ministering  in  meek  silence  to  the  comfort  of  man.     To  the 
surprise  of  all — chiefly  of  those  engaged  in  it — the  Linen  Trade  has  suddenly 
claimed  its  rightful  place  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  human  industries.     Never 
before  has  the  world  rewarded  it?  makers  of  linen  with  the  lavish  generosity  which 
it  is  our  good  fortune  to  experience.     The  great  enemy  of  the  Linen  Trade  is  cot- 
ton.    That  enemy  having  been  overthrown,  the  course  of  the  Linen  Trade  recently 
has  been  one  splendid  triumph.     In  such  a  well-chosen  time,  Mr  "Warden  under- 
takes to  write  the  history  of  the  Linen  Trade,  from  the  days  when  Pharoah  caused 
Joseph  to  be  arrayed  in  fine  linen  down  to  the  latest  extension  of  spinning  and 
power-loom  weaving  among  ourselves.     "We  are  bound  to  say,  after  a  somewhat 
careful  examination,  that  he  has  done  his  work  well.     The  mass  of  information 
collected  is  immense.     The   arrangement  is  natural  and  pleasing.      The  risk  of 
books  of  this  description  is  that  they  are  unreadable  by  reason  of  extreme  dullness. 
Mr  "Warden  has  kept  perfectly  clear  of  this  great  evil.     His  book  is  lively  and 
interesting  in  a  high  degree.     "We  are  now  in  possession  of  what  has  long  been 
desired,  and  never  desired  so  urgently  as  since  recent  events  have  thrust  greatness 
upon  us— a  thoroughly  well-executed  History  of  the  Linen  Trade.     Any  man  deal- 
ing in  linen  products  who  does  not  immediately  buy  this  book,  and  read  every 
word  of  it  with  the  deepest  interest,  thereby  proves  himself  unworthy  of  that 
kind  fortune  which  has  given  him  "  the  goodly  heritage"  of  a  place  in  the  Linen 
Trade  during  this  its  most  lucrative  era.     "We  must  remark  farther,  that,  although 
Mr  "Warden's  book  is  published  in  London,  it  has  been  not  only  composed,  but  also 
printed  and  bound  in  Dundee,  and  a  most  creditable  specimen  of  native  workman- 
ship it  is. 

FBOM  THE  "LEEDS  MERCURY,"  15TH  AUGUST,  1867. 

The  history  of  the  cotton  trade,  published  some  years  ago,  was  recently  followed 
by  the  publication  of  the  History  of  the  Silk  Trade,  the  History  of  the  "Woollen 
Trade,  and  the  History  of  the  Worsted  Trade,  and  to  these  Mr  Alex.  J.  Warden, 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS.  3 

of  Dundee,  has  added,  under  the  above  title,  a  History  of  the  Linen  Trade.  The 
work  ii  a  very  comprehensive  one,  and  though  necessarily  dry  in  many  of  its 
details  it  embodies  a  mass  of  most  valuable  and  interesting  information.  The 
describes  not  only  the  cultivation  of  the  raw  material  in  its  various  forms, 
but  traces  the  manufacture  and  the  uses  to  which  the  manufactured  article  has 
been  put  from  the  earliest  times,  interspersing  the  historical  record  with  sketohet 
of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  trade  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  The 
work  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  histories  already  published  of  the  other  branches 
of  textile  industry. 

FROM  THI  "Times,"  17TH  AUGUST,  1864. 

Among  recent  commercial  publications  has  been  "The  Linen  Trade,  Ancient 
and  Modern,"  by  Mr  Alexander  Warden — a  practical  history,  abounding  in  curious 
details,  commenciag  with  the  linen  manufacture  in  Biblical  times,  and  tracing  its 
progress  to  the  present  day. 

FROM  THE  "LEEDS  INTELLIGENCER,"  20tH  AUGUST,  1864. 

This  work  is,  we  believe,  the  first  of  any  importance  published  on  this  subject, 
and  to  those  who  are  in  any  way  interested  in  or  connected  with  this  manufac- 
ture it  will  be  found  a  reference  book  of  the  highest  value.  After  making  a  few 
comments  on  the  antiquity  of  the  growth  of  hemp  and  flax  and  the  fabrication  of 
linen,  the  writer  strikes  at  the  root  of  the  subject,  and  Chapter  One  furnishes  us 
with  a  carefully  written  and  full  account  of  of  the  culture  of  flax.  The  seed,  the 
nature  of  the  plant,  its  product,  with  tableaof  its  chemical  composition,  the  proper 
soil  and  rotation,  preparation  of  the  ground,  sowing,  weeding,  pulling,  rippling, 
watering,  spreading,  lifting,  drying,  breaking,  and  scutching,  all  these  are  treated 
of  at  a  greater  or  less  length,  with  careful  notices  of  improvements  that  have  been 
made  of  late,  and  the  merits  and  demerits  of  modern  innovations.  Chapter  Two 
is  occupied  with  the  culture  of  hemp,  from  the  first  mention  of  it  by  Herodotus 
to  the  present  time.  The  production  of  jute,  its  culture  in  the  field  and  treatment 
in  the  factory,  occupy  some  space  ;  while  thb  vast  amount  of  business  done  in  this 
article  of  commerce  from  the  years  1840  to  1863  is  clearly  set  forth  in  carefully 
arranged  tables  ;  and  another  set  of  tables  gives  the  highest  and  lowest  prices 
from  the  year  1847  to  1863.  There  is  also  a  short  article  on  Sunn  Hemp.  Various 
fibres  are  treated  of  at  some  length,  with  a  list  of  prices.  Linens  of  the  Bible, 
Egyptian  Linen,  Phoenician,  Carthagenian,  Colchican,  Grecian,  and  Roman  linen, 
under  the  general  head  of  ancient  linen,  are  all  separately  treated  of.  Modern 
linen  is  divided  under  two  heads,  Continental  and  the  United  Kingdom.  In  the 
latter  the  articles  on  Scotch  and  Irish  linen  will  be  found  especially  interesting. 
Having  at  length  and  with  an  infinite  amount  of  pains  traced  the  Linen  Trade 
from  the  most  ancient  times  to  its  position  in  manufactures  and  commerce  at  the 
present  time,  the  author  naturally  comes  to  the  manufacturing  operations  by 
which  the  raw  material  was  and  now  is  converted  from  its  crude  state  to  the  beau- 
tifully fine  fabrics  with  which  we  are  all  familiar.  The  great  compass  of  the  work 
has  rendered  it  a  most  difficult  and  arduous  task  to  arrange  the  various  heads  so 
as  not  to  permit  one  subject  to  trench  upon  another;  but  the  writer  has,  we 
think,  been  exceedingly  happy  in  his  arrangement,  and  the  infinite  pains  he  has 
taken  as  regards  the  very  numerous  statistical  tables,  together  with  the  business- 
like manner  in  which  he  has  throughout,  as  a  rule,  treated  this  entirely  business 
subject,  will  make  it  a  most  valuable  book  in  the  hands  of  all  engaged  in  any  part 
of  this  increased  and  widely-spread  trade  ;  and  it  will  also  prove  of  use  to  any 
who  may  wish  to  experimentalise  either  in  the  growth  or  manufacture  of  flax, 
hemp,  jute,  or  any  of  the  other  numerous  fibres  treated  of  in  this  volume. 

FROM  THI  "BARITSLXT  CHRONICLE,"  20rH  AUGUST,  1864. 

A  very  valuable  work  under  the  above  title  has  just  been  added  to  the  existing 
histories  of  the  other  branches  of  English  textile  industry.  The  work,  which  is  a 
most  comprehensive  one,  and  contains  a  vast  amount  of  interesting  and  important 
information,  is  from  the  pen  of  Mr  Alex.  J.  Warden,  of  Dundee,  and  is  published 
by  Messrs  Longman  &  Co.  It  comprises  not  merely  a  description  of  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  raw  material,  but  minutely  traces  the  various  modes  of  its  manufacture, 
and  the  uses  to  which  tke  manufactured  article  has  been  put  from  the  earliest 


4  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

FBOM  THE  "  ATHENJSUM,"  27in  AUGUST,  1864. 

In  this  bulky  volume  we  have  all  that  the  compiler  designed,— namely,  a  full 
and  reliable  record  of  the  rise,  progress,  and  present  condition  of  a  very  important 
department  of  manufacture  and  commerce.  Mr  Warden  plays  with  statistics  as 
easily  as  Hercules  might  with  modern  quoits.  The  volume  closes,  naturally- 
enough,  with  an  urgent  recommendation  for  the  increase  of  the  culture  of  flax. 
If  the  farmers  of  the  United  Kingdom  could  be  induced  to  grow  but  2^  acres  of 
flax  for  one  year,  as  an  experiment,  the  produce,  at  the  rate  of  4  cwt.  per  acre, 
would  amount  to  about  256,000  tons  ;  the  cotton  trade  would  not  be  impeded,  the 
cotton  districts  would  find  the  odd  day  and  a  halPs  employment  which  the  workers 
are  likely  to  want,  and  between  two  and  three  millions  of  hard  cash  would  go  into 
the  pockets  of  the  farmers.  Without  this  home  growth,  we  may  live  to  see  a  flax 
famine. 

FROM  THE  "NORTHERN  WHIG,"  30ra  AUGUST,  1864. 

The  goodly  octavo,  with  its  745  pages  of  matter,  and  the  title  of  which  is  given 
as  the  heading  of  this  notice,  comes  out  at  a  time  when  every  detail  connected  with 
the  linen  trade  possesses  a  special  interest.  Mr  Warden  has  supplied  a  great  want 
in  the  history  of  manufactures,  and  in  the  accomplishment  of  his  task  he  has  ex- 
hibited not  only  immense  research  in  the  collection  of  materials,  but  he  has  giver* 
us  at  once  an  exceediagly  valuable  and  very  graphic  account  of  the  progress  of  the 
linen  trade  from  its  early  date  and  down  to  the  present.  The  first  section  of  the 
work  goes  into  various  and  very  interesting  details  of  flax  culture  in  different  parts 
of  the  world ;  then  we  have  a  well-written  account  of  the  growth  of  hemp  ;  and, 
finally,  a  highly  interesting  detail  of  the  production  of  jute — that  now  very  impor- 
tant Indian  fibre,  which,  for  years  past,  has  occupied  a  large  space  in  the  manufac- 
tures of  Scotland.  In  the  second  section,  our  author  enters  very  fully  into  the 
consideration  of  the  linen  trade  of  Egypt  and  Canaan.  Great  difference  of  opinion 
exists  respecting  the  quality  of  the  article  spoken  of  in  Leviticus  and  Deuteronomy 
as  fine  linen,  and  some  writers  have  gone  so  far  as  to  state  that  the  description  of 
the  finest  article  woven  in  the  days  of  the  Pharaohs  was  hardly  equal  to  that  of 
medium  fabrics  in  the  present  day.  Now,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained  from  the 
earliest  and  most  authentic  records  of  the  East,  it  would  appear  that  the  fine  linen 
worn  by  the  nobles  was  really  what  its  name  implies,  and  the  very  high  prices  at 
which  it  was  valued  show  that  only  the  superior  classes  were  able  to  use  it  as  an 
ornamental  gaiment.  .  .  .  Previous  to  going  into  the  history  of  the  trade  in 
its  modern  aspect,  and  as  it  exists  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Mr  Warden  gives  several 
chapters  on  the  state  of  the  manufacture  in  continental  nations — those  which  refer 
to  Italy,  France,  Russia,  and  the  Germanic  States  being  especially  interesting. 
This  section  will  by  many  persons  be  considered  as  the  most  valuable  in  the  entire 
work,  seeing  that  it  treats  of  the  current  condition  of  the  trade  in  a  portion  of 
Europe  of  which  there  has  hitherto  been  very  little  known  in  this  country ;  and 
every  passage  in  that  series  of  annals  teems  with  important  information,  filling  up 
as  it  does  a  vacuum  that  has  long  existed  in  the  general  history  of  the  manufacture. 
No  large  space  of  Mr  Warden's  volume  has  been  devoted  to  the  English  linen  trade. 
Even  the  far-famed  factories  of  the  Messrs  Marshall  of  Leeds,  are  passed  over  with 
much  less  attention  than  we  could  have  desired.  Neither  have  the  manufacturers 
of  Barnsley  been  treated  with  more  ceremony  ;  and  the  entire  details  given  of  the 
Irish  linen  manufacture  only  occupy  two  and  thirty  pages.  To  make  amends  for  this, 
however,  our  author,  with  the  national  love  of  fatherland  which  ever  distinguishes 
the  North  Briton,  has  devoted  nearly  half  of  his  work  to  the  history  of  Scotch 
linens.  Much,  therefore,  as  we  may  bd  disposed  te  grumble  at  the  condensation  of 
the  annals  of  the  other  parts  of  the  Kingdom's  flaxen  enterprise,  we  must  congratu- 
late Mr  Warden  on  having  in  this  instance  given  to  the  public  the  most  compre- 
hensive view  ever  taken  of  that  department  of  Scotland's  industry It 

would  be  impossible  in  the  space  which  we  have  at  our  command  to  give  any 
lengthened  extracts  from  this  very  valuable  work,  and  we  must  just  refer  our 
readers  to  the  volume  itself,  every  chapter  of  which  abounds  with  information  that 
cannot  fail  to  be  almost  equally  interesting  to  the  student  of  industrial  history  as 
to  the  members  of  the  linen  trade.  Mr  Warden's  work  will  prove  an  important 
addition  to  a  department  of  literature  which  is  every  day  taking  a  higher  stand  in 
public  estimation. 

FROM  THE  "  GLASGOW  DAILY  HERALD,"  3o  SEPT.  1864. 
Mr  Warden's  bulky  volume  shows  a  vast  amount  of  research,  and  will  be  found 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  I' BESS.  5 

full  of  intereatiog  information,  not  only  to  the  manufacturer  and  tboM  interested 
in  the  linen  trade,  but  to  the  general  reader  ;  for  besides  dwelling  at  length  on  the 
statistics  and  technicalities  of  the  manufacture,  there  are  long  and  curious 
accounts  of  the  flax  cultivators  of  the  most  ancient  times.  The  linen  trade  is  one 
of  the  oldest,  and  as  it  is  so  often  poetically  referred  to  by  Grecian  and  Roman 
authors,  ample  materials  exist  in  their  works  for  the  modern  hutorian.  Mr  War* 
den  has  made  good  use  of  theae,  and  hence  his  chapters  on  Egyptian,  Phoenician, 
Grecian,  and  Roman  linens  are  really  worthy  of  perusal.  A  small  section  of  the 
volume  is  devoted  to  a  comparison  of  the  linen  manufactures  of  ancient  and 
modern  times,  and  is  the  substance  of  a  aeries  of  lecture*  delivered  in  Dundee  by 
Mr  William  Miller  of  this  oity.  Theae  lectures  are  a  valuable  addition  to  the 
work.  The  great  bulk  of  the  volume,  however,  is  taken  up  with  modern  linen 
and  its  modern  manufacture*,  in  which  the  author  reviews  in  Quite  an  exhaustive 
manner  the  progress  and  prospects  of  the  manufacture  in  Italy,  Spain,  Germany, 
Holland,  France,  Russia,  England,  and  Scotland— the  Scotch  trade,  of  course, 
being  expounded  with  great  circumstantiality  of  detail.  This  latter  portion  is  ne- 
cessarily dry  and  statistical,  but  we  have  no  doubt  that  it  is  accurate,  as  it  bean  all 
the  marks  of  careful  industry,  and  it  will  in  consequence  be  the  most  valuable 
portion  of  the  book  to  those  readers  engaged  in  this  ancient  trade.  Mr  Warden 
writes  fluently,  and  if  not  always  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  yet  in  *  lively  and 
intelligent  manaer. 

FBOM  THE  "  MANCHESTER  COURIER  AND  LANCASHIRE  GENERAL  ADVERTISER,"  7ra 
SEPT.,  1864. 

The  manufacture  of  linen  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  industries,  and  may, 
indeed,  be  said  to  have  a  classical  reputation,  since  references  to  it  will  be  found 
in  abundance  in  the  works  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  poets.  In  modern  times,  and 
especially  in  this  country,  it  has  made  remarkable  progress,  and  at  the  present 
moment  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  branches  of  manufacture.  ...  It  is 
somewhat  strange  that,  excepting  in  cyclopaedias  and  works  of  a  similar  character, 
no  descriptive  history  of  so  important  a  branch  of  industry  should  until  now  have 
made  its  appearance  ;  but  such  appears  to  be  the  fact.  Mr  Warden,  of  Dundee,  a 
gentleman  connected  practically  with  the  trade,  has  essayed  to  supply  the  defi- 
ciency. The  work  is  well  done,  thoroughly  trustworthy  in  its  details,  and  his 
immense  collection  of  facts  and  statistics  has  been  arranged  with  care,  and  in  a 
clear,  readable  form.  Commencing  with  an  account  of  the  culture  of  the  raw 
material,  and  a  history  of  the  manufacture  as  carried  on  in  ancient  Greece,  Egypt, 
and  Rome,  our  author  proceeds  to  a  comparison  of  the  trade  as  it  was  conducted 
in  tarly  times,  with  its  more  recent  development,  and  then  describes  the 
progress  and  prospects  of  the  manufacture  in  France,  Spain,  Germany,  Russia, 
Italy,  and  the  United  Kingdom.  Some  of  the  chapters  on  the  trade  in  Scotland 
are  perhaps  more  minute  and  their  interest  too  exclusively  local  for  a  work  of  the 
geneml  character  aimed  at  by  Mr  Warden  ;  and  compression  and  revision  might 
be  applied  with  great  advantage,  in  a  literary  sense,  to  other  portions  of  the 
volume.  But,  as  a  whole,  the  work  will  be  one  of  great  value  to  those  engaged 
in  the  trade.  As  regards  the  future,  Mr  Warden's  remarks  on  the  importance  of 
an  increased  culture  of  flax,  and  his  anticipations  of  a  flax  famine  should  farmers 
continue  to  neglect  the  cultivation  of  this  valuable  raw  material,  are  worthy  of 
the  thoughtful  consideration  of  agriculturists.  In  Ireland,  the  subject  has  of  late 
been  taken  up  with  earnestness  ;  but  in  England  and  Scotland  the  crop,  though 
proved  to  be  a  profitable  one,  is  becoming  smaller  every  year. 

FROM  THE  "BELFAST  NEWS-LETTER,"  13rn  SEP*.,  1864. 

In  his  preface  to  his  book,  Mr  Warden  craves  indulgence  for  possible  literary 
faults,  on  the  score  that  he  is  not  so  practised  in  literature  as  in  all  that  concerns 
the  linen  trade  in  all  its  various  branches.  The  indulgence  is  not  needed.  The 
author  must  indeed  be  skilled  in  linens  if  he  is  more  at  home  in  the  warehouse 
than  the  study  ;  for  he  has  contributed  to  manufacturing  science  a  work  which  is 
hardly  more  remarkable  for  its  fulness  of  detail  and  accuracy  of  information  than 
for  its  pleasing  style  and  the  scholarly  research  which  is  evinced  in  many  of  its 
pages.  Mr  Warden  divides  his  work  into  sections,  in  each  of  which  he  has  an 
astonishing  amount  of  information  to  afford  the  public.  The  raw  material  first 
occupies  his  attention,  and  in  separate  chapters  he  discusses  the  botanical  peculia- 
rities and  the  modes  of  culture  and  preparation  of  flax,  hemp,  lute,  and  other 


6  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 

fibres.  How  amply  this  part  of  the  work  is  accomplished  may  be  judged  when  we 
say  that  it  occupies  nearly  120  pages.  The  chapter  on  jute  is  peculiarly  interesting, 
and  might  be  read  with  profit  by  many  of  the  merchants  and  manufacturers  of 
Ireland.  It  was  so  recently  as  1833  that  Mr  James  Watt,  of  Dundee,  first,  and 
not  without  much  difficulty,  introduced  it  into  the  trades  of  that  town.  It  is  now 
a  most  important  and  lucrative  branch  of  manufacture  both  there  and  in  Lanca- 
shire, and  we  cannot  see  why  it  might  not  be  successfully  introduced  into  Belfast. 
The  same  energy  that  has  given  us  a  linen  trade  so  extensive  might  well  be 
employed  in  creating  other  sources  of  employment  and  profit.  In  a  literary 
sense,  the  sections  most  interesting  are  those  which  treat  of  "  Ancient  Linen,  and 
the  Linen  Manufactures  of  the  Olden  Time."  In  reviewing  ancient  linen,  the  art 
of  weaving  fabrics  of  flax  is  traced  back  to  the  ancient  Egyptians.  For  although 
a  chapter  is  properly  devoted  to  "  Bible  Linens,"  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  first 
mention  of  linen  by  name  in  the  Bible  is  when  Pharaoh  exalted  Joseph  to  the 
second  place  in  the  land.  It  is  argued,  and  it  is  arguable,  that  raiments  previously 
spoken  of  in  general  terms  were  made  of  the  flax  fibre  ;  but  if  we  stop  at  the  point 
indicated  we  have  gone  back  far  enough  to  prove  the  high  antiquity  of  the  lineu 
trade.  Phoenician,  Carthagenian,  Grecian,  and  Roman  linea  are  each  separately 
treated,  and  the  chapters  devoted  to  them  are  highly  readable.  The  modern  linen 
section  leads,  however,  to  the  more  practical  part  of  the  work  ;  and  in  it  the 
progress  of  the  trade  in  Italy,  Spain,  Germany,  and  other  countries  is  traced  ;  a 
second  part  of  the  section  being  devoted  to  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch  linen,  but 
especially  to  the  latter ;  the  manufactures  of  every  town  being  separately  treated. 
The  author  has  made  these  chapters  peculiarly  interesting,  not  merely  to  persons 
engaged  in  the  trade,  but  to  the  general  reader.  The  fifth  and  last  part  is  wholly 
occupied  with  an  account  of  manufacturing  operations,  which  are  fully  and  intelli- 
gibly described.  Statistical  tables  are  interspersed  through  the  work,  and  add  no 
little  to  its  ralue.  We  congratulate  the  members  of  the  linen  trade  and  the  public 
on  having  such  a  history  placed  within  their  reach.  The  labour  of  merely  compil- 
ing the  information  in  a  book  of  740  pages  was  immense.  But  the  book  is  no  mere 
compilation,  but  a  well  and  carefully- written  work,  arranged  with  the  utmost 
clearness,  and  written  in  a  style  of  more  than  ordinary  attractiveness. 

FROM  THE  "MOBNING  POST,"  19iH  SEPT.,  1864. 

The  history  of  an  industry  so  important  was  worth  compiling ;  and  it  proves  to 
be  far  more  interesting  in  a  popular  point  of  view  than  could  be  supposed  at  first 
sight.  Mr  Warden  brings  to  the  task  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  every  branch 
of  the  trade,  and  apparently  a  natural  aptitude  for  the  collection  and  arrangement 
of  details,  whilst  in  point  of  literary  style  the  bulky  volume  he  has  produced  is 
more  than  respectable.  He  devotes  over  100  pages  to  a  minute  description  of  the 
various  fibres  produced  from  the  flax,  hemp,  jute,  and  sunn  plant,  and  gives  an 
account  of  the  best  methods  of  growth  and  preparation  in  each  case.  In  a  section 
on  ancient  linen  he  furnishes  a  very  pleasing  treatise  on  Bible  linen,  and  he  traces 
the  manufacture  to  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Greece,  Carthage,  and  Rome.  The  history 
and  position  of  the  linen  trade  in  Italy,  Spain,  Germany,  and  France  are  treated 
in  separate  chapters  ;  and  the  portion  of  the  work  which  is  more  immediately 
interesting  at  home  is  then  commenced.  Mr  Warden  has  spared  no  trouble  to  teU 
his  readers  how  the  linen  trade  was  introduced  into  the  British  Islands,  and  to 
what  causes  its  progress  was  due.  .  .  .  The  history  of  the  trade  in  Scotland  is 
traced  by  the  author  with  much  minuteness  of  detail,  and  many  very  interesting 
facts  are  mentioned.  .  .  .  After  the  Union  the  trade  began  to  flourish,  and  was 
spread  over  all  the  country ;  but,  as  in  England  and  Ireland,  the  improved  methods 
of  manufacture  and  the  erection  of  spinning-mills  and  power-loom  factories  have 
tended  to  localise  it.  An  account  of  those  improved  methods  is  given  by  the 
author  in  the  last  section  of  his  book,  and  he  seems  to  augur  a  bright  future  for  a 
trade  which  has  certainly  made  immense  strides  within  these  few  yeare.  It  can 
hardly  be  disguised,  however,  that  much  depends  upon  the  continuance  of  the 
American  war.  The  high  price  of  cotton  is  one  of  the  conditions  that  has  stimulated 
the  linen  manufacture  ;  and  it  is  natural  to  assume  that  when  cotton  is  once  more 
cheap  flax  fabrics  will  not  be  so  much  in  demand  as  they  at  present  are. 

FBOM  THE  "DAILY  NEWS,"  IST  OCT.,  1864. 

The  title  of  this  book  does  not  promise  much  entertainment  to  the  general 
reader  ;  he  will  bo  disposed  to  say,  fi  It  is  a  class  publication,  intended  for  men 


OWN  10X8  OF  THE  P 

engaged  in  that  branch  of  truda,  and  can  hare  no  interest  for  me."    In  this  ho 
will  fall  into  a  great  error.    The  volume  is  no  doubt  intended  for  the  trade  in  one 
sense,  and  contain*  all  the  information  which  a  linen  manufacturer  or  draper  can 
possibly  require ;  but  it  ii  much  more  than  a  commercial  manual— it  it  a  very 
able  and  learned  history  of  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  arts.    The  earliest  records 
of  mankind  make  mention  of  linen  as  an  article  of  common  use.     It  wo  familiar 
to  the  sacred  writers,  and  Herodotus,  the  earliest  of  profane  historians,  notion 
the  high  perfection  to  which  the  art  of  linen  weaving  was  brought  in  Bjtypk     An 
art  so  ancient  and  so  closely  associated  with  the  progress)  of  mankind  in  civiliia- 
tioti  must  be  a  theme  full  of  curious  and  pleasing;   interest  to  every  thinking 
person,  and  the  manner  in  which  Mr  Alexander  Warden  has  treated  it  in  this 
1  ication  is  well  calculated  to  commend  it  to  the  notice  of  all  classes  of  readers. 
The  first  part  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  the  natural  history  and  chemistry  of  the 
flax  plant,  and  other  fibrous  vegetables,  such  at  hemp,  jute,  phnrmium  tenax, 
ami  many  others.    The  author  investigates  the  geographical  distribution  of  these 
plants,  their  elementary  constituents,  their  commercial  value,  the  methods  adopted 
in  their  culture  and  manufacture.    The  whole  of  this  part  of  the  volume  is  well 
arranged  and  clearly  elucidated,  the  general  results  being  placed  before  the  reader 
in  tabular  forms  which  we  think  must  be  of  immense  value  to  every  one  engaged 
in  the  linen  industry.    The  author  passes  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  antiquity 
of  linen  weaving,  and  with  much  research  and  good  store  of  Hebrew  and  Greet 
learning,  clearly  traces  it  up  to  the  very  dawn  of  human  history.    Egypt  was  no 
doubt  before  Palestine  in  this  as  in  all  other  arts  ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  some  of  the  mummy  wrappings  and  documents  which  any  one  may  see  in  the 
British  Museum  are  very  nearly,  if  not  quite  four  thousand  years  old.    Our  author 
next  traces  the  art  into  Phoenicia,  Carthage,  Babylon,  Colchis,  Greece,  and  finally 
to  Rome.    The  Romans  found  the  Britons  almost  ignorant  of  textile  arts,  and 
among  many  other  good  things  taught  them  to  spiu  and  weave,  and  to  exchange 
the  skins  of  beasts,  and  the  dye  of  woad,  which  previously  had  been  their  only 
vesture,  for  linen  and  woollen  garments.     The  rude  fighting  Danes  and  Saxons 
did  not  wholly  neglect  so  useful  a  branch  of  industry.        .        .        .     From  hence 
downwards  to  the  close  of  the  last  century  the  linen  trade  was  gradually  assuming 
an  increasing  importance  among  the  different  nations  of  the  earth.     The  introduc- 
tion of  cotton  into  textile  fabrics  in  the  17th  century  was  not  unfavourable  to  the 
flax  trade,  cotton  could  not  by  the  old  methods  be  spun  strong  enough  for  the 
warp  or  longitudinal  threads  of  the  texture,  and  down  to  1773  it  was  used  only 
for  the  weft  or  transverse  threads.     The  inventions  of  Hargraves,  Arkwright,  and 
others  obviated  the  necessity  of  using  flax  threads  for  the  warp,  and  enabled  the 
manufacturers  to  make  the  whole  fabric  of  cotton.    This  proved  a  heavy  blow  and 
great  discouragement  to  the  more  ancient  industry,  the  flax  trade  drooped,  and 
was  in  many  place*  barely  kept  alive  by  the  unwholesome  stimulation  of  govern- 
ment bounties,  until  the  civil  war  in  America  deposed  King  Cotton,  when  it  expe- 
rienced a  sudden  revival,  which  it  is  hoped  will  be  permanent     The  author  gives 
a  history  and  description  of  all  the  great  seats  of  the  manufacture,  not  only  in 
the  three  kingdoms,   but  throughout  the  world.    The  importance  of  the  linen 
trade  to  Ireland  is  very  great,  if  we  may  judge  of  the  immense  increase  in  her 
export  within  the  last  few  years.    The  progress  of  Scotland  is,  however,  very 
much  greater,  and  England,  which  never  before  took  kindly  to  the  business,  has 
of  late  turned  her  attention  to  it  with  telling  effect.    The  author,  whilst  giving 
his  readers  a  thorough  knowledge  of  everything  connected  with  flax  and  linen, 
does  not  neglect  to  relieve  the  dryness  of  his  statistics  by  pleasant  pictures  of 
society  in  old  times,  of  the  employment  of  ladies  in  the  labours  of  needle  and 
shears  and  embroidery,  of  the  marvellous  linen  pictures  produced  by  help  of  the 
Jacquard  device,  and  of  the  lovely  damasks  and  diapers  which  were  the  pride  of  chate- 
laines and  princesses  in  ages  gone  by.  We  no  longer  live  in  times  when  the  maidens 
of  the  household  spent  their  evenings  in  the  great  hall,  spinning  and  sewing  by  the 
light  of  a  cresset  lamp  or  a  wood  fire  ;  the  art  thus  practised  in  primitive  simplicity 
has  become  the  chief  business  of  the  nation,  the  great  staple  of  its  industry,  the 
greatest  source  of  its  wealth  and  power.    We  have  looked  through  Mr  Alexander 
Warden's  book  with  attention,  and  feel  compelled  in  common  justice  to  say  that 
it  is  remarkable  for  its  fulness,  as  well  as  for  the  pains  that  have  been  taken  to 
make  it  accurate  and  trustworthy.    It  is  also  written  in  a  style  which  entirely 
saves  it  from  the  monotony  that  might  be  thought  inherent  in  a  commercial  topic. 
We  have,  it  is  true,  all  manner  of  statistics  and  tabular  statements  connected 
with  the  trade  in  every  country  under  the  sun  ;  but  we  have  also  that  touch  of 
nature  which  awakens  human  sympathy  and  curiosity,  for  the  author  connects  his 
theme  throughout  with  the  advance  of  mankind  from  barbarism  to  civilisation. 


THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


FROM  THE  "  ILLUSTRATED  LONBON  NEWS,"  IST  OCTOBER,  1864. 

Mr  Alexander  J.  "Warden's  new  work  on  the  "  Linen  Manufacture"  not  only  con- 
tains interesting  historical  matter  relating  to  the  linen  of  the  ancients  and  moderns, 
and  copious  commercial  details,  but  also  very  much  valuable  scientific  information 
respecting  flax,  hemp,  jute,  sunn,  &c.,  now  of  such  great  national  importance.  lu 
regard  to  flax,  we  are  instructed  respecting  its  botanical  character,  various  species, 
methods  of  culture,  the  chemical  constituents  of  the  plant,  and  the  soils  in  which 
it  is  grown,  British  and  foreign,  the  preparations  for  the  manufacture,  &c.  The 
history  of  the  gradual  introduction  of  the  now  important  jute  into  Britain,  and 
the  methods  of  bleaching,  spinning,  and  dyeing  it,  will  be  quite  new  to  the  general 
public,  who  may  not  be  aware  that  it  has  led  to  great  commercial  prosperity  in 
Dundee  since  the  decline  of  the  cotton  manufacture  in  Lancashire.  Jute  is  the 
fibre  of  the  Corchorus  olitarius  (pot  herb,  or  Jew's  mallow)  and  Corchorus  cap- 
sularis  ;  herbaceous  annuals,  which  in  India  grow  from  five  to  fourteen  feet  high. 
The  former  derives  its  name  from  the  leaves  having  been  eaten  by  the  natives  as 
a  kind  of  spinach.  The  stems  yield  the  fibre  known  in  commerce.  Sunn  hemp 
(Crotularea  juncea),  sana,  belongs  to  the  family  of  plants  yielding  the  pulses  of 
India.  The  fibre  obtained  from  its  stalks  has  been  employed  in  cordage,  but  for 
textile  purposes  it  has  given  way  to  its  formidable  rival  jute.  Mr  Warden  gives 
interesting  particulars  respecting  other  fibres  which  may  hereafter  become  of 
national  importance.  Mr  Warden's  book  is  undoubtedly  the  best  modern  book 
on  the  subject,  and  will  form  a  companion  to  Ure's  *'  History  of  the  Cotton  Manu- 
facture." 

FROM  THE  "  EDINBURGH  REVIEW,"  OCT.  1864. 

In  the  course  of  an  admirable  Review  of  several  works  bearing  on  the  History 
and  Antiquities  of  Angus  or  Forfarshire,  which  appeared  in  the  Edinburgh  Review 
for  Oct.  1864,  from  the  accomplished  pen  of  the  Right  Rev.  the  Bishop  of  Brechin, 
the  learned  Prelate  says — "  Since  the  above  has  been  written,  we  have  met  with 
Mr  "Warden's  accurate  and  exhaustive  'History  of  the  Linen  Trade.'  He  first 
goes  at  great  length  into  an  account  of  the  raw  material,  describing  the  flax,  hemp, 
and  jute  culture.  Then  he  gives  the  result  of  an  interesting  investigation  into 
the  ancient  history  of  linen  in  Palestine,  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Greece,  and  Rome  ;  and 
pursuing  the  subject,  he  treats  of  modern  linen  in  the  different  countries  of 
Europe  down  to  the  present  time.  He  supplies  a  mass  of  carefully  compiled 
statistics  as  to  the  actual  condition  of  the  trade  in  England,  Ireland,  and  especially 
Scotland.  Altogether  the  work  is  a  most  laborious  and  valuable  hand-book  of  this 
interesting  branch  of  industry." 

FROM  THE  "EDINBURGH  EVENING  COURANT,"  15TH  OCT.,  1864. 

The  history  of  the  linen  trade,  and  the  culture  and  manufacture  of  flax  and 
kindred  plants,  form  the  subject  of  a  goodly  and  attractive  volume  by  Mr  A.  J. 
"Warden,  of  Dundee.  The  work,  partaking  in  a  great  degree  of  a  technical  char- 
acter, nevertheless  contains  a  large  amount  of  information  that  is  of  interest  to 
all.  Mainly  written  for  the  sake  of  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  linen  trade,  its 
value  is  not  confined  to  the  counting-house,  whether  at  Dundee,  or  Leeds,  or 
Lille.  It  is  worthy  of  a  place  in  every  general  library,  and  is  not  unfitted,  with 
its  showy  cover,  to  appear  on  the  drawing-room  table.  Mr  Warden,  himself  a 
merchant  of  experience  and  standing,  familiar  with  the  processes  of  linen  manu- 
facture and  with  the  routine  of  its  commerce,  has  employed  his  leisure  for  some 
years  in  a  historical  investigation  of  the  subject.  In  this  volume  he  has  compiled 
from  various  and  scattered  sources  the  traces  and  records  of  past  uses  and  forgotten 
modes,  as  well  as  the  particulars  of  the  recent  progress  and  present  extent  of  the 
vast  enterprises  connected  with  this  branch  of  modern  merchandise.  He  has  gone 
into  the  task  with  a  diligence  and  success  that  leave  nothing  to  te  desired,  and  he 
presents  to  the  public  as  the  result  of  his  labours  a  book  of  740  pages.  In  the 
copiousness  and  attractiveness  of  his  subject,  Mr  Warden  has  no  doubt  been 
extremely  fortunate.  At  the  beginning  he  has  to  deal  with  one  of  the  greatest 
wonders  of  beneficent  Nature — namely,  the  production  of  flax.  A  plant  suited  to 
all  temperate  climates,  rapid  in  its  growth,  attractive  in  its  beauty,  and  rich  in 
its  harvesting,  flax  contributes  to  man  a  fibre  which,  when  woven  into  a  garment, 
will  wear  for  an  age,  and  which  when  not  subject  to  wear  has  been  known  to  exist 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PR188.  9 


Tor  a  hundred  generation!.  Betide*  this  valuable  rmiment  which  auto  ho  used 
from  the  earlieit  times,  and  which  has  in  all  nations  been  regarded  as  the  symbol 
and  agent  of  cleanness  and  parity,  the  flax  plant  expresses  an  oil  and  yields  a  seed 
possessing  hitch  medicinal  properties,  and  also  most  nutritive  qualities  for  the  food 
of  the  lower  animals.  With  its  associated  plants  it  produces  fabrics  of  the  most 
widely  various  kinds,  from  the  delicate  texture  of  French  cambric  to  the  rough 
material  of  sail-cloth,  cordage,  and  rope.  The  bishop  in  his  spotless  lawn,  and  the 
abip  spreading  her  white  sail  to  the  orees*,  alike  contribute  at  cuitomirs  to  the 
linen  trade.  Throughout  the  Scriptures  of  both  Old  and  New  Testament,  the 
record  more  or  less  explicit  of  4000  yean  of  the  world's  history,  in  the  Egyptian 
tombs,  on  the  Assyrian  sculptures,  in  Greek  and  Roman  literature,  we  find  con- 
stant reference  to  and  illustration  of  the  ases  of  this  remarkable  plant,  and  so 
highly  in  it  spoken  of  in  the  sacred  volume  that  we  find  priest*,  angels,  and  the 
redeemed  saints  spoken  of  as  clothed  with  garments  of  ''fine  linen/'  All  these 
things  are  to  Mr  Warden  the  fruitful  subjects  of  observation,  elucidation,  and 
suggestion.  Opening  with  a  series  of  chapters  explanatory  of  the  botanical  char* 
act»T,  agricultural  processes,  and  mercantile  values  of  flax,  hemp,  and  jute,  he 
goes  on  to  apeak  of  Bible  linen,  Egyptian  linen,  Roman  linen,  &<x,  in  regard  to  all 
of  which  he  deeply  engages  the  interest  of  the  reader  by  his  eloquent  passages  and 
suggestive  comments.  Although  deprecating  any  pretence  to  literary  style,  he 
sustains  with  great  skill  the  interest  of  the  render,  and  makes  him  continue  as  a 
pleasure  what  he  probably  began  as  a  study  or  as  prosecuting  a  dry  field  of  inquiry. 
Following  up  the  historical  summaries,  Mr  Warden  proceeds  to  incorporate  with 
his  work  the  substance  of  several  lectures  on  the  linen  manufactures  of  the 
olden  time"  delivered  in  Dundee  about  twelve  years  as?o  by  Mr  William  Miller, 
now  of  Glasgow,  to  whom  Mr  Warden  expresses  his  obligations  for  "a  mass  of 
valuable  details  and  statistics,"  which  have  helped  him  with  various  parts  of  his 
volume.  Coming  to  the  subject  of  modern  linen,  he  enters  upon  the  more  techni- 
cal portion  of  the  work.  But  the  details  of  invention,  commerce,  and  enterprise 
are,  nevertheless,  full  of  instruction,  throwing  great  light  not  only  on  the  imme- 
diate question,  but  on  the  habits,  occupations,  and  trade  of  various  European 
nations.  Then  we  come  to  a  scries  of  chapters  still  more  copious,  devoted  to  the 
linen  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  especially  the  northern  part  of  it.  The 
origin  and  objects  of  the  British  Linen  Company's  Bank,  still  a  i,'re.tt  bank,  but  no 
longer  a  linen  company,  are  stated  ;  an  abstract  is  given  of  the  minutes  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees  for  Manufactures  in  Scotland,  to  whose  fostering  care  we  no 
doubt  in  great  part  owe  the  present  prosperity  of  the  linen  manufacture  here  ;  and 
also  a  brief  histoiy  of  the  stamping  laws.  Of  the  linen  manufacture  in  the  rural 
districts  of  Scotland  we  have  also  abundant  historical  and  statistical  details.  A 
long  chapter  is  then  devoted  to  the  linen  trade  of  Dundee,  which,  from  small 
beginnings,  has  risen  to  be  one  of  great  magnitude,  employing  vast  capital  and 
great  numbers  of  people.  We  quote  a  couple  of  pages  from  this  part  of  the  work 
as  presenting  a  curious  example  of  how  times  change  and  trades  change  with  them. 
The  jenny  has  now  so  completely  superseded  the  distaff,  that  modes  of  labour 
within  the  memory  of  many  have  been  completely  absorbed  into  the  province  of 
history  ;  and  the  term  of  "spinster,"  is  forgotten  by  all  save  the  parish  clerk  and 
the  district  registrar.  The  spinster  is  replaced  in  the  industry  of  society  by  the 
poor  mill-girl,  and  the  profitless  pursuits  of  crochet  and  embroidery  are  alone  left 
for  those  of  our  young  ladies  who  would  not  be  altogether  idle,  and  who  would 
still  reioioe  in  the  labour  of  their  hands.  .  .  .In  the  examination  of 
this  subject  of  the  linen  trade,  the  question  will  naturally  occur,  why  with  a  climate 
so  well  fitted  to  the  production  of  flax,  do  we  entirely  (excepting  partially  in  Ire- 
land) depend  upon  our  imports  of  the  crop  ?  Mr  Warden  states  that  where  it  has 
been  fairly  tried  it  has  yielded  nearly  twice  the  pecuniary  return  of  other  crops  to 
the  farmer,  and  that  its  alleged  "scourging"  of  the  land  is  somewhat  unreason- 
ably dreaded.  One  reason  for  its  non-introduction  js  the  want  of  scutching  mills 
on  or  near  the  groun  I,  but  theie  would  no  doubt  be  supplied  were  there  any  dis- 
position shown  on  the  part  of  farmers  to  cultivate  che  flax.  But  the  land  of  this 
country  being  comparatively  limited  in  area,  and  the  abundant  quantity  in  which 
flax  is  obtained  from  the  Netherlands  and  other  countries,  where  it  is  cultivated 
with  the  greatest  skill  and  success,  it  is  probably  unnecessary  to  consider  the 
propriety  of  establishing  any  home  competition  in  the  matter  of  production.  The 
rise  of  the  jute  trade  of  Dundee  is  one  of  the  roost  remarkable  chapters  of  Mr 
Warden's  book.  It  is  scarcely  thirty  years  sinoe  this  Indian  fibre  was  introduced, 
in  circumstances  of  great  difficulty  and  discouragement,  into  the  trade  of  Dundee, 
whereas  now  it  is  one  of  the  great  staple  manufactures  of  the  town,  employing 


10  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


thousands  of  the  population.  In  conclusion,  we  would  cordially  recommend  Mr 
Warden's  book  for  its  fulness,  perspicuity,  and  research  in  regird  to  a  subject 
which  affects  the  immediate  welfare  of  many  thousands  of  our  countrymen,  and 
which  in  a  more  general  sense  is  fraught  with  interest  to  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. 

FROM  THE  "  MECHANICS'  MAGAZINE,"  2o  DEC.,  1864. 

At  last  linen  has  its  history.  It  has  been  hitherto  considered  enough  for  the 
majority  of  people  to  buy,  sell,  and  wear  linen.  Now,  in  addition  to  these,  they 
can  learn  its  history,  from  the  earliest  records  of  man's  invention — from  the  days, 
in  fact,  when  "Adam  delved  and  Eve  span"  to  the  present  age,  when  nearly 
every  nation  of  the  earth  is  more  or  less  interested  in  its  manufacture  and  use. 

.     .     .     Mr  Warden  writes  well  and  to  the  point,  and  the  greater  portion  of 
his  volume  cannot  fail  to  be  deeply  interesting  to  even  the  general  reader.     In 
flax  spinning,  to  which  Mr  Warden  devotes  a  capital  paper,  each  separate  fibre 
has  to  be  unravelled ;  this  is  called  "heckling."    The  same  process  is  gone  through 
a  second  time,  but  with  a  finer  heckle.     A  great  number  of  machines  have  been 
invented  for  this  purpose.     .     ,     .      The  desired  fineness  having  been  obtained, 
the  flax  is  ready  for  being  spun.     The  spindle  was  the  earliest  appliance  for  this 
purpose,  the  distaff  being  added  to  it,  making  the  process  easier.     "The  virtuous 
woman  layeth  her  hands  to  the  spindle,  and  her  hands  hold  the  distaff,"  said 
Solomon ;-  -a  plain  description  of  the  Oriental  method  of  spinning.    Few  appliances 
have  continued  in  use  so  long  as  the  spindle  and  distaff.      It  remained  in  use 
until  the  introduction  of  the  spinning  wheel.     The  English  spindle,  introduced  so 
often  in  books  as  illustrating  the  acme  of  country  happiness  and  industry,  aided 
too  by  the  pleasant  pictures  drawn  by  such  poets  as  Cowper  and  Wordsworth, 
was  very  like  the  Egyptian  spindle.     We  have  no  occasion  to  describe  it,  as  it  is 
familiar  to  nearly  every  one.     .     .     .     One  of  the  first  important  innovations  upon 
the  old  system  was  that  of  a  machine  invented  by  Lewis  Paul  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century.     This  person  discovered  the  principle  of  rolling-spinning. 
"Paul's  invention,"  remarks  Mr  Warden,  "contained  the  germ  of  a  self-acting 
and  self-regulating  principle,  and  the  means  which  he  used  were  so  unlike  any 
previous  performance  by  the  hands,  that  he  is  well  entitled  to  the  admiration  of 
posterity  for  the  originality  of  his  genius."    To  Richard  Arkwright  the  country 
is  indebted  for  the  practical  solution  which  he  gave  to  the  problem  of  automatic 
spinning.    By  this  principle,  the  flyer  was  rendered  automatic  in  spreading  the 
yarn  on  the  bobbin.     From  the  introduction  of  machines  for  cotton  spinning  to 
the  invention  of  machinery  for  the  spinning  of  flax,  was  but  one  step.     Two  men, 
one  a  clockmaker  and  the  other  an  optician,  patented,  in  1787,  a  machine,  "con- 
sisting of  a  cylinder  three  feet  in  diameter  by  ten  inches  broad,  smooth  on  the 
surface,  with  some  small  cylinders  or  rollers  in  connection  for  holding  and  drawing 
the  flax  and  other  fibrous  materials  put  upon  it  for  operation.     Also— (we  are 
quoting    from    the  specification) — a    spinning  machine   or    frame,   having    four 
spindles,  consistinglikewise  of  a  plain  cylinder,  but  of  smaller  diameter,  with  rollers 
for  holding  and  drawing  the  untwisted  sliver  of  flax  or  other  material  passing 
there."    Rapid  was  the  progress  that  followed  the  introduction  of  these  machines 
of  Kendrew  and  Porthouse.    At  first  they  were  very  small,  somewhat  awkward, 
and  for  some  time,  notwithstanding  their  pretty  general  introduction,  unprofitable 
to  the  purchasers.     It  is  true  that  steam  was  used  from  the  first  as  a  motive  power, 
but  during  the  first  decade  of  the  present  century,  perfection  was  not  attained. 
Then  followed  improvements  close  upon  the  heels  of  each  other ;   and,  as  Mr 
Warden  says,  as  the  machinery  was  improved,  the  quality  of  the  yarn  became 
finer  until  it  supplanted  hand  spun  yarn.     ...     In  bringing  down  the  history 
of  these  manufacturing  operations,  Mr  Warden  describes  at  length  the  machinery 
used  in  the  present  day.    .    .     .     The  second  chapter  of  that  portion  of  the  book 
detailing  the  history  of  the  manufacturing  operations  in  the  production  of  linen 
for  the  market,  treats  us  to  an  account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  weaving.    Of 
fancy  weaving  there  is  no  mention,  as  few  linens  are  so  made.     Into  the  ancient 
history  of  this  venerable  handicraft,  we  do  not  intend  following  the  author.     .     . 
The  process  of  warping  before  the  threads  of  warp  can  be  wound  on  the  yard  beam 
on  the  loom  is  fully  described  in  a  pleasant  manner  by  Mr  Warden.     .     .     .     The 
art  of  bleaching  is  a  distinct  branch,  though  of  course  a  necessary  one,  of  linen 
manufacture.     The  earliest  mention  we  have  of  bleaching  is  that  of  Theophrastes, 
who,  three  hundred  years  before  Christ,  refers  to  the  use  of  lime  in  this  process. 
Buttermilk  was  originally  employed  in  this  country,  but  water,  acidulated  with 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS. 

sulphuric  acid,  was  substituted  a  century  ago  by  Dr  Home.  Chlorine  wu  after- 
wards  uaed,  Mr  Watt  being  the  first  to  introduce  this  suggestion  of  M.  Berthollet 
into  England.  ...  It  mutt  strike  the  reader  of  Mr  Warden's  exceedingly 
interesting  book  how  much  may  be  done  by  the  pressure  of  neoeetity  toward* 
obtaining  something  like  accuracy  and  perfection  in  machinery,  fee. 

FROM  THI  "  PRACTICAL  MBOHAITIOB'  JODBHAL,"  IBT  FIB.,  1865. 

This  goodly  volume,  withal  its  unpretending  title,  contains  net  only  the  most 
complete  and  comprehensive  account  of  the  linen  trade,  to  which,  by  its  title,  one 
would  suppose  it  limited,  but  also  an  excellent  account  of  almost  all  the  other 
fibrous  materials  that  have  been  proposed  or  employed  as  the  basis  of  textile 
f.ilu-ics  analogous  to  linen.  The  author  has  obviously  worked  at  his  history  M  at  a 
labour  of  love,  and  produced  a  work  that  almost  no  one  could  take  up  without 
becoming  interested  in  its  historical  and  topographical  details,  and  that  must  long 
remain  of  sterling  value  to  all  concerned  in  the  production  or  sale  of  linen,  aa  a 
repertory  and  authority.  The  first  Section,  of  llOpages,  is  devoted  to  "The  Raw  Mate- 
rial," and  in  this  we  have  not  only  the  natural  history  and  distribution  in  space  of  all 
the  fibre-growing  plants,  but  an  extremely  good  resume  of  the  agriculture  and  the 
conditions  for  success  and  for  securing  special  qualities  of  fibre,  as  respects  all  the 
more  important  fibrous  materials.  In  Sections  IL  and  III.  we  have  the  archsoo- 
logy  of  linen,  beginning  with  •*  Bible  linen"  and  coming  down  to  modern  days. 
Mr  Warden  is  evidently  an  orthodox  churchman  of  some  Scottish  form,  and  does 
not  hesitate  to  take  the  start  point  of  linen  history  from  "  the  first  interview 
between  man  and  his  Maker  after  the  fall,"  when  "  unto  Adam  and  his  wife  did 
the  lx>rd  God  make  coats  of  skins  and  clothe  them."  Coats,  he  says,  might  be  better 
translated  tunics,  and  "  these  were  afterward*  (by  an  easy  change,  no  doubt,  as  the 
etymologists  say.)  made  of  woollen  or  of  linen."  Though  the  author,  in  his  open- 
ing sentences,  tells  us  that  linen  was  fabricated  more  than  four  thousand  ye»u* 
ago,  he  appears  never  to  have  entertained  a  question  whether  this  transition  from 
heaven-descended  skins,  to  the  wide-spread  flax  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  fine 
linen  in  Egypt,  was  likely  to  have  taken  place  within  much  less  than  two  thousand 
years,  in  accordance  with  doctrinal  chronology.  But  however  Mr  Warden's 
method  of  writing  history  may  be  behind  modern  modes  pour  verifier  let  date*  in 
logical  rigidity,  we  may  well  follow  his  narrative  with  interest,  and  feel  pleaded, 
if  nothing  more,  with  the  truthful  piety  of  the  author.  His  historical  lucubrations 
cannot  deprive  his  work  of  its  great  practical  value.  The  fourth  Section,  in  its 
first  and  second  parts,  is  devoted  to  the  description  of  the  modern  linen  manufac- 
ture all  over  the  world ;  the  fifth,  and  last,  to  the  manufacturing  operations 
whereby  the  fibre  becomes  linen  cloth  ;  all  which  is  ably,  lucidly,  and  exhaustively 
given.  Whatever  opinion  may  be  arrived  at  as  to  the  archaeological  part  of  the 
history  in  Mr  Warden's  book,  there  can  be  but  one  formed  as  to  the  able  way  in 
which  he  has  traced  the  growth  and  change  of  locality  of  the  linen  manufacture  in 
modern  times.  The  long  chapter  in  which  (p.  389  et  seq.)  he  traces  the  origines, 
the  rise  and  progress,  and  present  state  of  the  linen  manufacture  of  the  north  of 
Ireland,  should  be  studied  by  Irish  Members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  by 
all  others  who  are  still  desirous  that  the  great  and  prosperous  staple  trade  of  the 
notth  should  overflow  and  spread  over  the  south  and  west.  The  attempts  hitherto 
made  to  effect  this  have  been  singularly  unsuccessful  and  discouraging.  Some  of 
the  causes  of  this  which  are  of  anterior,  if  not  of  historical  origin  or  date,  and 
which  do  not  quite  lie  on  the  surface,  may  be  more  or  less  discerned  by  a  reflective 
reader,  who,  Seiner  personally  well  acquainted  with  the  social  condition  of  the 
south  and  west  of  Ireland,  shall  take  up  and  atudy  this  chapter  ef  Mr  Warden. — 
ED. 

FROM  THI  "  SCOTSMAN,"  16iH  Nov.,  1864. 

Mr  Warden  might  almost  have  designated  his  book  "The  Linen  and  Jute 
Trades,  Ancient  and  Modern."  It  is  true,  the  word  "  ancient"  could  scarcely  have 
been  applied  to  the  jute  trade  ;  but  that  trade  is  virtually  described  in  this  volume, 
fully  and  well ;  and  modern  though  it  be,  so  far  as  this  country  at  least  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  running  its  race  so  rapidly  and  strongly,  that  it  is  not  only  already  of 
vast  importance  to  Scotland,  but  to  the  country  generally,  and  we  have  no  doubt 
it  will  develop  itself,  and  increase  so  much  as  to  be  quite  worthy  of  being  described 
as  fully  as  the  linen  trade.  It  is  practically,  by  it*  rapid  extension  and  the  variety 


12  THE  LINEN  TRADE. 


of  purposes  to  which  it  is  being  applied,   almost  abreast  of   the  older  branch 
already.    Although  Mr  Warden  no  doabt  commenced  the  compilation  of  this  work 
before  the  beginning  of  the  recent  prosperity  in  the  lineo  and  jute  trades,  he  could 
not  have  brought  it  out  at  a  more  opportune  time  than  when   that  prosperity, 
after  running  on  uninterruptedly  for  two  years,  has  attained  an  elevation  never 
before  reached.     Not  only  is  every  manufactory  and  spinning-mills    and   every 
piece  of  machinery,  and  every  power-loom  fully  occupied,  but  very  considerable 
additions  and  extensions  are  being  made,   as  well  in  Fifeshire  as  in  Forfarsbire. 
The  first  impression  of  the  book,  looking  at  its  size,  is  that  surely  all  that  could  be 
•written  about  the  linen  trade  might  have  been  compressed  into  a  smaller  space. 
We  fail  to  discover,  however,  where  the  volume  could  have  been  judiciously  cur- 
tailed.    Mr  Warden  has  accomplished  his  task  comprehensively  and  well ;  and 
he  writes  fluently  and  clearly.     In  a  book  devoted  to  a  dry  technical  subject, 
such  as  the  "  Linen  Trade,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  may  be  supposed  to  be,  the 
general  reader  cannot  be  expected  to  look  for  much  to  interest  him  ;  but  he  will 
find  himself  in  this  instance  agreeably  mistaken,  and  a  perusal  will  gratify  him  as 
much  almost  as  it  must  do  persons  more  immediately  engaged  in  the  trade.     To 
no  portion  of  his  subject  does  Mr  Warden  appear  to  have  devoted  himself  more 
energetically  and  lovingly  than  to  that  portion  designated  "  Bible  Linen,"  which 
will  generally  be  read  with  interest.        .        .        .     The   modern  linen  trade, 
particularly  as  it  has  developed  itself  in  Forfarshire,  is  very  fully  described  ;  and 
although  the  portion  of  the  volume  devoted  to  an  account  of  the  jute  trade  is 
comparatively  small,   that  arises,  no  doubt,  more  from  its  recent  introduction 
than  from  its  want  of  interest  or  magnitude,  as  compared  with  the  linen  trade. 
The  linen  trade  is  more  spread  over  our  own  country,  as  well  as  the  continent  of 
Europe,  than  the  jute  trade  is ;  the  north  of  Ireland,  having  Belfast  as  the  centre, 
is  as  importantly  occupied  in  the  production  of  flax  and  its  manufacture  into 
linen  as  Scotland  is,  with  its  centre  of  the  trade  in  Dundee  ;  but  the  manufacture 
of  jute  into  yarns  and  cloth  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  Forfarshire,     No  trade 
has  so  rapidly  risen  into  importance  in  this  country — none  has  proved  more  bene- 
ficial to  the  locality  in  which   it  is  carried  on  ;  and  as  there  seems  to  be  no  limit 
to  the  production  of  the  raw  material  at  a  moderate  cost,  there  seems  as  little 
reason  to  doubt  that  this  trade  is  only  yet  in  its  infancy,  when  it  is  considered  to 
how  many  and  various  useful  purposes  the  manufactured  article  can  be  applied.    It 
is  interesting  to  follow  the  progress  of  the  linen  trade  from  its  position  fifty  years 
ago,  with  the  old  spinning-wheel — the  occupant  alike  of  the  mansion  and  the  cot- 
tage— and  the  "  customer"  weaver,  to  the  modern  spinning-mills  aad  power-loom 
factories.     She  was  then  considered  a  "bandJess"  maiden  who  could  not  spin  the 
yarn  for  her  own  "providin' ;"  and  there  is  still  much  more  of  private  spinning  and 
weaving  at  the  present  day  on  the  continent  of  Europe  than  Mr  Warden  seems  to 
be  aware  of.     So  much  do  old  customs  and  habits  adhere  to  a  people,  that  it  is  • 
only  last  summer  we  saw  in  a  town  in  France,   within  easy  reach  of  two  days' 
railway  travelling,  the  old  distaff  and  spindle  at  work  in  the  hands  of  an  old 
woman ;  and  in  the  country  parts  of  Germany  the  lineo  is  yet  almost  altogether 
produced  for  private   use   by  the  cottage  spinning-wheel  and  the  "customer" 
weaver.    In  a  late  excursion  through  Saxon  Switzerland  we  had  such  a  "  customer" 
weaver  for  our  guide,  and  a  more  intelligent  person  could  scarcely  be  met  in  the 
same  rank  of  life.     He  possessed  a  good  house  and  a  piece  of  land,  as  many  of  our 
Scotch  weavers  formerly  did,  and  as  some  of  them  still  do.     But  we  c.mnot  regret 
the  advance  of  the  power-loom,  for  weaving  is  not  only  a  monotonous  but  a  severe 
labour ;  and  both  man's  and  woman's  strength  and  intelligence  can  be  more  suita- 
bly and  profitably  employed  than  at  the  weary  driving  of  a  shuttle.     It  may  be 
added,  that  the  rapid  progress  of  steam,  as  applied  to  machinery  and  railroads, 
has  effected  great  changes  in  the  customs  of  those  employed  in  the  trade.     There 
are  yet  living  men  who  have  walked  from  Brechm  to  Dundee  on  a  market  day, 
"  stood  the  market,"  and  walked  home  again  in  the  afternoon. 


FROM  THE  "  ILLUSTRATED  TIMES,"  29TH  OCT.,  1864. 

"The  Linen  Trade,  Ancient  and  Modern,"  does  not  at  once  strike  the  average 
reader  as  a  lively  subject  for  a  large  and  thick  volume.  But  Mr  Warden  claims 
indulgence  for  being  no  professional  bookmaker,  and  he  may  certainly  be  acquitted 
of  being  a  title-maker.  The  title  is  the  faintest  indication  of  the  contents  of  a 
volume  which  is  historically  interesting  to  all  readers,  whilst  it  cannot  fail  to  have 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS.  13 


•pvoial  claimi  on  a  Urge  Motion  of  manufacture™  and  their  workmen,  Tke  early 
part  of  the  book  is  taken  up  with  an  account  of  the  growth  of  flax,  the  general 
foundation  of  linen,  with  especial  reference  to  its  cultivation  in  respect  to  rotation  of 
crops,  &c.,*ubJHCts  which thegrowerashouldalready  know,  orshoulastudy  completely 
under  Mr  Warden's  able  guidance.  Hemp  and  jute  are  similarly  described,  as  they 
undoubtedly  belong  to  the  same  genus,  and  have,  or  have  had,  much  more  to  do 
with  linen  than  most  people  would  imagine.  India  nettle  and  China  grass  are  also 
imlij- -cts  of  discussion,  as  well  as  the  New  Zealand  flax  discovered  by  Captain  Cook, 
and  which  now  obtains  no  cultivation.  "  Bible  linen"  forms  an  excellent  chapter, 
leading  the  way  to  linen  as  known  to  the  ancients.  In  *' the  years  lung  still** 
ladies  would  spin,  in»t-ad  of  "  doing"  crochet  or  worse.  "  In  these  occupations 
high-born  Indies  took  refuge  from  anxiety  and  sorrow,"  says  the  author.  Hector 
recommended  it  to  Mra  Hector,  and  Telemaohus  to  his  mother ;  and  even  "  Helen, 
though  frail  as  fair,  was  laborious  as  Penelope,  plying  her  shuttle  or  her  golden 
distaff,  and  surrounded  habitually  by  a  group  of  maidens,  the  she-manufacturers 
of  the  period."  Such  stones  must  read  strangely  in  Lancashire  and  amongst  dis- 
tressed needlewomen  everywhere.  The  early  accounts  are  full  of  interest  The 
ancient  Romans  stuck  to  woollen  garments,  but  the  more  effeminate  period  of  the 
Empire  was  not  satisfied  without  fine  linen  to  its  purple.  Italy  and  Spain  were 
great  in  its  growth,  importation,  and  manufacture  ;  but  with  their  general  decay 
decayed  the  flax  idea.  In  the  present  day,  however,  Italy  is  HO  rich  in  the  plant 
sv«  to  export  large  quantities  ;  and  in  Spain  the  linen  trade  is  reviving,  as  every- 
thing else  swim  to  be  doin*.  In  France  the  emigration  of  workmen  consequent 
upon  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685  gave  a  great  blow  to  trade,  and 
set  Hamburg  in  competition.  Russia  has  for  a  l»nj  period  been  the  greatest  flax 
and  hemp  growing  country  in  the  world.  In  Turkey  it  is  but  little  thought  of. 
Coming  nearer  home — whilst  necessarily  omitting  much,  even  in  the  briefest 
glance,  of  this  volume's  contents— we  find  that  flax  was  indigenous  to  Britain,  and 
that  in  the  reii?n  of  John  the  use  of  linen  was  familiar  to  the  great  body  of  the 
people.  In  1643  Parliament  laid  a  duty  on  damask  table-linen  ;  and  a  few  yean 
later,  despite  every  encouragement  given,  we  were  almost  wholly  supplied  with 
linens  from  France.  In  Ben  Jonson  a  tablecloth  is  described  as  costing  £18.  By- 
and-bye  came  the  grievances,  of  course.  The  silk-weavers  complained  that  the  use 
of  printed  stuff  was  so  common  that  there  was  no  distinction  of  classes — which 
meant  that  the  silk  people  were  being  ruined ;  and  in  1770  Arkwright's  invention, 
obviating  the  necessity  of  using  flu  yarn  for  warp,  put  cotton  fairly  upon  her 
until  lately  flourishing  legs.  In  Ireland,  although  linen  was  known  there  at  a  very 
early  period,  the  accounts  are  vague  and  unsatisfactory  ;  until,  about  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  a  stipulation  with  England  with  respect  to  the  woollen 
trade  produced  an  activity  which  has  led  the  flax  culture  and  manufacture  to  its 
present  flourishing  condition.  With  respect  to  Scotland,  Mr  Warden  has  collected 
a  vast  mass  of  information,  always  useful,  sometimes  amusing.  In  early  times  the 
Scotch  were  as  badly  off  as  their  neighbours,  but  they  had  much  to  do  with  the 
Irish  success,  and  soon  saw  the  utility  of  establishing  a  success  for  themselves. 
One-third  of  Mr  Warden's  book  is  devoted  to  very  minute  details  of  the  Scotch 
trade,  and  the  very  minuteness  of  the  account  is  quite  sufficient  to  render  it  impos- 
sible to  give  any  general  sketch  here.  But  it  h  a  most  important  subject,  and  has 
naturally  received  the  best  attention  from  its  author. 


FROM  THE  "  JOURNAL  OF  AGRICULTURE,"  MARCH,  1865. 


The  Journal  of  Agriculture,  for  March  1865,  after  noticing  "The  Horse  and  His 
Rider,"  by  Sir  Francis  B.  Head,  says— But,  with  all  deference  to  Sir  Francis  Head, 
we  venture  to  submit  that  much  may  be  said  in  praise  of  linen  ;  and,  with  the 
help  of  Mr  Warden's  admirable  work,  and  of  information  derived  from  other 
sources,  we  doubt  not  that  our  farming  friends,  however  fond  of  "the  woolly 
neople,"  will  be  led  to  doubt  whether  they  do  well  in  neglecting  the  cultivation  of 
lax,  and  in  annually  spending  enormous  sums  in  importing  from  foreign  countries 


people,"  will  be  led  to  doubt  whether  they  do  well  in  neglecting  the  cultivation  of 
flax,  and  in  annually  spending  enormous  sums  in  importing  from  foreign  countries 
material  for  rearing  animals  which  may  readily  be  found  at  home.  Mr  Warden's 


book  merits  their  special  attention,  and  not  theirs  only,  but  that  of  all  interested 
in  our  national  prosperity.  The  manufacturer  and  the  agriculturist  will  find  it 
full  of  matter  specially  bearing  on  their  respective  callings.  The  merely  literary 
student,  also,  will  be  attracted  by  its  multifarious  topics,  embracing  things  new 


14  THE    LINEN  TRADE. 

and  old.  Nay,  we  know  a  young  lady  who  seized  on  it  with  avidity,  charmed, 
probably,  with  the  sections,  "Ancient  Linen,"  in  which  "Bible  Linen,"  and  the 
Fine  Linen  of  the  Egyptians,  figure  conspicuously,  and  "  The  Linen  Manufactures 
of  the  Olden  Time,"  in  which  we  have  a  pleasant  account  of  the  primitive  customs 
of  our  forefathers,  some  of  which  lingered  on  to  no  very  distant  date.  Mr  "Warden 
thinks  that  the  history  of  civilisation,  as  exemplified  by  the  progress  of  the  arts 
and  sciences,  should  interest  us  more  than  the  recorded  exploits  of  those  who,  in 
popular  esteem,  are  the  heroes  of  our  age.  Assuredly,  Milton  had  reason  to 
denounce  them  as  "destroyers  rightlier  called,  and  plagues  of  men."  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  manufactures,  trade,  and  commerce  are  only  mentioned  incidentally 
by  ancient  authors,  and  that  few  of  them  give  an  intelligible  account  of  the  manu- 
facture of  linen.  Most  praiseworthy,  therefore,  is  Mr  "Warden's  endeavour  to 
gather  into  a  connected  history  notices  scattered  through  detached  sentences  and 
paragraphs.  .  .  .Mr  "Warden  handles  his  pen  with  a  grace  and  a  free- 
dom which  render  unnecessary  his  deprecation  of  criticism  on  his  work  as  a  literary 
effort.  We  shall  give  a  resume  of  its  multifarious  contents,  and  then  invite  our 
agricultural  readers  to  settle  the  question  whether  they  do  well  in  omitting  flax 
from  their  rotation  of  crops.  It  used  to  be  largely  grown  in  Scotland,  and  the 
enlarging  growth  of  it  in  Ireland  demonstrates  how  important  it  is  there  deemed 
as  a  branch  of  rural  industry.  .  .  .  Not  in  the  least  open  to  scepticism 
are  his  observations  on  the  fine  linen  so  profusely  employed  by  the  Hebrew  priest- 
hood, and  in  the  magnificent  furniture  and  fittings  of  the  Hebrew  sanctuary.  We 
fear,  however,  that  the  Bishop  of  Natal  will  not  allow  that  "  the  Israelites  had 
constructed  in  the  wilderness  looms  and  all  the  other  necessary  implements  and 
machinery  for  the  articles  required  for  the  tabernacle,  and  such  other  purposes." 
Whether  Dr  Colenso  demurs  to  the  possibility  of  this  statement  or  not,  it  is  cer- 
tain, we  believe,  that  "  all  the  women  who  were  wise-hearted  among  the  Israelites 
did  spin  with  their  hands,  and  brought  that  which  they  had  spun,  both  of  blue, 
and  of  purple,  and  of  scarlet,  and  of  fine  linen,  an  offering  unto  the  Lord."  .  . 
Singularly  minute,  curious,  and  interesting  is  the  chapter  on  Egyptian  Linen.  .  . 
Bearing  in  mind  the  extreme  tenuity  of  the  hand-made  yarns  of  the  modern 
natives  of  India,  and  the  gauze-like  fabrics  produced  by  their  simple  looms,  we 
need  not  be  incredulous  when  informed  that  some  specimens  of  Egyptian  linen 
were  termed  "  woven  air  ;"  and  that  some  of  the  linens  wrapping  up  the  embalmed 
bodies  of  kings  and  queens  are  found  to  be  so  fine  that  the  very  finest  cambric  or 
lawn  of  the  present  day  looks  coarse  beside  these  specimens  of  the  Egyptian  loom* 
in  the  days  of  the  early  Pharaohs.  .  .  .  We  have  only  touched  on  a  few 
of  the  curious  matters  so  amply  illustrated  in  the  long  chapter  on  Egyptian  linen, 
and  regret  that  we  must  pass  over  all  that  Mr  Warden  has  so  industriously  com- 
piled regarding  Phoenician,  Carthaginian,  and  Babylonian,  Colchican,  Grecian,  and 
Roman  linen.  .  .  .  Omitting  much  very  interesting  matter,  we  pass  on 
to  the  seventeenth  century,  which  was  prolific  in  Acts  of  Parliament  intended  to 
encourage  the  growth  of  flax  and  the  manufacture  of  linen,  both  in  England  and 
Ireland.  .  .  .A  Board  of  Manufactures  for  Scotland  was  established  in 
1727,  and,  as  an  example  of  political  shortsightedness,  it  is  amusing  to  read  that, 
by  the  Treaty  of  Union  between  England  and  Scotland  (anno  1706),  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  certain  annuities  should  be  paid  out  of  the  Imperial  purse,  and  applied 
for  the  benefit  of  the  latter  country  as  an  equivalent  for  the  greater  advantages 
likely  to  accrue  to  England  from  the  said  treaty  !  In  this  stipulation  originated 
the  Scottish  Board  of  Manufactures.  .  .  .  The  chief  localities  of  the 
linen  trade  at  the  date  of  the  establishment  of  the  Board  were  in  those  counties 
extending  from  Lanarkshire  to  Forfarshire,  the  latter  county  being  even  then  far 
ahead  of  all  the  others.  The  Board,  so  far  as  the  linen  trade  is  concerned,  was 
deprived  of  its  functions  in  1823  by  Act  of  Parliament,  against  which  it  vigorously 
protested,  declaring  the  Act  fraught  with  danger  to  all  but  a  few  capitalists, 
"  probably  aiming  at  obtaining  a  monopoly  of  the  manufactures  to  themselves." 
The  Act,  however,  passed  at  the  indignant  and  reiterated  demands  of  the  linen 
manufacturers,  who  by  experience  had  learned  the  worthlessness  of  bounties  and 
protections  which  only  trammelled  the  progress  of  industry ;  which  only  craves 
from  Governments  freedom  to  develop  its  resources  naturally,  in  supplying  the 
growing  demands  of  the  populations  of  the  world.  .  .  .As  might  be 
anticipated,  our  "Dundee  Merchant"  enlarges  on  the  history  of  the  linen  trade  in 
Dundee,  and  gives  numerous  details  of  great  interest  to  the  people  of  this  ancient 
town,  now  the  centre  of  the  Scotch  linen  manufacture,  and  proud  of  its  recently 
acquired  distinction  as  "  the  metropolis  of  jute." 


OPINIONS  OF   THE   PRESS. 

FROM  THE  "  ECONOMIST,"  29ra  APHIL,  1865. 

The  author  of  ihis  book,  Mr  Alex.  Warden,  himself  a  linen  merchant  of  Dundee, 
ha*  been  moved  he  tells  us  to  undertake  the  task  by  th«  conviction  "that  the 
hutory  of  so  ancient  and  important  a  manufacture  as  that  of  linen,  and  of  the  com- 
ms*M  connected  with  it,  ought  to  be  given  to  the  world. "  He  modestly  professes 
hit  consciousness  of  his  own  deficiencies  with  respect  to  mere  literary  qualification*, 
but  hopes  that  the  result*  of  hit  many  year*'  intimate  practical  acquaintance  with 
the  trade  in  nil  its  branches  may,  in  some  sort,  atone  for  them  ;  and  would  ask 
"  that  the  book  may  be  received  »nd  judged  of  not  as  a  literary  effort,  but  as  an 
attempt  to  compile  a  full  and  reliable  record  of  the  rise,  progress,  and  present  con- 
dition, of  an  i in  [>ortant  department  of  manufacture  and  commerce. 

M.k  Mr  Warden  m»y  fairly  be  said  to  have  accomplished  his  object,  and  that 
this  thick  volume  of  700  odd  pages  contains  all  that  any  man  is  likely  to  want  to 
know  about  lineu  and  the  commerce  connected  with  it.  ...  In  his  first  section 
Mr  Warden  treats  of  the  raw  material  of  the  linen  manufacture.  The  three  prin- 
1  fabrics,  flax,  hemp,  and  jute,  are  described  at  some  length.  The  native 
country  of  the  first  of  these  flax— is,  we  are  told,  unknown,  but  it  is  probably  of 
Oriental  origin,  whence  it  has  travelled  Westward  and  Northward  into  Europe. 
It  has  been  cultivated  from  the  very  earliest  times,  since,  though  it  requires  care- 
ful nurture  to  produce  it  of  a  superior  quality,  it  is  not  difficult  to  rear,  and  it  is 
capable  of  being  grown  throughout  a  great  range  of  latitude.  It  is  grown  exten- 
sively and  profitably  in  the  Northern  districts  of  Russia,  as  well  as  in  the  plains  of 
India  and  Egypt.  But  it  undoubtedly  thrives  best  in  a  temperate  climate,  and  one 
having  a  regular  supply  of  genial  moisture  in  spring,  without  an  excess  of  wet  in 
autumn,  and  where  the  temperature  is  pretty  equable  throughout  the  season. 
Short  hot  summers  induce  too  rapid  a  growth,  and  although  the  quantity  of  fibre 
produced  is  large,  the  quality  is  never  fine.  Thus  Mr  Warden  informs  us  that  the 
climate  of  Egypt  as  well  as  the  hot  summers  of  Russia  and  Prussia  are  inimical  to  the 
fineness  of  the  fibre,  and  the  flax  of  these  countries  wants  that  elasticity,  pliancy, 
and  oiliness  which  is  found  in  that  of  Belgium  for  instance  or  Ireland.  The  flax 
plant  is  valuable  not  only  for  its  fibre  but  also  for  its  seed  ;  and  Mr  Warden  pro- 
ceeds to  make  some  remarks  on  the  methods  that  should  be  employed  for  insuring 
that  both  should  be  produced  by  the  same  crop— an  object  which,  he  says,  necessi- 
tates great  care.  He  adds  some  minute  directions  on  tine  soil  and  rotation  of  crops, 
on  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  on  sowing,  pulling,  rippling,  watering,  ic.,  Jce., 
issued  by  the  North-Eastern  Agricultural  Association  of  Ireland.  Of  hemp  he 
speaks  more  briefly,  seeing,  that  although  in  former  times  it  was  largely  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  linens,  very  little  of  it  is  now  consumed  in  that  way.  Its  fibre 
is  too  harsh  and  strong  for  the  finer  class  of  goods,  and,  indeed,  must  undergo  some 
softening  process  before  it  can  be  properly  spun  over  machinery  at  alL  As  from 
various  causes  the  cultivation  of  flax  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  demand  of  the 
world  for  linen,  so  that  its  price  has  continued  high,  and  had  the  linen  trade  been 
confined  to  it,  it  must  have  beon  circumscribed  within  narrow  dimensions,  it  waa 
in  a  happy  hour  that  jute,  a  cheap  substitute  for  either  flax  or  hemp,  was  intro- 
duced into  Dundee.  Since  then,  "this  useful  and  beautiful,  though  not  sterling 
linen  fibre,"— a  native  of  India,— has  made  most  rapid  progress,  and  has  already 
supplanted  both  flax  and  hemp  for  many  fabrics  to  which  they  were  long  supposed 
to  hold  a  prescriptive  right.  47,575  tons  of  it  were  impoited  at  London  and  Liver- 
pool in  the  year  1862.  Mr  Warden  is,  however,  of  opinion,  that  all  attempts  to 
cottonise  jute,  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  be  spun  over  cotton  machinery,  must  be  unavail- 
ing, -  at  least,  until  radical  changes  are  introduced  into  the  cultivation  and  pre- 
paration of  the  plant. 

Mr  Warden  devotes  his  second  section  to  an  account  of  ancient  linen,— its  manu- 
facture and  use  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  Greece,  Rome,  Colchis,  and  other  countries. 
This  he  does  by  carefully  collecting  and  arranging  the  detached  sentences  or  abort 
paragraphs  referring  to  the  subject  which  may  be  found  in  ancient  writers,  sacred 
and  profane.  .  .  .  Under  the  head  of  ''Modern  Linen,"  Mr  Warden  gives  a 
sketch  of  the  rise,  progress,  present  condition,  and  prospects  of  the  linen  trade  in 
the  various  countries  of  the  world  in  which  it  is  pursued,  concluding  with  the 
United  Kingdom.  Scotland,  in  particular,  is  treated  at  great  length,  as  is  natural, 
both  from  the  important  place  the  manufacture  there  holds,  and  from  the  author's 
special  information.  .  .  .  M  r  Warden  estimates  the  present  probable  value  of 
the  linen  manufactures  of  the  United  Kingdom  at  about  £25,000,000,  of  which 
about  one-half  is  exported.  This,  as  he  says,  "  is  enough  to  show  that  it  forms  one 
of  the  most  important  branches  of  the  trade  of  the  country.  Its  extension  has  of 
late  years  been  marvellously  rapid,  and  its  elasticity  is  commensurate  with  its  im- 
portance. " 


16  OPINIONS   OF  THE   PRESS. 

We  may  add  in  conclusion,  that  in  addition  to  the  points  already  specified,  th* 
volume  contains  ample  tabular  statements  of  imports  and  exports,  prices  current, 
factories,  &c.,  &c.,  besides  a  complete  account  of  the  processes  of  manufacture. 

ANALYSIS  OP  THE  VOLUME  ON  THE  LINEN  TRADE,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN.     BT 
ALEX.  J.  WARDEN,  DUNDEE. 

FROM  MESSRS  LONGMAN'S  "  NOTES  ON  BOOKS." 

This  volume  comprises  full  details  of  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of  flax, 
jute,  and  the  other  raw  materials  of  the  linen  manufacture  ;  the  history  of  the 
trade  in  Ancient  Egypt,  Judea,  Greece,  Rome,  &c. ;  its  present  condition  in  the 
various  nations  of  Continental  Europe  ;  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  from 
the  earliest  times  ;  notices  of  parishes  in  Scotland  formerly  devoted  to  the  linen 
manufacture  ;  a  particular  account  of  the  trade  in  Dundee  and  in  the  manufactur- 
ing towns  around ;  a  Dundee  Prices  Current  for  every  year  of  the  present  century  ; 
particulars  relating  to  spinning  and  weaving  establishments  ;  imports,  exports,  and 
many  other  statistical  tables  ;  spinning,  weaving,  bleaching,  &c.,  in  ancient  and 
modern  times ;  followed  by  a  copious  Index  to  the  whole  work. 

In  the  Leisure  Hour  for  September,  1867,  page  602,  the  Editor  says  :— We  have 
been  greatly  indebted,  in  the  preparation  of  this  article,  to  Mr  Warden's  volume. 
It  does  its  author  great  credit.  We  hardly  know  a  monograph  on  any  particular 
subject  to  compare  with  it.  If  any  reader  wants  to  know  all  about  linen  in  all  ita 
departments,  in  all  countries,  in  all  the  ages  of  the  world,  all  that  he  can  desire  is 
gathered  in  this  volume.  Perhaps  the  style  wants  what  an  author  might  call 
*'  finish,"  but  the  facts  are  all  there,  and  they  are  told  in  a  light,  intelligent,  clear, 
and  manly  way.  The  manner  in  which  the  writer  deals  with  "  Bible  Linen"  doea 
him  much  credit. 


£L»  * 


HD       Warden,  Alexander 
9930      Johnston 
A2W2       The  linen  trade, 
ancient  and  modern. 
2d  ed. 

Longman,  Green, 
Longman,  Roberts  and 
Green   (186?) 


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